Editorial
It has been a great opportunity cooperating with Mediterrenean Centre for Social and
Educational Research, Rome-Italy. This partnership metamorphosed into this Special Issue of
the MJSS.The editors and reviewers that provided detailed evaluation of the essays improved
the work.The respect for their knowledge and experience is immeasurable.
Professor M.P Pagar, Professor Grace Fayombo, Professor Ivan Siqueria, Professor M.O.N.
Obagah, Professor Addison Wokocha, Professor Shobana Nelasco, Professor Oby Okonkwor,
Professor Kinikanwo Anele, Professor Peter Akanwa and Professor Hanna David gave keen
advice on editorial organisation.The entire editorial team of MCSER were highly resourceful
reflected in their commitment.Jovan Shopovski of the editorial office provided talent and
professionalism which made MCSER a joy to work with
.
In all,this publication is a reference that every development specialist, educator and social
scientist.Unusually accessible and engaging, these essays make this special edition of MJSS a
contribution to scholarship
Jacinta A. Opara,PhD
Visiting Associate Professor,Universidad Azteca,Chalco-Mexico
and President, African Association for Teaching and Learning
Table of Contents
REFOCUSING PHYSICS EDUCATION IN NIGERIA: ISSUES AND CHALLENGES
IN TEACHER EDUCATION …………………………...……
Okon Akpakpan Udoh
CLIMATIC CHANGES AND GLOBAL FISHERIES: THE NIGERIAN
EXPERIENCE………………………………………………………………...…………….
Ekpo Imoh Ekpo
GLOBAL MINDSET AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA- A
SYNERGY………………………………………………………………………………..…
Victor Etim Ndum Onukwugha, Chinwe Gilean
INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION: A PANACEA FOR NATIONAL ECONOMIC
VIBRANCY…………………………………………………………………………………
Ezekiel O. Akpan, Allen Anthony Ozuruoke
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS TOWARDS IMPLEMENTING UBIQUITOUS
COMPUTING……………………………………………………………...………………..
Mohammed Abubakar, Arthur U. Ume
STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE
CURRICULUM IN IMO STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM: IMPERATIVES FOR
OCCUPATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION BY STUDENTS…………………..
Ugochukwu P.N Amadi
THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY IN
VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN NIGERIA……………………
Elijah Tsado
AN ANALYSIS OF JOB PERFORMANCE AMONG ACADEMIC STAFF OF
FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC OFFA, KWARA STATE…………………………….….
Sikirat Abiodun Raji
EFFICACY, AGENCY AND BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE: EVALUATION OF A
LOCAL/GLOBAL SUSTAINABILITY EDUCATION PROGRAM………………….
John Buchanan
REAL-TIME E-LEARNING SYSTEM: “A TOOL FOR STUDENTS POPULATION
DECONGESTION IN NIGERIA PUBLIC HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF
LEARNING” (CASE STUDY OF YABA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
NIGERIA)………………………………………………………………………..………...
M.K. Ladipo, I.K. Oyeyinka, N.A. Yekini
NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF CHILDREN LESS THAN FIVE YEAR OLD
SUFFERING ANEMIA AND NIGHT BLINDNESS IN KHARTOUM STATE,
SUDAN…………………………………………………………………………………….
Samir Mohamed Ali Hassan Alredaisy, Haram Omer El Hag Saeed
E-LEARNING: A VERITABLE TOOL TO STEP UP ACCESSIBILITY IN THE
NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL SECTOR…………………………………………….…..
Florence Imaobong Archibong, Chima Sabastine Ugwulashi
MODEL OF STRATEGIC PLANNING IN HIGH EDUCATION…………………….
Miroslav Kuka,Jove Talevski, Ksenija Jovanović
THE INFLUENCE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGIES (ICTS) ON PARENTS/ ADOLESCENTS RELATIONSHIP ………
Ahiauzu, Levi Uche and Odili, Samuel Otunuya
ENTREPRENEURSHIP BUSINESS EDUCATION CAPABILITIES IN EMERGING
POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMME IN NIGERIA………………………
Pac Ordu and Naboth-Odums, A
INNOVATIVE METHODS AND STRATEGIES FOR EFFECTIVE TEACHING
AND LEARNING…………………………………………………………………………
M.N Modebelu and A.N. Duvie
EVALUATION OF SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICES IN NOMADIC PRIMARY
SCHOOLS IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA………………………………………..
A. Ibhafidon A. and A.U. Ejifugha
CHALLENGES OF ECO-SUSTAINABILITY CAMPAIGN AND
ENVIRONMENTALISM IN NIGERIA: THE WAY FORWARD………………….
Nche George Christian
FARMERS’ EDUCATION AND FARM PRODUCTIVITY IN BANGLADESH……
Abu Zafar Mahmudul Haq
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AS A CONTROL STRATEGY FOR PROMOTING
QUALITY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA…………………………………………………
Azubuike P. Idu
REFOCUSING PHYSICS EDUCATION IN NIGERIA:
ISSUES AND CHALLENGES IN TEACHER EDUCATION
Okon Akpakpan Udoh
Directorate of Continuing Education, Akwa Ibom State College of Education, Afaha
Nsit, Etinan, Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
Abstract
This paper spotlights a number of daunting challenges that fraught
teachers education in Nigeria. It adjudges senior secondary education as being
stuck in limbo, using senior secondary physics as illustrated examples. It
advocates a repositioning of basic elements of teacher education inline with the
realities of the 21st century.
Keywords : Physics Education, Nigeria, Teacher education
Introduction
According to Omatseye (2000), “the school is a social institution established by
members of the society for the purpose of transmitting their culture from one generation
to anther”. It improves the culture by producing generations of people who are more
refined and enlightened than their parents or forefathers. Naturally, the teacher and the
education system in which he (the teacher) operates cannot stand aloof from the society.
