Supplemental Materials
Including Fathers in the Picture: A Meta-Analysis of Parental Involvement and Students' Academic Achievement
by S. Kim & N. E. Hill, 2015, Journal of Educational Psychology
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000023
Online Appendix 1A.
Summary of studies with correlations between parent involvement and achievement for fathers and mothers (cross-sectional)
Author (year)
Document type
Banerjee et al.
(2001)
Journal article
Beaumont (2006)
Dissertation
Bissonnette
(2000)
Dissertation
1
Sample
size
92
514
129
Grade Level/
Age
5th grade
5th grade
4th-7th
grades
WJR = Woodcock-Johnson Revised (1990).
Type of parent involvement
School involvement
(e.g. Enjoy talking with child's
teacher)
Respond
ent
Mothers
Parent Academic involvement
(home-based-- e.g. help with
homework or school project,
encourage to study, help study
for test)
Students
Home-based involvement
(e.g. talk with child about school
learning, check homework)
Parents
Outcome
measure
WJR1 Letterword
identification
WJR Passage
Comprehension
GPA and
academic
performance
ratings (child and
parent reports)
Academic
competence
(teacher ratings)
Correlation
Mothers
+.06
Mothers
+.12
Mothers
Fathers
+.12
+.10
Mothers
Fathers
-.08
-.09
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
size
Grade Level/
Age
Bogenschneider
(1997)
Journal article
1,275 girls
9th-12th
grades
1,158 boys
9-12
years old
Type of parent involvement
General involvement
(school and home-based
involvement combined)
School involvement
(e.g. school visit, meet teacher)
Respond
ent
Students
Brody et al.
(1995)
Journal article
90
Teachers
and
parents
Brody & Flor
(1998)3
Journal article
156
7.7 years old
(5-12)
School involvement (e.g. school
visit, meet teacher)
Teachers
Brody et al.
(1999)
Journal article
139
6-9
years old
Goal to be well-educated
(General measure of academic
value)
Mothers
Outcome
measure
Academic
competence
(self-ratings)
GPA
Academic
competence
and WISC-R2
vocabulary and
mathematics
scores combined
Academic
competence and
WJR vocabulary
and mathematics
scores combined
WJI mathematics
score
WJI language
score
2
3
WISC-R = Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised.
Brody & Flor (1998) and Brody et al. (1999) draw from the same sample but report different measures of involvement.
Correlation
Mothers
-.11
Fathers
-.19
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.25
+.25
+.29
+.24
+.37
+.23
Mothers
+.19
Mothers
+.18
Mothers
+.19
Author (year)
Document type
Cheung &
McBride (2008)
Journal article
Clark (1993)
Book chapter
Sample
size
91
460
Grade Level/
Age
5th grade
3rd grade
Type of parent involvement
Support and encouragement
(e.g. Encouragement of hard
work and learning)
Achievement Demands
(e.g. parents care about exam
results, encourages child to work
hard)
Surveillance
(e.g. Makes child do
supplementary exercises, does
not allow TV until homework is
finished)
Homework help (e.g.,
involvement in child's
homework activities)
Respond
ent
Students
Parents
Outcome
measure
Academic
competence
GPA
Correlation
Mothers
+.47
+.22
Academic
competence
GPA
+.24
+.31
Academic
competence
GPA
+.16
+.23
Comprehensive
test of Basic
skills, Form U
Mothers4
+.09
-.14
Mothers
.00
-.04
Fathers
+.28
Home-based involvement (e.g.,
talk with child about homework,
check homework)
Corlew (2009)
Dissertation
(both)
4
215
10th-12th
grades
General involvement
(e.g. Check homework, talk
about the importance of school;
volunteer to help at school).
Fathers
The author could not provide separate correlations, but around 80% of the respondents were mothers.
GPA
Author (year)
Document type
Cutler (1989)
Dissertation
Sample
size
66 girls
Grade Level/
Age
3rd,
5th grades
56 boys
Type of parent involvement
General involvement
(monitor homework, attend
parent-teacher conferences)
Respond
ent
Parents
Outcome
measure
Standardized
Achievement
score
Grades (from
report cards)
Delgado-Hachey
& Miller (1993)
Journal article
70
1st-6th
grades
Minimum demands for
child achievement (how low a
child's grades can be before
mother tells child)
Pleasing demands for
child achievement (how high a
child's grades can be before
mother praises child)
Mothers
Stanford
Achievement test
GPA
Stanford
Achievement test
GPA
Correlation
Girls
Mothers
-.34
Fathers
.00
Boys
Mothers
.00
Fathers
.00
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
.00
+.32
.00
.00
Mothers
-.42
-.45
Mothers
-.32
-.29
Author (year)
Document type
Dumka et al.
