I. Outline chapter 1
1. What is psychology?
2. How did psychology develop from its prescientific roots in early understandings of mind and body to the beginnings of modern science?
3. Early thinkers involved in the idea of psychology include Buddha,
Confucius, Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Descartes, Bacon, and Locke.
a. Buddha pondered how sensations and perceptions combine to form ideas. b. Confucius stressed the power of ideas and an educated mind.
c. Hebrew scholars linked mind, body, and emotion.
d. Socrates and Plato concluded that the mind is separable from the body and continues after the body dies; and that knowledge is innate.
e. Aristotle believed that knowledge is not pre-existing instead it grows from experiences, stored in memories.
f. Descartes agreed with Socrates and Plato; and believed that “animal spirits” were the connection between mind and body.
g. Bacon discovered pattern recognition and memory.
h. John Locke argued that the mind at birth is Tabula Rasa (a blank slate).
A. Empiricism- the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.
4. When and how did modern psychological science begin?
5. Wilhelm Wundt“ to be aware of one’s awareness takes a little longer”
6. Psychology schools included structuralism, functionalism, and behaviorism; later 2 other fields were added Gestalt psychology, and psychoanalysis. a. Structuralism- engaging people in self-reflective intro-spection, training them to report elements of their experience as they looked at a rose.
 William James suggested that senses develop because it’s adaptive. b. Functionalist- James encouraged explorations of down-to-earth emotions, memories, will power, habits, and moment to moment streams of consciousness.
7. Ho w did psychology continue to develop from the 1920’s through today/

Psychology developed from philosophy and biology. a. Sigmund Freud- developed the influential psychoanalytic theory of personality.

 “Magellan’s of the mind” include: Wundt, Ivan Pavlov, Freud, and
Jean Piaget. b.
Until 1920 psychology was defined as “the science of mental life”

John B. Watson and eventually B. F. Skinner redefined psychology. a. Psychology- the scientific study of observable behavior. b. Cognitive revolution- combined with cognitive neuroscience (the study of brain activity linked with mental activity) expanded to explore the scientific ways we process, perceive, and remember information. c. Today psychology is defined as the science of behavior and metal processes.

Behavior is defined as anything an organism does.

Mental processes are categorized as internal subjective experiences inferred from behavior.
8. Contemporary Psychology-
What is psychology’s historic big issue?
a. Nature vs. Nurture- the controversy over the relative contributions of biology
& experience. b. Natural selection- nature selects traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce.

Nurture acts on what nature endows.
9.
What are psychology’s levels of analysis and related perspectives?
a. The levels of analysis are cells, organs, organism, community, etc. b. Biopsychosocial perspective- considers the influence of biological, psychological, and social- cultural factors. c. There are 7 approaches: Biological, evolutionary, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic, social- cultural.
Biological
How the body & brain enables emotions, memories, and sensory experiences ; genes + environment= individual differences
Evolutionary How natural selection of traits promoted the survival of genes.
Psychodynamic How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.
Behavioral
Cognitive
How we learn observable responses.
How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.
How we meet our needs for love and acceptance, and Humanistic achieve self- fulfillment.
Social- Cultural How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.
10. What are psychologies main subfields?

a. Psychometrics- devoted to the study of the measurement of our abilities, attitudes, and traits.

Developmental psychologists- changing abilities from womb to tomb.

Educational psychologists- influences of teaching.

Personality psychologists- persistent traits among groups of people.

Social Psychologists- view and effects on others. b. Applied research- scientific study that aims to solve practical problems. c. Industrial/ organizational psychology- The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces. d. Human factors in psychology include: people, machines, and physical environments.

Counseling psychologists- help people cope with challenges.

Clinical psychologists- asses and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders.

Psychiatrists- are relatively similar to clinical psychologists except they have doctorates and can prescribe medications.