They are part and parcel of it and are both an embodiment and a reflection of culture,
traditions, yearnings and aspirations of the people. This fact though irrefutable at a global
level, will at the national level, raise a couple of crucial issues, encapsulated in the
question; what are the purposes (goals) of education in the Nigerian social context?
Turning to the national policy on education for answer, the Federal Republic of
Nigeria (1981 and 2004) stipulated the following major national educational goals.
*
The training of the mind in the understanding of the world around.
*
The acquisition of appropriates skill and the development of mental,
physical and social abilities and competences as equipment for the individual to
live in and continue in the development of the society.
*
The inculcation of the right type of values and attitudes for the survival of
the individual and the Nigerian society.
To achieve the national goals “Government shall establish efficient inspectorate
services at federal, state and local government levels for monitoring and maintaining
minimum standards at all levels of education below the tertiary level” (FRB, 1981 and
2004). Unfortunately (Udofat, 2006),
There are shouts of falling standards of education not only in
Akwa Ibom State but in school nationwide. The school products are no
longer making a living in the society in which they live. Also, the quality of
education the children receives in school does not endow them with the
means to lead more satisfying life and enjoy the humanistic aspect of
education as an end in itself. Employers of labour, parents and indeed the
general Nigeria public now tend to wonder whether the schooling system
in which they have made huge investments is still making dividend. They
tend to wonder whether the system has lost it’s focus.
This apprehension presupposes the existence of a number of daunting challenges
that bedeviled our formal education system, calling for refocusing or repositioning of
basic elements, in line with the demands of the 21st century. To address any imperfection
in formal education, we must first identify the goals of teacher education. This is why;
No education system may rise above the quality of teachers (FRN, 2004).
Goals of Teachers Education
A good teacher education programme has as its goals (FRBN, 2004) the:
*
Production of highly motivated, conscientious and efficient classroom teacher for
all levels of our education system.
*
Encouragement of further spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers.
*
Helping of teachers to fit in the social life of the community and the society at
large and enhance their commitment to national goals.
*
Provision of teachers with the intellectual and professional background adequate
for their assignment and makes them adaptable to changing situations.
*
Enhancement of teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession.
These goals, as stipulated by the Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN, 2004), is to
provide a focus on teacher education programmes. Therefore, the apprehension from the
general public as to whether the school has lost its focus is predicated on the deep
conviction that the school is not realizing its goals. In that vien, five fundamental
questions will arise to agitate the mind on the issues involved.
(i)
Does teacher education in Nigeria produce highly motivated, conscientious and
efficient classroom teachers?
(ii)
Does teacher education in Nigeria encourage further spirit of enquiry and
creativity in teachers?
(iii) Does teacher education in Nigeria help teachers to fit in the social life of the
community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to national
goals?
(iv)
Does teacher education in Nigeria provide teachers with intellectual and
professional background adequate for their assignment, making them adequate to
changing situation?
(v)
Does teacher education in Nigeria enhance teachers commitment to the teaching
profession?
Let us reflect on each of these issues as we turn to the sorry revelation from
school programme evaluation, in conjunction with research findings.
Issue 1
Does teacher education in Nigeria produce highly motivated,
conscientious and efficient classroom?
Among other things, the school programme evaluation assesses the success of the
school in the actual accomplishment of its educational purposes, measured in terms of the
observed out-of-school life of its products in the community (Edem, 1987). But what
revelation is available from the school programme evaluation? Monitoring and evaluation
of our school products in the “labour market”, over the years, reveal a nightmare
scenario; our labour force is populated with teeming school products that are indeed
products of a huge foundation for a life of immortality and crime, including the
fraudulent foundation of examination malpractice. The “labour force” in question
encompasses very many political leaders, bankers, accountants, engineers, medical
doctors, university lecturers, civil servants and clergy men. The list is by no means
exhaustive.
The fraudulent labour force (the poor quality school products) is the reason for
the chronic embezzlement of public funds, many cases of failed banks, several incidents
of deaths resulting from minor surgical operations, including incessant cases of collapsed
storey buildings (with attendant devastation of lives of occupants) due to lack
professional know-how of the contractors. This crisis-laden scenario presupposes that
teacher education, from which all professionals stem, has tended to lose focus. It
represents the failure of teacher education. It is the hall mark of ill-motivated, nonconscientious, inefficient classroom delivery system in which teachers can neither
interpret learning theories nor engage learners in a reciprocal exchange of knowledge that
can generate enduring success.
Issues 2
Does teacher education in Nigeria encourage further spirit of enquiry and
creativity in teachers?
Teachers in Nigeria teachers’ institution preach the use of innovative methods
(such as inquiry-oriented methods which encourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity)
but they themselves do not practice what they preach (Ufofot, 2006). As observed by
udofot (1987)
The popular teaching methods in Nigeria teachers education
institutions are the lecture and notes dictation methods. These are the
kinds of methods which tend to isolate the teacher- trainees from the
teaching-learning process and have no significant bearing with any skills
acquisition or development techniques acceptable to teaching.
Issue 3
Does teachers education in Nigeria help teachers to fit into the social life
of community and the society at large and enhance their commitment to the
national goals?
It is a common knowledge that education is expected to achieve certain
objectives, one of which is to produce good citizens – that is, men and women of
character. This is very crucial because any education which fails to equip its products
with the enduring value of society, such as honesty, integrity, transparency, discipline,
justice, sense of fairness, etcetera, is a danger to the society. Thus, a fundamental
question is; Has Nigerian education equipped its products with these enduring values?