(2009)
Journal article
Sample
size
560
Grade Level/
Age
7th grade
Fuligni (1995)
Dissertation
365
3rd,
4th grades
Fuligni (1995)
Dissertation
365
3rd, 4th
grades
Type of parent involvement
Home-based
involvement (emphasis on
achievement)
Respond
ent
Parents
Outcome
measure
GPA
Correlation
Girls
Mothers
+.05
Fathers
+.01
Boys
Mothers
+.21
Fathers
-.01
School involvement
(e.g. go to parent meeting at
school)
Academic
competence
(teacher-ratings)
Reading
Math
Language
Mothers
+.04
Value education
Academic competence
Reading
Math
Language
+.09
+.09
+.08
+.15
Educational expectations
Academic competence
Reading
Math
Language
+.19
+.27
+.28
+.21
Importance placed on school
performance
(e.g. how important is it that
your child do well in school?)
Academic competence
(teacher-ratings)
Reading
Math
Language
-.06
+.07
+.03
+.04
-.14
-.11
-.11
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
size
Grade Level/
Age
Type of parent involvement
Homework rules
Homework help
Respond
ent
Parents
Talk about school
at home
Ginsburg &
Bronstein (1993)
Journal article
Grolnick &
Slowiaczek
(1994)
Journal article
93 mothers
60 fathers
302
5th grade
6th
(N= 100), 7th
(N= 99), 8th
grades (N= 102)
Surveillance of
homework(monitoring & direct
aid)
Behavioral involvement
(school involvement-- e.g.
attending parent-teacher
conferences)
Parents
Outcome
measure
Academic competence
(teacher-ratings)
Reading
Math
Language
-.19
-.17
-.16
Academic competence
(teacher-ratings)
Reading
Math
Language
-.18
Academic
competence
(teacher-ratings)
Reading
Math
Language
GPA
Mothers
+.19
+.15
+.15
+.11
Mothers
Fathers
-0.44
-0.28
Mothers
Fathers
-.33
-.25
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.30
+.19
+.31
+.20
Stanford
Achievement test
(total battery)
Students
Correlation
-.16
GPA
Academic
competence
(teacher ratings)
-.18
-.19
-.18
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
size
Grade Level/
Age
Type of parent involvement
Personal involvement
(academic socialization, e.g.
interest in child grades and what
happens at school)
Respond
ent
Academic
competence
(teacher ratings)
GPA
Parent intellectual involvement
(activities at home)
Hale (2003)
Dissertation
126 girls
80 boys
5th grade
General involvement
(Home-based and academic
socialization-- e.g. ask about
school, grades, talk about how
important school is for future of
child).
Outcome
measure
GPA
Students
Academic
competence
(teacher ratings)
State Criterion
Referenced test
Reading
Mathematics
Correlation
Mothers
+.17
Fathers
+.17
Mothers
+.18
Fathers
+.14
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
+.14
+.14
+.13
+.10
+.14
+.03
+.25
+.20
+.05
+.07
+.22
+.13
Author (year)
Document type
Hale (2003)
Dissertation
Sample
size
126 girls
Grade Level/
Age
5th grade
Type of parent involvement
Communicate with school (e.g.
talk with teachers/classmate's
parents)
Respond
ent
Outcome
measure
Reading
80 boys
Mathematics
Volunteer at school
(e.g. attend school programs,
come to help at school)
Reading
Mathematics
Correlation
Girls
Mothers
-.10
Fathers
-.20
Boys
Mothers
-.19
Fathers
-.01
Girls
Mothers
+.02
Fathers
-.11
Boys
Mothers
-.27
Fathers
-.03
Girls
Mothers
+.11
Fathers
-.02
Boys
Mothers
+.13
Fathers
+.08
Girls
Mothers
+.17
Fathers
+.07
Boys
Mothers
+.15
Fathers
+.10
Author (year)
Document type
Hale (2003)
Dissertation
Sample
size
126 girls
Grade Level/
Age
5th grade
Type of parent involvement
Homework help
(e.g. help with homework, help
plan homework time or chores)
Respond
ent
Outcome
measure
Reading
80 boys
Mathematics
Hines (2009)
Dissertation
153
11th-12th grades
Houser (1995)
Dissertation
99
2nd-5th
grades
Educational expectations (e.g.