Forensic Psychologists- are expert witnesses in court often attesting to a person’s sanity. e. In more ancient times, phrenology (personality predictions according to lumps on the head) was a common practice.
II. Vocabulary Chapter 1
1. Empiricism- the view that knowledge originates in experience and that science should, therefore, rely on observation and experimentation.
2. Structuralism- engaging people in self-reflective intro-spection, training them to report elements of their experience as they looked at a rose.
3. Functionalist- James encouraged explorations of down-to-earth emotions, memories, will power, habits, and moment to moment streams of consciousness.
4. Experimental psychology- the study of behavior and thinking using the experimental method.
5. Behaviorism - defined as anything an organism does.
6. Humanistic psychology- historically significant perspective that emphasized the growth potential of healthy people and the individual’s potential of health people and the individual ’s potential for personal growth.
7. Cognitive neuroscience- the study of brain activity linked with mental activity.
8. Psychology- defined as the science of behavior and metal processes.
9. Nature vs. Nurture- the controversy over the relative contributions of biology
& experience.
10. Natural selection- nature selects traits that best enable organisms to survive and reproduce.

11. Levels of analysis- the differing complementary views, from biological psychological to social- cultural, from analyzing any given phenomenon
12. Biopsychosocial perspective- considers the influence of biological, psychological, and social- cultural factors.
13. Biological- How the body & brain enables emotions, memories, and sensory experiences ; genes + environment= individual differences
14. Evolutionary- How natural selection of traits promoted the survival of genes.
15. Psychodynamic- How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts.
16. Behavioral- How we learn observable responses.
17. Cognitive- How we encode, process, store, and retrieve information.
18. Social- Cultural- How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures.
19. Psychometrics- devoted to the study of the measurement of our abilities, attitudes, and traits.
20. Basic research- pure science that aims to increase the scientific knowledge base.
21. Developmental psychology- changing abilities from womb to tomb.
22. Educational psychologists- influences of teaching.
23. Personality psychologists- persistent traits among groups of people.
24. Social Psychologists- view and effects on others.
25. Applied research- scientific study that aims to solve practical problems.
26. Industrial/ organizational psychology- The application of psychological concepts and methods to optimizing human behavior in workplaces.
27. Human factors in psychology include: people, machines, and physical environments.
28. Counseling psychologists- help people cope with challenges.
29. Counseling psychologists- help people cope with challenges.
30. Psychiatry- is relatively similar to clinical psychologists except they have doctorates and can prescribe medications.
III. Multiple Choice Questions:
1. B
2. D
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. B
7. B
8. C
9. D

10. B
11. A
12. C
13. C
14. A
15. E
IV. Outline chapter 2
1. Why are the answers that flow from the scientific approach more reliable than those based on intuition and common sense?
a. Hindsight Bias- the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

People saying that they knew the outcome of a football game after the fact.

Hindsight bias and over confidence often lead us to overestimate our intuition.
2. What are the three main components of the scientific attitude?

Psychologists must have a healthy curiosity, a passion to explore and understand without misleading or being misled.

They must be skeptical until a theory has been tested thoroughly.

They must have humility or an awareness of their own vulnerability to error and openness to surprises and new perspectives. a. Critical thinking- thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions. b. Differences between a theory and a hypothesis- a theory imply a hypothesis.
3. How do theories advance psychological science?
a. Theory- an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events. b. Hypothesis- a testable prediction, often implied by a theory. c. Operational definition- a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. For example, If Homer notices that his shower is covered in green slime. He puts coconut juice on one side of the shower, and water on the other side. After 3 days there is no change in green slime on either side of the shower. The variables are: water, coconut juice, and the green slime.

However, there are rules a theory must follow to be considered a theory; it must by testable, and the results must be replicated.

d. Replication- repeating the essence of a research study usually with different situations and participants to see if the findings hold true under different circumstances.
4. How do psychologists observe and describe behavior? a. Case study- an in depth observation in which one person is studied in hopes of revealing things true of more people.

Jean Piaget- taught us about children’s thinking after carefully observing and questioning only a few children.

Individual cases can be misleading is the individual being studied is atypical. b. Survey- a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.