For the answer, lets reflect on this classroom drama: a random sample of ten science
students were lined infront of a science class of forty students, and were, individually,
asked a simple question; why are you in school? The first nine answer oscillated
between: “because I want to be a medical doctor” and “because I want to be an
engineer”. The class nodded impressively. The nine students bloated with pride and
prestige. Then came the tenth answer: “Because I want to be honest and upright”. The
class giggled and burst into laughter. The tenth student was flushed with shame and
embarrassment. Now, if one may ask, have honesty and uprightness become qualities to
be ridiculed and cast to the wind? Given that the teachers duty is not only to impact
knowledge but to build character, where does the teacher stand in this drama of moral
mockery? Ajayi (2011) provides an insight.
Whether we like it or not, education has, in contemporary times,
lost one of its important tenets; that is character building. For example,
gone were the days when teachers were paragon of virtues and objects of
respect … It is pertinent to soberly reflect on one critical issue in our
education system. That is, the menace of examination malpractice. They
are now a serious cankerworm at all levels of education to such an extent
that teachers are easy accomplices, aiding and abetting the misdemeanor.
Remarking on the above misdemeanor, Onwioduokit (2006) regretted that, “this
matter has became worse and is getting worst because the products of examination
malpractice are now, unfortunately employed as teachers and lecturers”. The teacher in
the ‘business’ of examination malpractice can best be described as the most dangerous
criminal in the society. Now, to the extent the image of the teacher is so dainted, it will
be difficult to admit that teacher education has helped the teacher to fit into the social life
of the community and that of the society at large, and to be committed to the national
goals.
Issue 4
Does teacher education in Nigeria provide teachers with adequate
intellectual and professionals backgrounds necessary for their assignment,
making them adaptable to changing situations?
Our teacher education has the challenge of training highly and imaginative
teachers well equipped with knowledge and skills to cope with the emerging scientific
and technological knowledge, including Information and Communication Technology
(ICT) skills in the society (Udofot, 2006). Admittedly, Ajayi (2011) Averred that “the
quality of graduates coming out of the chunk of the system lack the necessary technical
and professional competence; thus many do not often suit the modern work places”.
Research studies lend credence to the afore going challenge. For instance, using a
random sample of 92 physics teachers in Ikot Ekpene Senatorial District of Akwa Ibom
State of Nigeria, Udoh’s (2010) research report revealed that; none of the physics
teachers attended some form of ICT courses on power point, data logging, flash
animation, excel and software CDs, which impact significantly on physics curriculum
delivery. In summary, the representative sample under investigation was ICT
incompetent and hence not ready to apply ICT in the teaching of senior secondary
physics. This is lagging behind the reality of the 21st century in which educational system
are increasingly obliged to use ICT in providing knowledge for learners in order to
extend their abilities and skills. Thus, at best, it could be adjudged that teacher education
in Nigeria is still grappling to provide teachers with intellectual and professional
background adequate for their assignment in order to make them adaptable to changing
situation.
Issue 5
Does teacher education in Nigeria enhance teachers’ commitment to the
teaching profession?
As already indicated, there is increasing concern about the quality of education
and the goals achieved. Parents are not only questioning and criticizing education, raising
several issues and waiting for explanation from the ministry of education, Okon (2006)
admitted among other issues.
*
Inefficiency within the schools and the educational system, measured in terms of
high drop out rates and illiterate graduates.
*
Mismatch between what the schools are producing and what employers and
parents need.
Ajayi (2011) explains that teachers and school administrators are no longer
committed to work; many of our certificates are now worthless; we experience mass
failure in schools at all levels. Thus, it cannot be safely argued that teacher education in
Nigeria enhances teachers’ commitment to the teaching profession.
Emerging Challenges
The fore-going issues arising from the stipulated goals of teacher education are
interwoven with a serious challenge, viz; the actualization of the goals will have to be
vigorously pursued with a vision which seeks to transform the country into a prosperous,
highly-educated, technology-driven, united and pace-setting country. In an attempt to
square-up to the changes, the Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) posited that
(i)
All teachers in educational institutions shall be professionally trained.
(ii)
Teacher education shall continue to take cognizance of changes in methodology
and in curriculum.
(iii) Teachers shall be regularly exposed to innovations in their profession and
(iv)
The success of any system of education is hinged on adequate financing. Now,
follow-up questions would arise to keep the issues involved in perspective
(i)
Are all teachers in Nigerian educational institutions professionally
trained?
(ii)
Has teacher education taken cognizance of changes in methodology and
curriculum continuously?
(iii) Are teachers regularly exposed to innovations in the profession?
(iv)
Has government ensured financing of schools? Now, let’s rely on the
review of literature as we consider these issues.
According to Nwanekezi and Ifionu (2010).
Teaching is one occupation that has the greatest number of quarks
despite its position as the “key” for development of human intellect. From
pre-nursery level, it is common to find people who do not have
educational qualifications still parade themselves as professional
teachers. It is no doubt that even the teacher education institutions which
are expected to turn out teachers who are intellectually, socially and
professionally competence end-up producing half-baked.
Teacher education is expected to furnish acceptable level of achievement in
professional abilities such as integrating content knowledge with effective teaching
methodology, making the students the center of learning. It is expected to produce
professionals who can combine conventional teaching strategies with the global
phenomenon of unfolding ICT, in the generation and impartation of knowledge, attitude
and skills. Thus in this new global world of information and knowledge explosion,
effective education can be achieved through active teaching and learning with adequate,
relevant and effective instructional materials like the ICT facilities (Akudolu, 2002). In
support of this, Jajua (2006) opined that one of the recent drives of the society towards
making education relevant is making ICT common features of the education process.
“Despite these recognized roles of ICTs in improving not only quality and quantity of
education, ICTs remain a low policy or financial priority in our education ”(Jongur,
Mohammed & Abba, 2008). Underfunding has contributed to the decline in teacher
education. The way in which education is financial largely determines who will be
educated and in what fashion (Obi, 2010). Accordingly, “the majority of Nigerian teacher
are computer illiterate in a globalised world where ICT is as prevalent as the water we
drink” (Alas & Adelaba, 2006).