importance of good grades,
attending college)
Importance of education
(e.g. important not to miss
school, get to school on time, do
homework)
Value college education
(list benefits of college
education)
Students
GPA
Mothers
California
standardized test
Reading
Writing
Math
Reading
Writing
Math
Correlation
Girls
Mothers
-.01
Fathers
-.03
Boys
Mothers
-.02
Fathers
-.15
Girls
Mothers
+.04
Fathers
+.02
Boys
Mothers
-.01
Fathers
-.05
Mothers
.00
Fathers
.00
Mothers
+.02
+.03
+.09
+.01
-.04
-.01
Parent educational aspirations
(importance of earning a college
degree)
Reading
Writing
Math
+.02
+.02
+.06
Home and school involvement
(e.g. visit school, check
homework)
Reading
Writing
Math
-.04
-.05
-.07
Author (year)
Document type
Hsu et al. (2010)
Journal article
Sample
size
8,180
Grade Level/
Age
7th grade
(first wave in
2001)
Type of parent involvement
Career plan discussion
Respond
ent
Students
Check homework
Participate in school activities
Hung (2005)
Journal article
128 boys
6th grade
Home-based involvement
Students
Outcome
measure
Standardized test
score in
comprehensive
cognitive ability
(administered by
TEPS5)
Chinese test
score
Math test score
School-based involvement
Chinese test
score
Math test
Aspirations (educational and
occupational)
Chinese test
Math test
133 girls
Home-based involvement
Chinese test
Math test
School-based involvement
Chinese test
Math test
5
TEPS = Taiwan Education Panel Survey (Chang, 2003).
Correlation
Mothers
+.10
Fathers
+.14
Mothers
Fathers
+.12
+.21
Mothers
Fathers
+.12
+.07
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.29
+.25
+.28
+.24
+.35
+.28
+.28
+.30
+.37
+.44
+.38
+.43
+.28
+.24
+.28
+.26
+.44
+.24
+.26
+.13
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
size
Grade Level/
Age
Type of parent involvement
Aspirations (educational and
occupational)
Respond
ent
Outcome
measure
Chinese test
Math test
Ji et al. (1993)6
Journal article
Jodl et al. (2001)
Journal article
120 1st
graders
145 5th
graders
444
1rs grade,
5th grade
Educational expectations
Fathers
Cognitive test
(vocabulary,
math, etc.)
7th grade
Home-based academic
involvement
Parents
Academic ability
Mother-report
Father-report
School involvement
Mother-report
Father-report
Educational expectations and
aspirations
Mother-report
Father-report
Value for education (e.g.
chances for positive future
outcomes)
6
Mother-report
Father-report
Correlation
Mothers
+.41
Fathers
+.45
Mothers
+.38
Fathers
+.34
Fathers
(grade 1)
+.18
Fathers
+.38
(grade 5)
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.09
+.06
+.06
+.13
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.19
-.01
+.11
+.06
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.59
+.44
+.49
+.63
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.35
+.27
+.36
+.42
In this study, it was assumed that n1 = n2 because the sample sizes for the separate groups were not reported. Sensitivity analyses were conducted including and
excluding this effect size.
Author (year)
Document type
Kim & Rohner
(2002)
Journal article;
Kim (1999)
Dissertation
Lee et al. (2007)
Journal article
Sample
size
245
Grade Level/
Age
6th-12th grades
Girls
10th grade
985mothers
139 fathers
Boys
863mothers
169 fathers
Type of parent involvement
General involvement (homework
help, attendance of school
program for parents,
encouragement of schooling)
General involvement
(e.g. attend school activities,
work on homework)
Respond
ent
Students
Outcome
measure
GPA
Parents
Standard test
scores
Reading
Math
Academic
competence
English teacher
report
Math teacher
report
Correlation
Mothers
+.18
Fathers
+.28
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
.00
+.06
+.02
-.09
-.03
+.11
.00
-.06
+.02
+.27
+.09
+.04
.00
+.19
.00
-.03
Author (year)
Document type
Levin et al.
(1997)
Journal article
Sample
size
106
Grade Level/
Age
1st grade7
Li (2006)
Dissertation
589
12-19 years old
(7th to 12th
grades)
McBride et al.
(2005)
Journal article
1,334
5-12
years old
Type of parent involvement
Homework help
Parent involvement (e.g. parent
knows how to help child do well
in schoolwork, parent has a great
deal of knowledge about
education)
Communication about
school at home
Respond
ent
Mothers
Students
Parents
Physical involvement
at school (e.g. volunteer)
Outcome
measure
Scholastic
standing ranked
by teacher
(reading, math,
homework)
School grades
Teacher report of
child
achievement and
standardized test
(WJI) combined
Talk with teachers & school
officials
Melby (1993)
Journal article
393
7th grade
Parent educational values
(importance of education)
Parents
Grades
School report
Parent report
Child report
7
Correlation
Mothers
-.35
Mothers
Fathers
+.14
+.11
Mothers
Fathers
+.04
+.13
Mothers
Fathers
+.10
+.24
Mothers
Fathers
+.25
+.31
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.06
+.08
+.11
+.15
+.13
+.13
This is originally a longitudinal study from 1 st to 3rd grades. Correlations for the 1st grade were reported because cross-sectional within grade intercorrelations
only were reported in the study (for grades 1 and 3).