Problems with surveys include: Wording effects, and random sampling. c. Population- all the cases in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn. d. Random sample- a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion. e. Naturalistic observation- observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Does not explain behavior, it describes it. Does not include all factors that can influence behavior.
5. What are positive and negative correlations, and why do they enable prediction but not cause-effect explanation?
a. Correlation- the measure of the extent to which two factor vary together
(how well either factor predicts the other). b. The correlation coefficient- is the statistical index of the relationship between the 2. c. Scatterplot- a graph of cluster dots each of which represents the values of 2 variables, the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.

A correlation coefficient does not prove causation.
6. What are illusory correlations?
a. Illusory correlation- a perceived but non-existent correlation.

Examples include, an infertile couple conceiving after they have adopted.

Humans often attempt to discern a pattern where no pattern can be found.

7. How do experiments, powered by random assignment, clarify cause and effect?

Experiment can be used to isolate cause and effect. a. Experiment- a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes. By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.

An experiment, in order to be successful must contain: Random assignment and independent and dependent variables. b. Randomly assigning- people placed in experiment and control groups by chance.

Methods of random assignment include the double-blind procedure. c. Double-blind procedure neither the researchers nor participants know whether the participant is in the control or experiment group.

It is a common occurrence that participants in the control group display symptoms parallel to those in the experiment group this is called the placebo effect. d. Placebo effect- any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition. Example: sugar pill.

There are 2 groups in an experiment the experiment and control groups. e. Experiment group- is the group of participants exposed to treatment. f. Control group- is not exposed to the treatment.

The variables in an experiment include; independent variables, confounding variables, and dependent variables. g. Independent variables- the experimental factor that is ma nipulated (it’s effect is being studied). h. Confounding variables- a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment. i. Dependent variable- the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
8. How can we describe data with measures of central tendency and variation?

There are 3 measures of variation: mode, mean and median. a. Mode- The most frequently occurring scores in a distribution. b. Mean- Arithmetic average of a distribution. c. Median- the middle scores in distribution.

The most useful standard for measuring how much scores deviate from each other.

d. Standard deviation- a computed measure of how much scores vary around the same mean score. e. Normal curve- a bell- shaped curve.
9. What principles can guide our making generalizations from samples and deciding whether differences are significant?

There are 3 principles to keep in mind when making generalizations from a sample. a. Representative samples are better than biased samples b. Less variable observations are more reliable than those that are more variable. c. More cases are better than fewer.

These principles become significant when there is statistical significance. d. Statistical significance- a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
10. Can laboratory experiments illuminate everyday life?

The purpose of an experiment is not to re-create the exact behaviors of everyday life but to test theoretical principles.
11. Does behavior depend on one’s culture and gender?
a. Culture- The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

We are each in certain respects like all others, like some others, and like no other. b. Gender

Even when specific attitudes and behaviors vary by gender or across cultures, the underlying processes are much the same.
12. Why do psychologists study animals, and is it ethical to experiment on animals?
13. Is it ethical to experiment on people? a. Informed consent- an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate. b. Debrief- the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deception, to its participants.

There are 4 rules that must be followed when using humans in an experiment: they must give informed consent, they must be protected from harm and discomfort, confidentiality, and they must be debriefed.
14. Is psychology free of value judgments?


Values play a large role in psychology; it colors topics, and phrasing used.
V. Vocabulary Chapter 2
1. Hindsight Bias- the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.
2. Critical thinking- thinking that does not blindly accept arguments and conclusions. Rather, it examines assumptions, discerns hidden values, evaluates evidence, and assesses conclusions.
3. Theory- an explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
4. Hypothesis- a testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
5. Operational definition- a statement of the procedures used to define research variables. For example, If Homer notices that his shower is covered in green slime. He puts coconut juice on one side of the shower, and water on the other side. After 3 days there is no change in green slime on either side of the shower. The variables are: water, coconut juice, and the green slime.
6. Replication- repeating the essence of a research study usually with different situations and participants to see if the findings hold true under different circumstances.
7. Case study- an in depth observation in which one person is studied in hopes of revealing things true of more people.
8. Survey- a technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group.
9. Population- all the cases in a group being studied from which samples may be drawn.
10. Random sample- a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.
11. Naturalistic observation- observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.
12. Correlation- the measure of the extent to which two factor vary together (how well either factor predicts the other).
13. The correlation coefficient- is the statistical index of the relationship between the 2.
14. Scatterplot- a graph of cluster dots each of which represents the values of 2 variables, the amount of scatter suggests the strength of the correlation.
15. Illusory correlation- a perceived but non-existent correlation.
16. Experiment- a research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behavior or mental processes.