Staff development ptrogrammes are being paid lips services (Nwanekesi &
Ifionu, 2010). The training programmes in the colleges of Education have been criticized
as theoretical with very little application for skills development (Igbo, 2010). It thus
appears that:
(i)
Teachers are seldom exposed to innovations in their professions
(ii)
Teacher education programmes are excessively academic and remote from
the real challenges confronting classrooms.
Summary of Major findings from Literature Review
Critical review of literature on issues involved in teacher education furnishes two
aspects of findings. The first aspect reveals that teacher education in Nigeria tends to:
(i)
Produce ill-motivated, non-conscientious and inefficient classroom teachers.
(ii)
Discourage the spirit of enquiry and creativity in teachers
(iii) Fail in its promise to help teachers fit into the social life of the community and
society at large and is ineffective in enhancing teachers commitment to the
national goals.
(iv)
Fail in its bit to provide teachers with adequate intellectual and professional
backgrounds necessary for their assignment and adaptation for changing
situations.
(v)
Be found wanting in terms of enhancing teachers’ commitment to the teaching
profession.
The second aspect of findings from literature review reveals that the teacher is the
pivot of education life, the success of all fields of study revolving round teacher
education. This finding/revelation is reminiscent of the universal law of planetary
motion. Now, if the education system (comprising basically the teacher education and the
different fields of study) can be likened to the solar system (comprising basically the sun
and nine planets), then the teacher’s position in the education enterprise fits exactly that
of the sun which is the center of the solar system and around which the nine planets
revolve, shining only by the reflected light of the sun. Should the sun be spent (which of
course would spell doom for the entire system), other members of the solar system will
(individually) wallow in eternal darkness.
Expectedly, if teacher education is spent (as shown by review of literature), the
respective fields of study will tend to be in limbo, needing urgent refocusing. This
expectation, probably, underlies Ajay’s (2011) apprehension that the Nigerian education
system is in a state of limbo, needing urgent revival”, particularly for those fields of
study that are a bedrock of sustainable development of the nation. Consider senior
secondary physics education as an illustrative example.
Physics is a very crucial subject for technological development and as such its
teaching and learning must be a matter of national concern. Based on this concern and on
the analysis of the situation, the following general objectives are to be satisfied by the
senior secondary physics curriculum (Ladipo, 1985; Obioma, 2009).
*
To provide basic literacy in physics for fundamental living in the society.
*
To acquired essential scientific skills and attitudes as a preparation for the
technological application of physics.
*
To stimulate and enhance creativity.
Unfortunately, despite the fore-mentioned national concern, there is an increasing
low enrolment in physics in schools and in tertiary institutions in Nigeria (Ladipo, 1985)
and students performance has continued to witness a downward trend (Udoh, 2012). The
ever-increasing decline in physics enrolment and achievement (Ezeife, 1996) points to
the fact that there are increasing conditions for underachievement and slow learning,
portraying possible failure of previous efforts of science educators in improving the
learning situation (Nkwo, Akinbobola & Edinyang, 2008).
Several researchers (Ali, 1998; Oguleye, 1999; Okebukola, 2002) listed problem
areas of senior secondary physics education to include; dearth of instructional materials
and laboratory equipments, lip-service attitude of government, inadequate funding and
paucity of professionals trained physics teachers. On his part, Ikwa (1997) attributed the
problems of underachievement in, and slow learning of, physics to ineffective grasp of
physics concepts by students and teachers alike. Obioma (2009) capped it all;
Physics is crucial for effective living in the modern age of science
and technology. Given its application in industry and many other
professions, it is necessary that every student is given an opportunity to
acquire some of its concepts, principles and skills. Unfortunately, the
teaching and learning of physics has been fraught with challenges which
prevent many students from performing well in external examinations. The
philosophy, objectives and concepts of physics curriculum have been
adjudged by professionals in the field to be satisfactory; but its
implementation has fallen short of expectation because of lack of sufficient
number of qualified teachers, inadequate equipment to ensure the
performance of related-students activities which are aimed at enhancing
meaningful learning.
From the afore-going, rather than achieve the general objectives of senior
secondary physics curriculum, physics education at the senior secondary level is in coma,
needing urgent revival or refocusing.
Refocusing Physics Education
The hidden message conveyed in the acknowledgement that physics education is
fraught with a host of challenges which have resulted in abysmal students performance at
all levels of education, over the years, with attendant production of half-baked graduate
by Nigerian Universities centre on the need to refocus (revamp, restrategise, recreate and
stabilize) the practice and delivery of education in Nigeria for sustainable development.
Based on the analysis of the situation, the following strategies are advocated for teacher
education in general, and physics education in particular.
*
The quality of the existing teaching force must be improved primarily through
extensive in-service training programme, incentive package being built into the
programme.
*
Better quality of teachers must be ensured through pre-service education of
teachers by careful selection and training, effective induction, professional
encouragement and adequate remuneration.
*
Admission of candidates into physics education programme should be based on
merit and interest, oral/written examination and interviews.
*
Government should ensure that unqualified teachers who are already in the
teaching field are sponsored to obtain the required qualification for proper
functioning of teaching-learning process.
*
Lecturers need to switch from the prevalence of lecture, the predominant method
of instruction in the traditional classroom setting, to inquiry-based, constructivist
methods (such as the guided discovery method), including online teaching,
learning and research.
*
Government should provide ICT training programme for teacher educators with
incentive package. Unless teacher educators model effective use of technology, it
will be impossible to produce a new generation of teachers to effectively deploy
the new tool in the classroom. Thus, unless teacher education programme is
redesigned to incorporate, in real terms, modern technologies of teaching/
learning, our education system stands the risk of churning out learners who are
neither critical thinkers nor problems solvers, including those who cannot meet
the challenge of rapidly technological society of the 21st century.