Author (year)
Document type
Melby (1993)
Journal article
Sample
size
393
Grade Level/
Age
7th grade
Type of parent involvement
Communicate about
grades at home
Respond
ent
+.17
Fathers
Fathers
+.20**
+.14
Home-based involvement
School-based involvement
Fathers
Achievement
Fathers
+.13
+.13
School involvement (e.g.
volunteered at school, attended a
class event)
Parents
Gets mostly As
(dichotomous)
+.16
+.16
+.14
+.17
Academic support
(General involvement-- e.g.
Helped child do well at school)
Students
GPA
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
8th grade
General involvement
(home, school, academic
socialization) and motives
Mothers
Newland et al.
(2013)
Journal article
174 U.S.
8-11 years old
Home-based involvement
School-based involvement
100 Taiwan
26,164 mothers
K-12
25,343 fathers
8,936 single mothers
1,117 single fathers
108 girls
9th grade
8
.00
.00
Mothers
198
86 boys
.00
+.29
LEAP8
standardized test
(language and
math)
Achievement
Nelson (2010)
Dissertation
Plunkett et al.
(2008)
Journal article
Correlation
Grades
Reading
Math
Grades
Reading
Math
Communicate about
college at home
Nord (1997)
Research report
Outcome
measure
LEAP = high-stakes Louisiana Educational Assessment Program (LEAP).
+.08
+.08
+.17
+.10
Author (year)
Document type
Plunkett et al.
(2009)9
Journal article
Sample
size
1,245
Grade Level/
Age
9th, 10th,
11th, 12th
grades
Type of parent involvement
Schoolwork help at home
(e.g. monitor homework, help
children do well in school)
Rogers et al.
(2009)
Journal article
231
5th, 6th
grades
Participation with homework
(e.g. Check homework)
Active management of the
learning environment (e.g.
brings home educational
activities for the family)
Encouragement and support for
learning
9
Respond
ent
Students
Outcome
measure
Grades
(self-reported)
Students
Grades (math,
science, language
averaged)
Academic
competence
SAQ-T10
Grades (math,
science, language
averaged)
Academic
competence
SAQ-T
Grades (math,
science, language
averaged)
Academic
competence
SAQ-T
Correlation
Mothers
+.10
Fathers
+.13
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.10
-.08
+.22
-.14
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.18
+.06
+.17
+.06
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
+.17
+.05
+.18
+.06
Both studies from Plunkett draw from the same sample, but the results are presented separately because there is little overlap and the measures differ in each
study.
10
SAQ-T = School Activity Questionnaire-Teacher Form.
Author (year)
Document type
Sanghavi (2010)
Dissertation
Seginer et al.
(1988)
Journal article
Sample
size
101
70 boys
Grade Level/
Age
1st-3rd grades
1st grade
Type of parent involvement
School engagement (e.g. attend
PTA, special events at school)
Outcome
measure
MBA11 (reading,
writing,
mathematics)
Correlation
Mothers
-.03
Fathers
+.05
Homework assistance
(e.g. assign schoolwork at home,
check schoolwork)
Mothers
Fathers
+.05
+.10
Educational activities at home
(e.g. math and science activities)
Mothers
Fathers
+.05
+.07
Contact with school
Home-based involvement
(e.g. discussion about school at
home, encouragement of reading
and after-school programs)
Positive reinforcement
of performance (reaction to child
grades)
11
Respond
ent
Parents
MBA = Mini-battery of Achievement (Woodcock, McGrew, & Werder, 1994).
Mothers
Standardized test
Reading
Arithmetics
Mother ratings
Verbal
Quantitative
Standardized test
Reading
Arithmetics
Mother ratings
Verbal
Quantitative
Standardized test
Reading
Arithmetics
Mother ratings
Verbal
Quantitative
Mothers
-.01
-.17
+.02
-.24
+.19
+.07
+.12
+.12
+.18
+.12
+.12
+.07
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
size
Grade Level/
Age
Type of parent involvement
Punishment of poor performance
Respond
ent
Homework inspection
Seginer et al.
(1988)
Journal article
Seginer &
Vermulst (2002)
Journal article
70 boys
161 Arab
girls
1st grade
8th grade
Expectations of performance
(e.g. expectations of student
grades at school)
General involvement
(school-related support)
Mothers
Students
Outcome
measure
Standardized test
Reading
Arithmetics
Mother ratings
Verbal
Quantitative
Standardized test
Reading
Arithmetics
Mother ratings
Verbal
Quantitative
Standardized test
Reading
Arithmetics
Mother ratings
Verbal
Quantitative
English test
scores
168 Arab
boys
Math test scores
Correlation
-.09
-.14
-.37
-.04
-.29
-.15
-.05
+.08
Mothers
+.24
+.32
+.46
+.10
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
+.21
+.28
+.31
+.34
+.21
+.31
+.32
+.29
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
size
Grade Level/
Age
Type of parent involvement
Respond
ent
Outcome
measure
English test
scores
192 Jewish
girls
Math test scores
165 Jewish
boys
Correlation
Girls
+.14
Mothers
+.18
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
+.03
Fathers
+.10
Girls
Mothers
+.06
Fathers
+.14
Boys
Mothers
+.12
Fathers
+.13
Sirin & RogersSirin (2004)
Journal article
336
15.36 years old
(12-19)
Parent educational value (e.g.