By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors.
17. Randomly assigning- people placed in experiment and control groups by chance.
18. Double-blind procedure neither the researchers nor participants know whether the participant is in the control or experiment group.
19. Placebo effect- any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance or condition. Example: sugar pill.
20. Experiment group- is the group of participants exposed to treatment.
21. Control group- is not exposed to the treatment.
22. Independent variables- the experimental factor that is manipulated (it’s effect is being studied).
23. Confounding variables- a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment.
24. Dependent variable- the outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
25. Mode- The most frequently occurring scores in a distribution.
26. Mean- Arithmetic average of a distribution.
27. Median- the middle scores in distribution.
28. Standard deviation- a computed measure of how much scores vary around the same mean score.
29. Normal curve- a bell- shaped curve.
30. Statistical significance- a statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance.
31. Culture- The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.
32. Informed consent- an ethical principle that research participants be told enough to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.
33. Debrief- the post-experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deception, to its participants.
VI. Multiple Choice questions Chapter 2
1. D
2. C
3. A
4. D
5. C
6. A
7. B
8. A
9. B

10. C
11. C
12. C
13. C
14. E
15. B
VII. Outline: Chapter 3 Section A

Biological advances include: cell composition, nerve cell communication, specific nervous systems, and the adaptive brain.
1. What are neurons, and how do they transmit information?
a. Neurons- a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system. b. Sensory neurons- neurons that carry incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord. c. Motor neurons- neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands. d. Interneurons- neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory inputs and motor outputs. e. Dendrite- the bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages and conduct impulses toward the cell body. f. Axon- the extension of a neuron, ending in branching terminal fibers, through which messages pass to other neurons or to muscles or glands. g. Myelin Sheath- a layer of fatty tissue segmentally encasing the fibers of many neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed of neural impulses as the impulse hops from one node to the next. h. Action potential- a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon. i. Threshold- the level of stimulation necessary to trigger a neural impulse.
2. How do nerve cells communicate with other nerve cells?
a. Synapse- the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or the cell body of the receiving neuron. The tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic cleft. b. Neurotransmitters- chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. When released by the sending neuron, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to the receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse. c. Reuptake- neurotransmitters reabsorption by the sending neuron.
3. How do neurotransmitters influence behavior, and how do drugs and other chemicals affect neurotransmission?

Acetylcholine Enables muscle action, learning, and memory.
Dopamine Influences movement, learning, attention, and emotion.
Affects mood, hunger, Serotonin sleep, and arousal.
Norepinephrine Helps control alertness
GABA and arousal
Inhibitor
With Alzheimer’s disease,
Ach-producing neurons deteriorate
Linked to schizophrenia (too much) too little causes
Parkinson’s.
Under supply= depression
Under supply = depression
Seizures, tremors, and insomnia.
Glutamate Involved in memory, excitatory
Migraines, seizures. a. Endorphins- natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure. b. Antagonists- neurotransmitters that bind to receptor cites to block a neurotransmitter’s functioning.
4. What are the functions of the nervous system’s main divisions? a. Nervous system- the body’s speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous systems. b. CNS- the brain and spinal cord.
c. PNS- the sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body.
d. Nerves- bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the CNS with muscles, glands, and sense organs.
e. Somatic nervous system- the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles. f. Autonomic nervous system- part of the PNS controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs; sympathetic part(arouses), parasympathetic(calms).
g. Reflex- a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee jerk response.
5. How does the endocrine systemthe body’s slower information system-transmit its messages? a. Endocrine system- a set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood stream. b. Hormones- chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues.