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Journal of Assertiveness, 1 (1).
CLIMATIC CHANGES AND GLOBAL FISHERIES: THE
NIGERIAN EXPERIENCE
Ekpo Imoh Ekpo
School of Maritime Studies, Maritime Academy of Nigeria, Oron, Nigeria
Abstract
Climatic change is a significant and lasting change in the statistical distribution of
weather patterns over periods ranging from decades to millions of years. Millions of
people around the world depend on fish for income and livelihood. Linked to the strong
increase in fish production, employment in capture fisheries and aquaculture has grown
substantially in the last three decades, with an average rate of 3.6 percent. Climatic
changes affects spawning sites of fisheries resulting in the reduction of fish biomass,
destruction of coral reeves, distortion of food web and food chain, and the reduction of
caught fisheries. Shifts in ocean salinity are occurring, with near-surface waters in the
more evaporative regions of most of the world’s ocean increasing in salinity, while
marine areas in high latitudes are showing decreasing salinity due to greater precipitation,
higher runoff, melting ice and other atmospheric processes. Importantly, increase in
salinity affects fish spawning site which in turn influences fish population. This will
translate to less income for fishers as they record less catch. In an attempt to meet up
other social responsibilities, fishers may resort to other more dangerous methods of
catching fish like toxic chemicals, explosives and dynamite. Serious sanctions must be
put in place to restrain fishers from adopting these dangerous methods of catching fishes
while effort must also be intensified to improve aqua culture production.
Keywords: Climate changes, Fisheries, Nigeria
Introduction
The fish sector is a source of income and livelihood for millions of people around
the world. Linked to the strong increase in fish production, employment in capture
fisheries and aquaculture has grown substantially in the last three decades, with an
average rate of 3.6 percent per year since 1980 according to the most recent estimate
(Westlund, 2009). In 2008, 44.9 million people were directly engaged, full time or, more
frequently, part time, in capture fisheries or in aqua culture. This number represents a 167
percent increase compared with the 16.7 million people in 1980. Employment in the
fisheries sector has grown faster than the world’s population and employment in
traditional agriculture as observed by the United Nation’s Food and Agricultural
Organization (UN FAO) report, 2010. Majority of fisheries and aqua culturists are in
developing countries, mainly in Asia 85.5%, Africa, 9.3%, Latin America, 2.9%, Europe
1.4%, North America 0.7%, and Oceania 0.1%. Studies have shown the relationship
between fish production and total world population.
China is the country with the largest number of fishers, representing nearly one
third of the total. In 2008. 133 million people were employed as fishers and fish farmers
in
Fig.1 shows the total fish production against world population.
China. Since 1990, fish farmers have experienced the greatest increase in their
numbers, with most of the growth occurring in Asia where the number of farmers
increased by 189% in the period 1990-2008. The global fishing fleet is made up of about
4.3 million vessels. About 59% of these vessels are powered by engines. The remaining
41% are traditional craft of various types, operated by sails and oars, concentrated in Asia
and Africa. Over concentration in aqua culture without commensurate attention on wild
fishes also creates a problem. The aqua culture fish at certain age depends on wild fish
fingerlings for food. This will create an imbalance as wild fish stock will not be allowed
to grow to maturity. This will mean poor catch for fishers and will frustrate the effort of
regional governments in protecting the capture of under aged fishes. Leading countries in
wild and aqua culture fishing are as shown in the table.
Fig 2. Leading countries in capture/aqua fisheries Source: UNFAO fFAO
Current Challenges Relating International, Regional and National Fisheries
The countries in Southern Africa have been mobilizing in the fight against illegal,
unreported and unregulated (IUU) fishing. In September 2007, a forum for national heads
of operations of monitoring, control and surveillance
(MCS) hosted by Mozambique, considered that illegal fishing should be raised at
the highest level with Southern African development community (SADC). Subsequently
a ministerial conference was held on 4th July, 2008 in Namibia where fisheries ministers
from coastal states considered and signed a statement of commitment to stop illegal
fishing. Among several resolutions, the ministers committed to close their ports to illegal
vessels (Tietenberg, 2006:28). Also at the conference, the ministers of fisheries and
marine resources of Namibia, Dr Abraham Iyambo the Namibian minister placed the
issue in regional context. “It is not an exaggeration to state that the plague of illegal
fishing is one of the largest environmental crimes of our time. We may well be the last
generation of decision makers with an opportunity to prevent this scandal and bring to an
end the troubling destruction of our oceans and the hardship it brings to people” (FAO
report, 2005). As a result of this, countries took actions with vessel arrest, revocation of
agreements, enforcing measures on vessels flying their flags and fishing outside of their
exclusive economic zones.
Regional cooperation in monitoring and surveillance increased efficiently with
joint training at sea and operations between member countries. This resulted for the first
time in patrols along the coast of Southern and East Africa and illegal fishing vessels
were apprehended and prosecuted owners and vessels confiscated (Grotius, 1916). In
early 2009, Mozambique hosted a second regional forum of heads of operations of MCS,
where action plans against illegal fishing were identified. Several working groups were
set up at the National, regional and international for negotiation on a global port state
measure. The action plan was approved in Zimbabwe on 16th July, 2010.
Regional and international organizations and partners that have contributed to the
Southern African effort led by SADC include: the Indian Ocean Tuna Commission,
INFOSA, The IOC, The NEPAD, and The Norwegian Agency for development
cooperation, The Pews foundation, The South East Atlantic Fisheries organization, the
south West Indian Ocean fisheries commission, stop illegal fishing, and the Swedish
international development cooperation agency. Following a year of intense negotiations,
the FAO conference in November 2009 approved the agreement on the port state
measures to prevent, deter and eliminate illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. The
Agreement as an Article xiv instrument under the FAO constitution.