values child performance/
academic attainment)
Mothers
GPA (math and
English)
Mothers
+.15
Smith (1989)
Journal article
206
6th, 8th,
10th grades
General support
(recognition of achievement)
Parents
School grades
Mothers
Fathers
+.02
+.25
Tam (2009)
Journal article
461
3rd-5th
grades
Parent involvement in education
(mixture of home, school, and
academic socialization-- e.g.
homework supervision,
discussion with teacher, attend
parent-school functions, involve
in child career planning)
Parents
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Homework involvement (e.g.
assisting, reviewing, and
monitoring homework)
Fathers
Standardized test
Chinese, English,
math
(Hong Kong
Attainment Test;
HK education
department,
2000)
Academic
competence
(father and
teacher ratings)
Tan (2011)
Dissertation
64
4th-6th grades
Fathers
+.05
-.06
+.10
.00
+.01
Author (year)
Document type
Tan & Goldberg
(2009)
Journal article
Wood et al.
(2010)
Journal article
Yeo, K.Y. (2007)
Dissertation
Sample
size
91
334
371 girls
341 boys
Grade Level/
Age
grades K-5
7th, 8th
grades
3rd-6th
grades
Type of parent involvement
School involvement (e.g.,
attending PTA meetings, helping
out in the classroom)
Respond
ent
Correlation
-.18
Homework involvement (e.g.
assisting, reviewing, and
monitoring homework)
Direct involvement in school
(e.g. attend parent-teacher
meetings, school functions)
Parents
Educational expectations
Mothers
Learning at home
(e.g. talk about school day)
Outcome
measure
Students
School grades
(English, math,
science, social
science)
Mothers
Fathers
+.07
-.09
Mothers
Fathers
+.14
-.22
Standardized
achievement in
math and reading
Mothers
+.35
Academic
competence
(math, reading,
science, writing,
grades, and
general
intelligence)
GPA
(English, math,
science)
+.39
Mothers
(girls)
Mothers
(boys)
+.11
+.18
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
size
Grade Level/
Age
Type of parent involvement
School communication
(e.g. attend parent-teacher
meetings)
School-based participation (e.g.
volunteering, decision-making,
collaborating)
Respond
ent
Outcome
measure
Correlation
Mothers
+.31
(girls)
Mothers
+.24
(boys)
Mothers
(girls)
Mothers
(boys)
+.05
+.11
Online Appendix 1B.
Summary of studies with correlations between parent involvement and achievement for fathers and mothers (longitudinal)
Author (year)
Document
type
Englund et al.
(2004)
Journal article
Flouri (2006)
Journal article
4,003
10 years old
Type of parent
involvement
School involvement
(e.g. teacher knows
parents, parents concerned
about child schoolwork)
Educational expectations
Interest in child education
Grolnick et al.
(2000)12
Journal article
60
6th grade (time 1)
to 7th grade
(time2)
School involvement (e.g.
attend parent-teacher
conferences)
Mothers,
students, teachers
Cognitive involvement
(e.g. engage in
intellectually stimulating
activities with child such
as going to library)
Personal involvement
(interest and knowledge
about school lives of
children, e.g. when report
card comes out)
Mothers, students
12
Sample
size
187
Grade Level
1st grade (time 1)
to 3rd grade (time
2)
Respondent
Teachers
Mothers
Teachers
Mothers, students
Outcome measure
Academic progress
(teacher ratings) in
3rd grade
Educational
attainment
Grades in 7th grade
(time 2, 1 year later)
Reading
Math
Reading
Math
Reading
Math
Correlation
Mothers
+.10
Mothers
Mothers
Fathers
+.29
+.30
+.30
Mothers
Mothers
+.27
+.25
Mothers
Mothers
+.25
+.26
Mothers
Mothers
+.37
+.14
Cross-sectional correlations were also reported for students in 6 th grade and 7th grade, but only longitudinal correlations were retained correlating 6 th grade
involvement with 7th grade achievement.
Author (year)
Document
type
Killian (2003)
Dissertation
Melby &
Conger (1996)
Journal article
Mistry et al.
(2009)13
Journal article
13
Sample
size
347
Grade Level
179 5th grade (time 1),
6th grade (time 2)
7th grade (time 1)
to 11th grade
(time 4);
4 waves of data
collected
426 12.2 years old
(avg. grade 5.82)
at time 1
Type of parent
involvement
School involvement
(e.g. How often did you go
this year to open house or
open school nights?)