c. Adrenal glands- a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones that help arouse the body in times of stress. d. Pituitary- the endocrine system’s most influential gland. Under the
VIII. Chapter 3A review questions
1. C
2. A
3. D influence of the hypothalamus, the pituitary regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
4. D
5. A
6. A
7. E
8. E
9. A
10. D
11. A
12. A
13. A
14. C
15. A
IX. Chapter 3B vocab
1. Lesion- tissue destruction; a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of the brain’s tissues.
2. EEG- an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
3. CT- a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by a computer into a composite representation of a slice through the body.
4. PET- a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task.
5. MRI- a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images of soft tissue.
6. fMRI- technique reveals blood flow and therefore brain activity.
7. Brainstem- the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull, responsible for automatic survival functions.
8. Medulla- the base of the brainstem; controls heart beat and breathing.
9. Reticular formation- a nerve network in the brain stem that plays an important role in controlling arousal.

10. Thalamus- the brain’s sensory switchboard, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla.
11. Cerebellum- the “little brain” at the rear of the brainstem; functions including processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance.
12. Limbic system- doughnut-shaped neural system located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives.
13. Amygdala- two lima bean sized neural clusters in the limbic system, linked to emotion.
14. Hypothalamus- a neural structure lying below the thalamus; it directs several maintenance activities, helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
15. Cerebral cortex- intricate fiber of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres; the body’s ultimate control and information processing center.
16. Glial cells- cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons.
17. Frontal lobe- involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements.
18. Parietal lobe- receives sensory input for touch and body position.
19. Occipital lobe- receives information from visual fields.
20. Temporal lobe- includes auditory areas
21. Motor cortex- rear of frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements.
22. Sensory cortex- front of the parietal lobes registers and processes body touch and movement sensations.
23. Associated areas- not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; but are involved in higher mental functions.
24. Aphasia- impairment of language caused by left hemisphere damage.
25. Broca’s area- controls language
26. Wernicke’s area- controls language reception, left temporal.
27. Plasticity- the brain’s ability to change especially during childhood.
28. Neurogenesis- the formation of new neurons.
29. Corpus Callosum- band of neural fibers, connecting the two brain hemispheres.
30. Split brain- result of surgery separating the brain hemispheres.
31. Consciousness- awareness of ourselves and our environment.
32. Dual processing- information is simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks.
X. Multiple Choice 3B
1. E

2. B
3. E
4. D
5. B
6. A
7. D
8. C
9. C
10. A
11. C
12. E
13. C
14. E
15. C
XI. Multiple choice 3C
1. A
2. B
3. C
4. C
5. C
6. D
7. B
8. B
9. A
10. C
11. E
12. D
13. A
14. C
15. D
XII. Vocabulary 3C
1. Behavioral genetics- the study of the relative power and limits of genetic and environmental influences on behavior.
2. Environment- every non-genetic influence, from pre-natal nutrition to the people and things around us.
3. Chromosomes- threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain the genes.
4. DNA- a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes.

5. Genes- the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein.
6. Genome- the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism’s chromosomes.
7. Identical twins- twins who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits into
2, creating to genetically identical organisms.
8. Fraternal twins- twins who develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than brothers and sisters, but they share a fetal environment.
9. Heritability- the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. The heritability of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied.
10. Interaction- the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor depends on another factor.
11. Molecular genetics- the subfield of biology that studies molecular structure and function of genes.
12. Evolutionary psychology- the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of natural selection.
13. Natural selection- the principle that among the range of inherited trait variations, those that lead to increased reproduction and survival will most likely be passed on to succeeding generations.
14. Mutation- a random error in gene replication that leads to a change.