Management and Conservation of Inland Fishery Resources in Nigeria.
Foreign observers frequently comment that fishing in African lakes, rivers and
their associated wetlands is usually haphazard. This is due to the fact that there are no
laws and regulations controlling the exploitation of the fisheries of most African inland
waters. Even where such exist, they are not often enforced. In Nigeria, the management
of inland waters is regarded as the exclusive responsibility of the state to which the water
belongs. Whereas there is a sea fisheries decree act 1971 as well as the regulations on the
exclusive economic zone (EEZ) decree of 1978.
The justification for comprehensive inland fisheries legislation had been
advanced by the Federal department of fisheries based on the need to harmonize the
administration, management, protection and improvement of the fisheries resources in
inland waters including rivers, reservoirs lakes and their associated wetlands. Fish do not
respect state boundaries (Adeniji, 1990:136). Migratory fish often enters channels which
pass through more than one state.
Consequently, actions or lack of actions by one state can have a profound effect
on the fisheries resources in another state. Migrant fishermen often cross state boundaries
using unlawful methods to capture fish and dumping poisonous products in another state,
can lead to mass destruction of valuable fishery resources downstream in another state
(Ita, 2008:233). This justifies the need for central legislation. Actions for the
promulgation of such laws and regulations are yet to materialize. For fish stock to be
protected in Nigerian waters, certain factors must be taken into consideration in the
fisheries edict and well enforced. The edict reads;
1. A catch of the fresh water fish species not below the size specified,
2. Fix stationary fishing structures across the river for purpose of cultivating,
culturing or propagating fish,
3. No person shall take from or destroy any fish within the water bodies by any of
the following means;
A, the use of any explosive or electricity
B. the use of any poisonous or noxious matter
C. the use of gillnet or drawn net less than 3in or 7.62cm
D. the use of clap net, cast net or any webbing traps of less than 2 inches
Or 5.1cm
E. lifts net of not less than 5.1inches.
Indicators of climatic changes
Mayor indicators of climatic change includes,
1 Global warming
2 Too much rain in an area which have been prone to experience normal down
pour
3 Scanty rains in areas of normal heavy down pour
4 Unexpected rise of abnormal winds and possible effect on aquatic habitat.
5 Rise in global ocean temperature
6 Increase in carbon dioxide level
7 Expansion of sea level and over flooding
8 Increase in natural disasters, storms, cyclons, tsunamis, flood, and volcanic
eruptions.
The International Legal Regimes for Fisheries Management
The traditional legal framework for the management of the fisheries resources of
the oceans was based on the principles of free access to the living resources. The doctrine
associated with this approach was the freedom of the high seas which was proclaimed by
Hugo Grotius. Grotius sought to establish the inclusive interest of the whole community
of the oceans, in opposition to the claims of some states for exclusive rights to area of the
ocean. Interest in the ocean at that time was more for navigation and trade. Three nautical
miles was widely accepted as the breadth of a state territorial sea, (Grotius, 1916).
Freedom of fishing had two implications for the management of fisheries. First, coastal
states did not have any right to fisheries resources of the oceans beyond the narrow limits
of their territorial seas. Second and more importantly, the system did not promote
effective conservation of the living resources of the oceans.
The international response to the growing depletion of the world fisheries stock
and the degradation of the habitats has been through adoption of four classes of
instruments. Firstly, globally binding fisheries treaties were adopted to address the
conservation and management of fish stocks: second, international framework for the
management of tuna and tuna like species was strengthened. Global environmental
treaties were adopted that provide useful tools and principles towards sustainable
fisheries management. Major challenges facing the sustainable use of marine living
resources include;
1. Overfishing with the related issues of resource collapse and endangered
species
2. over capacity, with the related issues of subsidies
3. Environmental impacts of fishing
4. Illegal, unregulated and unreported fishing (IUU fishing)
5. Poor selectivity and discarding
6. Absence of ecosystem-based fisheries management.
The four classes of responses do not meet the challenges facing fisheries today.
Collectively they provide a very comprehensive framework which requires more
effective implementation of the instruments through better coordination between
national, regional and global institutions. (Birnie and Boyle, 1999: 436). Several attempts
have been made to address these problems through series of conventions. These include;
1. The Geneva Convention on the conservation of the living resources on the high
seas 1958. The convention affirmed that “all states have the rights for their nationals to
engage in fishing on the high seas,” subject to their treaty obligations, the rights and
interest of coastal states, and an obligation to co-operate for the purposes of conservation.
2. Laws of the sea convention. This created a comprehensive and multilateral
treaty to regulate the use of the sea, one of the fundamental results of the United Nations
Conference on the Laws of the Sea (UNCLOS) 111 negotiations and the state practice
generated by it, has been the new international law of marine fisheries. The treaty sources
for this customary law regime are to be found in part v of the law of the sea convention
setting out the exclusive economic zone concept and part V11, section 2 entitled
“conservation and management of the living resources of the high seas.”(LOS, 1982).