Respondent
Parents
Outcome measure
SAT9 test scores
(reading, math,
language arts, and
spelling)
in 6th grade (time 2)
Home involvement (e.g. How often have you helped your child with
homework?)
General involvement
(setting standards for
appropriate behavior such
as doing schoolwork,
monitoring adherence to
standards) in 8th-9th
grades (waves 2, 3)
Parents
Educational expectations
Mothers
Students
GPA (school
reports)
in 11th grade (time
4)
Observations
(All outcomes
collected three years
later at time 2)
WJI (reading and
math)
Teacher ratings of
academic
competence
GPA
Correlation
Mothers
Fathers
+.21
.00
Mothers
Fathers
.00
+.10
Mothers
Fathers
+.22
+.20
Mothers
Fathers
+.27
+.23
Mothers
Fathers
+.23
+.18
Mothers
+.18
Mothers
+.05
Mothers
+.12
This study uses the same sample and variables as in another study (Benner & Mistry, 2007), which is cross-sectional. Therefore, information was coded only
for this study, which reports longitudinal outcomes.
Author (year)
Document
type
Visser
(1987)14
Journal article
Sample
size
386 7th
grade girls
345 7th
grade boys
Grade Level
7th, 9th grades
Type of parent
involvement
Academic socialization
(perceived interest,
expectations, and
encouragement from
parents)
Respondent
Students
351 9th
grade girls
333 9th
grade boys
14
Separate correlations were reported by grade (grades 7 and 9), but these were merged in the table for parsimony.
Outcome measure
Mathematics test
scores
(collected 4 months
later)
Correlation
7th grade
Girls
Mothers +.40
Fathers
+.38
Boys
Mothers +.42
Fathers +.43
9th grade
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
+.49
+.49
+.23
+.28
Online Appendix 2.
Summary of studies using National or Original datasets and performing multivariate analyses
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
characteristics
Modeling
technique
Bogenschneider
(1997)
Journal article15
Original data (U.S.)
9th-12th grades
N= 601 Asian*
Multiple
regression
N = 170 Black*
Predictor variables
General involvement
(school and home-based
involvement combined)
Outcome
measure
GPA
(controlling for parent's
education and child gender)
N = 364 Hispanic*
Cooksey &
Fondell (1996)
Journal article
N = 1,250 fathers
NSFH: 87-88
(U.S.);16
N = 570 fathers of
preteens (5-11
years old)
N = 475 fathers of
teens (12-18 years
old)
Ordered probit
analyses
Helping with reading or
homework
School
performance
as measured by
grades in class
Helping with reading or
homework
Mothers
Fathers
β = .10
β = .16
Size
and
significa
nce
p<.05
p<.001
Mothers
Fathers
β = .08
β = .17
ns
p<.05
Mothers
Fathers
β = .10
β = .12
p<.10
p<.05
Fathers
.063
p<.10
Fathers
.013
ns
Regression
coefficient
Family structure of focal child (5 variables)
(controlling for age, sex of child, household
income, father's race, education, difference in
father's age from age of focal child, father's
family structure as a child, father's work hours,
focal child's age, and focal child's sex.)
* Numbers marked with an asterisk (*) are based on children’s reports of their parents (for the specific parent involvement variables in question).
15
Correlations were reported for White students, but regression coefficients were reported for the other ethnicities.
16
Listwise deletion was used for this study.
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
characteristics
Modeling
technique
Desimone (1999)
Journal article
N = 19,386 students*
NELS: 88
8th grade
Multiple
regression
Hanson (2007)
Journal article
N = 1,062 students*
Original data,
Knowledge networks
data:2003 (U.S.)
N = 281 African
American
women (13-30
years old)
N = 781 White
women
(13-28 years old)
Multiple
regression
β = .05
Size
and
significa
nce
p<.001
β = -.03
p<.001
β = -.03
p<.001
Mothers
Fathers
β = -.43
β = .49
p<.20
p<.05
Mothers
Fathers
β = .00
β = -.04
ns
ns
Educational aspirations
Mothers
Fathers
β = .05
β = .47
ns
p<.05
Involvement in school
Family measures (e.g.
closeness, experiences and
attitudes towards science; 9
variables)
Mothers
Fathers
β = -.01
β = .06
ns
ns
Predictor variables
Talk with father about
planning high school
program
Parent involvement variables
(11 variables)
Educational aspirations
Involvement in school
Outcome
measure
GPA
Regression
coefficient
Fathers
Mathematics
standardized
test scores
Reading
standardized
test scores
High school
Science grades
(controlling for age, family
income, and rural-urban
residence)
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
characteristics
Modeling
technique
Hawkins (2006)
Dissertation
N = 232 students*
Original data (Ohio,
U.S.)
High school students
(85.3% African
American)
Multiple linear
regression
Predictor variables
Interest in schoolwork &
achievement values
(15 items including items
related with homework
monitoring and help, and
academic socialization, such
as stressing education and
setting high standards)
Participation in school
functions
(e.g. participation in parentteacher conferences,
volunteering at school,
participation in school
programs for parents)
Henry, Merten,
Plunkett, & Sands
(2008)
Journal article
N = 502 students*
Original data (Los
Angeles, U.S.)
High school (13-19
years old)
Latino majority
Multilevel
random
intercept
regression
Parent educational
aspirations
Neighborhood factors
(2 variables), mother and
father support, monitoring,
and educational attainment
Outcome
measure
Regression
coefficient
Size
and
significa
nce
Academic
Performance
(math, science,
English,
overall)
Student
report
Teacher
report
Student
report
Teacher
report
GPA
Fathers
Fathers
β = -.002
β = -.010
ns
ns
Fathers
Fathers
β = .096
β = -.010
ns
p = .051
Mothers
Fathers
β = .12
β = .03
p<.01
ns
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
characteristics
Modeling
technique
Hines (2009)17
Dissertation
N = 153 African
American male
students
Original data
11th-12th grades
Hierarchical
multiple
regression
Predictor variables
Parent monitoring (schoolbased and home-based
involvement-- e.g. involved
in tasks and completing
activities, attend parentteacher conferences)
Communication about
school
Outcome
measure
Regression
coefficient
Size
and
significa
nce
ns
ns
Mothers
Fathers
β = .11
β = .00
Mothers
Fathers
β = -.06
β = .19
ns
ns
Changing
Mothers
scholastic
standing ranked
by teacher from
grade 1 to
grade 3
(reading, math,
homework)
β = -.09
ns
GPA
Other parenting variables
(3), parent education, family
structure (3)
Levin et al.
(1997)
Journal article
17
N = 106 students and
their mothers
Original data (U.S.),
longitudinal
1st grade18
(time 1) to 3rd grade
(time 2)
Hierarchical
multiple
regression
Homework help
Parenting variables, previous
achievement
Hines (2009) also reports regression weights for one additional type of parent involvement, which is not reported here since correlations were retrieved for this
specific variable from the narrative.
18
This is originally a longitudinal study from 1 st to 3rd grades. Longitudinal beta regressions were reported in addition to cross-sectional correlations at 1st grade.
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
characteristics
Modeling
technique
Muller (1995)
Journal article
N = 13,881 students*
NELS: 88
8th grade
Hierarchical
multiple
regression
N = 80 students*
Original data (U.S.)
9th grade
Multiple
regression
Paulson (1994)
Journal article
N = 34 boys
N = 46 girls
Predictor variables
Talk about high school
program with father
Talk about high school
program with mother
26 additional demographic
background and parenting
variables
Achievement values
(e.g. expectations)
Interest in schoolwork
(e.g. checking homework)
Involvement in school
functions
(e.g. goes to school
activities)
8th grade
mathematics
achievement
test score
Fathers
β = -.442
Size
and
significa
nce
p<.01
Mothers
β = .801
p<.001
School grades
(self-reported)
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
sr = .43
sr = .36
p<.01
p<.05
sr = .33
sr = .15
p<.05
ns
sr = .31
sr = -.36
p<.05
p<.05
sr = .16
sr = .07
ns
ns
sr = .10
sr = .27
ns
p<.10
sr = .05
sr = .01
ns
ns
Outcome
measure
Regression
coefficient
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Boys
Mothers
Fathers
Girls
Mothers
Fathers
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
characteristics
Modeling
technique
Strauss (2000)
Dissertation
N = 91 students and
their families
Original data
1st-5th grades (only 2
kindergarten students
included)
Hierarchical
multiple
regression
Predictor variables
Homework involvement
Direct school involvement
(e.g. classroom volunteering,
teacher contacts)
Outcome
measure
Class grades
(teacher or
parentreported)
Parent-teacher conference
attendance
Xie (1997)
Dissertation
N = 392 students,*
392 mothers, 392
fathers
Original data
(Beijing, China)
5th-6th grades
Multiple
regression
Expectation for child future
education
(parent report)
Involvement in study (e.g.