Fisheries Management in the EEZ
The Exclusive Economic Zone EEZ is defined as “an area beyond and adjacent to
the territorial sea” which “shall extend beyond 200 nautical miles from the baseline from
which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured”. Article 56 of the LOS convention
governs the jurisdictional competence of the coastal states in the EEZ. This is defined in
terms of sovereign rights as opposed to sovereignty. The EEZ has been defined as an
inheritance by the coastal states from the rest of the world. Under the new regime of the
seas, the world community has willed to the coastal states the bulk of living resources in
waters of their shores. With this in mind, the LOS convention outlines details how
individual coastal states are to go about fulfilling the expectations placed on them by the
world community. The expectations are couched in terms of two obligations (1)
conservation; and (2) optimum utilization (Fleischer, 1984: 253)
High Seas Fisheries Management under the LOS Convention
The Las of the Sea convention as contained in part vii, section 2. Article 116
proclaims that all states have the right for their nationals to engage in fishing on the high
seas. This right is subject to states treaty obligations with regards to cooperation to
conserve straddling stock and highly migratory species. Following the adoption of the
LOS convention, problems of international fisheries came to the fore. Some of the
problems can be attributed to the design implementation of the LOS convention
especially,
a) The discretionary nature of conservation requirement in the EEZ in particular, the
policy flexibility given to coastal states in determining the allowable catch.
b) The use of maximum sustainable yield (MSY) as the default biological reference
point.
c) The emphasis placed on the promotion of the optimum utilization.
d) The lack of clear guidelines on the framework for international cooperation to
manage and conserve highly migratory species and straddling stock.
Problems also arose because too much freedom of high seas fishing was left intact
by LOS convention. These include registration and re-registration of fishing vessels
under flags of convenience and the non participation in fisheries management regimes or
opting out of fishing regulations by flag state. Chapter 17 of agenda 21 identified these
problems as follows;
1) Inadequate monitoring and enforcement of effective conservation measures,
2) Unregulated fishing
3) Over capitalization
4) Excessive fleet size
5) Vessels reflagging to escape controls
6) Insufficient selective gear
7) Unreliable data bases
8) Lack of sufficient cooperation between states. (FAO, 1993).
Global Effects on Sustainability of Fisheries Resources
Sustainability of fisheries combines theoretical disciplines such as the population,
dynamics of fisheries with practical strategies such as, avoiding overfishing through
techniques like quotas, destructive and illegal fishing practices by lobbying for
appropriate law and policy, setting up protective areas, restoring collapsed fisheries,
incorporating all externalities involved in harvesting marine ecosystem into fishery
economics, educating stake holders and the wide public and developing independent
certification programs, (Tietenberg, 2006:28). The primary concern around sustainability
is that heavy fishing pressure such as over exploitation and growth will result in the loss
of significant potential yield. That stock structure will erode to the point where it loses
diversity and resilience to environmental fluctuations. That ecosystem and their
economic infrastructures will circle between collapse and recovery; with each cycle less
productive than its predecessor and the changes will occur in the tropic balance (Hilborn,
2007:8).
Fig .3 shows fish production against protein consumption
Global world fisheries are believed to have peaked and began to decline with
valuable habitat such as estuaries and coral reefs in critical condition. Current aqua
culture or farming of piscivorous fish, such as salmon, does not solve the problem
because farmed piscivorous are fed from wild fish such as forage fish. Salmon farming
also has major negative impacts on wild salmon. (Juda, 2006:276) The world wide
decline of ocean fisheries stocks has provided impetus for rapid growth in fish and shell
fish farming. Between 1987 and 1997, global production of farmed fish and shell fish
more than doubled in weight and volume. As human population continues to expand
beyond 6 billion, its reliance on farmed fish production as an important source of protein
would also increase.
Fish are a major source of food protein for billions of people and their domestic
animals. Growth in aqua culture production is a mixed blessing. Some aqua culture
activities like shrimps and salmon farming creates potential damage to oceans and coastal
resources through habitat destruction, waste disposal, exotic species and pathogen
invasions, large fish meal and fish oil requirements may further deplete wild fisheries
stock.
Conclusion
Sustainable management of fisheries cannot be achieved without an acceptance
that the long term goals of fisheries management are the same as those of environmental
conservation. Fisheries have rarely been “sustainable”. Rather, fishing has induced
several depletions, long marked improved technology, geographic expansion and
exploitation of previously spurned species lower in the food web with global catches
declining since late 1980’s. Continuation of present trend will lead to supply short fall for
which aqua-culture cannot compensate. (Gulland, 2001). As aqua culture continues to
increase and intensify, both its reliance and its impact on ocean fisheries are likely to
expand even further. The balance between farmed and wild caught fish, as well as the
total supply of fish available for human consumption will depend on future aqua culture
practices. Technological, management and policy options will sustain
production. Temperature and other variations resulting from climatic change will have a
strong impact on fisheries and aquaculture, with significant food security consequences
for certain populations, Wild capture fisheries are fundamentally different from other
food production systems in their linkages and responses to climatic change and in the
food security outcomes. Unlike most terrestrial animals, aquatic animal species used for
human consumption are poikilothermic, meaning their body temperatures vary according
to ambient temperatures. Any changes in habitat temperatures significantly influence
their metabolism, growth rate, productivity, seasonal reproduction, and susceptibility to
diseases and toxins. In marine waters, climate processes and extreme weather events will
increase in frequency and intensity – the most well known of these is the El Niño
phenomenon. The ongoing warming of the world’s oceans is likely to continue, but with
geographical differences and some decadal variability. Warming is more intense in
surface waters but is not exclusive to these, with the Atlantic showing particularly clear
signs of deep warming. The oceans are becoming more acidic, with probable negative
consequences to many coral reef and calcium-bearing organisms. For communities who
heavily rely on fisheries, any decreases in the local availability or quality of fish for food
or increases in their livelihoods’ instability will pose even more serious problems.
Fishing communities located in the high latitudes and those that rely on climate changesusceptible systems, such as upwelling or coral reef systems, will have the greatest
exposure to climate-related impacts. In addition, fisheries communities located in deltas
will be particularly vulnerable to sea level rise and associated risks of flooding, saline
intrusion and coastal erosion. At both the local and global levels, fisheries and
aquaculture play important roles in providing food and generating income. Some 44.9
million people work directly in the sector, the great majority in developing countries.