homework help)
parent report
child report
Spend time with child in
study daily
(parent report)
Parenting variables (7
variables),
child expectation
School
performance
(teacherratings)
Fathers
β = -.04
Size
and
significa
nce
ns
Father
β = -.19
ns
Fathers
β = -.22
p<.10
Fathers
β = .16
p<.01
Mothers
Fathers
Mothers
Fathers
β = -.12
β = -.15
β = -.16
β = -.11
ns
p<.05
p<.01
p = .07
Regression
coefficient
Predictor variables
Outcome
measure
School-site involvement
(e.g. Attend meetings)
Standardized
reading scores
Mothers
β = .18
Size
and
significa
nce
p<.05
Hierarchal
multiple
regression
Family and child
background characteristics
(5 variables)
Educational expectations
(High school or less)
Some college
Bachelor's degree
Master or doctorate
degree
GPA at wave 1
(crosssectional)
Mothers
B = .56
B = 1.07
B = 1.98
p<.01
p<.01
p<.001
Logistic
regression
Home ownership, savings (2
categories)
B = 1.19
B = 1.43
B = 2.64
p<.01
p<.01
p<.01
Author (year)
Document type
Sample
characteristics
Modeling
technique
Zellman &
Waterman (1998)
Journal article
N = 193 students and
their mothers19
Original data (Los
Angeles, U.S.)
2nd, 5th grades
Hierarchical
multiple
regression
N = 591 students and
their mothers
(female-headed
households)
NSFH:87-88 (wave
1), 92-95 (wave 2)
12 to 18 years old
Zhan &
Sherraden (2002)
Research Report
19
N = 111 in the regressions because no outcome collected for private school second graders.
High school
attainment
at wave 2 (5
years later)
Regression
coefficient
Online Appendix 3.
Summary of studies using National or Original datasets performing Structural Equation Modeling
Author (year)
Document type
Hawkins (2007)
Journal article
Sample size
& characteristics
N = 6,788
students*
Add Health:95-96
(U.S.)
longitudinal
avg. 15.89 years
old (grades 7-12) at
wave 1 predicting
achievement one
year later
Program used Predictor variables
Mplus
Father
communication
(talk about school
grades, talk about
school-related
topics, talk about
social events)
N = 3,394 nonresident biological
fathers
N = 3,394 resident
biological fathers
McBride et al. (2009) N = 390 children,
Journal article
390 mothers, 390
fathers
PSID-CDSI/II:9702 (U.S.)
8.58 (7-10) years
old at Time 2
20
WJR = Woodcock-Johnson Revised (1990).
Mplus
Outcome measure Regression coefficient
School grades
Fathers
β = 0.04
(English, math,
(nonresident)
social studies,
science)
Fathers
β = 0.09
(resident)
(controlling for child
support, age, gender, race (5), born in marriage, ever
lived with father, years since lived with father,
father/mother education, father/mother born in the U.S.,
nonresident mother, stepfather in home, closeness to
mother)
School involvement WJR20 reading
[1] Fathers
at Time 2
and math
Mothers
(8 items assessing
Achievement at
parents'
Time 2
[2] Fathers
participation in
Mothers
school-related
activities, e.g.
volunteered in
classroom)
Size and
significance
ns
p<.05
β = -0.42
β = 0.26
p<.05
p<.05
β = -0.176
β = 0.172
ns
p<.05
Author (year)
Sample size
Document type
& characteristics
McBride et al. (2009)
Journal article
Palmer (2004)
Dissertation
N = 467 students,
467 mothers, 467
fathers
Original data,
Ogden Youth and
Family Project: 95
(U.S.)
5th grade, 8th grade
Program used Predictor variables
Early parenting at
Time 1
[1] Householdcentered
[2] Child-centered
[3] Parental Limitsetting
[4] Responsibility
[5] Affection
(controlling for 8
demographic
characteristics
variables)
Mplus
Outcome measure Regression coefficient
WJR reading and
[3] Fathers
β = -0.21
math
Mothers
β = 0.20
Achievement at
Time 2
[4] Fathers
β = -0.21
Mothers
β = 0.22
Parent involvement GPA
composite
(includes
homework
supervision and
parent-school
interaction)
Parent aspirations for education
Parenting variables (3 latent variables)
21
Mothers and fathers were represented in two separate SEM model.
Size and
significance
p<.05
p<.05
p<.05
p<.01
[5] Fathers
Mothers
β = -0.25
β = 0.21
Mothers21
Fathers
β = -0.49
β = 0.45
ns
p<.05
β = -0.13
β = 0.52
ns
p<.05
p<.01
p<.01
Online Figures.
Figure 1. Funnel plot for the random-effects model for studies including an effect size for fathers (n = 33). 6 effect sizes were imputed to the right.
The adjusted effect size was .17 (95% CI = .14/.21), which is higher than the actual observed value of .14 (95% CI = .10/.18).
Note. White circles represent the effect sizes of all samples from studies providing bivariate correlations. The black circles represent the imputed
effect size.
Figure 2. Funnel plot for the random-effects model for studies including an effect size for mothers (n = 47). 0 effect sizes were imputed.
Note. White circles represent the effect sizes of all samples from studies providing bivariate correlations. The black circles represent the imputed
effect size.