Adding those who work in associated processing, marketing, distribution and supply
industries, and the sector supports several hundred million livelihoods. Aquatic foods
have high nutritional quality, contributing 20 percent or more of average per capita
animal protein intake for more than 2.8 billion people, again mostly in developing
countries. Fish is also the world’s most widely traded foodstuff and a key source of
export earnings for many poorer countries. The sector has particular significance for
small island states.
Recommendations
In the light of the foregoing write up, we recommended as follows
1 Investment in the sector, especially in infrastructure, will need to consider
climatic change which will require developing better information on the costs and
benefits of protection.
2 Transfer or spread of sector-related risk – from individuals and communities to
the state through contingency plans – will be based on specific fiscal provisions but also
may be tied to innovations in resource management through which the insured accept
responsibilities in exchange for protection.
3 Funding agencies can “climate proof” their approaches and, at the same time,
take advantage of new opportunities in the fisheries and aquaculture sector by jointly
promoting food security, reducing negative impacts of climatic variability and change,
and improving resource management.
4 Well defined sectoral performance criteria need to be set out to bring climatic
change threat, risks within normal management practices, public and private sector
linkages and partnerships will be essential in developing efficient and effective
responses.
5 climatic changes have been known to be primarily caused by energy
consumption through fuel, raw material use and production. To this extent, government
should device means of increasing taxes of industries that pollutes above the acceptable
limit.
6 Government should sponsor research into alternative use of fuel and lubricants
to generate energy example, an increase use of bio fuel.
7 Diverse stake holders including consumers, industries and government should
be more conscious of the scientific, social, economic and developmental issues related to
aquatic value chain. There is a critical need for dialogue and collaboration among
industry, government and scientist community.
8 the legislative houses should consider building a legal framework that considers
and respond to climatic change threats along with other pressure like overfishing and
pollution. This requires effective public, private and NGO partnership.
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GLOBAL MINDSET AND SUSTAINABLE
DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA- A SYNERGY
Victor Etim Ndum
Institute of Public Policy And Administration, University of Calabar, Nigeria
Onukwugha, Chinwe Gilean
Department of Computer Science, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Abstract
Global managers and leaders have exceptionally open minds. They most often
respect how different countries do things and they have the imagination to appreciate
why they do them that way. But, they are also incisive. They sort through the debris of
cultural excuses and find opportunities to innovate .There is need to develop the global
mindset of leaders/managers, teams, individuals, and the entire African populace to
enhance global sustainability. The existing scenario in Africa indicates that it does not
have enough leaders within global competencies. It is essential to identify African
leadership potentials that help to sustain competitive advantage in a dynamic global/ local
environment. This advantage of course is achievable through global mindset
development. The concept and idea of sustainable development is widely accepted, and
good progress has been made on sustainable development metrics; yet its implementation
has been largely unsuccessful especially in Africa. The position of this paper is that
global mindset remains a sine qua non for sustainable development anywhere in the
world. A synergy between global mindset and sustainable development has therefore
been established. It was recommended among others, that African leaders should be more
proactive and also see the development of global mindset as a priority.
Keywords: Global, Mindset, Sustainability, Development, Synergy
Introduction
The most important attribute required for effective global leadership and sustainability is
not just a new set of skills or experience, but rather a new perspective called global mindset. This
requires simultaneously recognizing situations in which demands from both global and local elements
are compelling, while combining an openness to and awareness of diversity across cultures and
nations with a willingness and ability to synthesize across this diversity.
Global mindset means we can scan the world . The achievement of global sustainability
objectives is best propelled by a country-wide alignment of global mindset, when each and every
employee, leader and entire citizenry knows their part in fulfilling the national and international
vision and is prepared to work effectively in the global complex environment. Ensuring compliance
with and implementing the principles surrounding sustainable development is better enhanced when
leaders of nations, non –governmental organizations and all stakeholders develop in them a global
mindset. The business of sustainable development is not something that should be limited to domestic
strategies only. The notion of global mindset holds that leaders of various countries should be at
liberty to consult and partner with other countries freely, especially if those other countries possess
what can better facilitate efforts toward the achievement of sustainability.
In short, leaders of various countries in the world are the arrow heads in the success and failure
of sustainable development. Global leadership mindset is therefore the ability to take a global rather
than country specific view of the environment and people, and be able to apply this perspective to a
country, taking into account its culture, resources, ideology etc.
Leadership matters and cannot be ignored .Leaders work in un-chartered territories, beyond
traditional boundaries with state, non-state, business, and auxiliary (universities, trade unions,
charities, third sector). They seek to make sense of new situations, personnel, processes, and dynamic
policy shifts. Although social agency constrained by the structural, institutional and historical
context, leadership capacity is a quality which can alleviate the negative consequences of economic
regional development and to reinforce the positive ones.
When we use the term global mindset leadership we don‘t refer to the typically strong,
charismatic leader with a formal position & power, but all those who, following their inner
consciousness and inner values, take responsibility and actions for sustainable development in their
own communities, localities and regions and the world. Passion and commitment and the capability
to mobilise others are essential in this process . However, we know a great deal about what leaders
do, but very little about the inner place, the source from which they operate. Change today requires a
shift of the mind, a shift of will and a shift of the heart.
Global mindset development can be viewed as a process of reframing a cognitive reference
point, shifting a worldview, or developing a new paradigm of meaning or perspective taking
(Bartunek, 1988). From a practical perspective, the next generation of leaders and followers must
develop meaning making strategies that allow them to transcend cultural boundaries where
differences may exist. Such strategies will enable leaders and followers to recognize the nuanced
nature of entering new and different cultures, to integrate the information and knowledge into a
personal system of meaning, and to use that meaning to guide the development of behavioral
repertoires that are consistent with both their self-concept and with the cultural context of interaction.
The concept and idea of sustainable development is widely accepted, and good progress has
been made on sustainable development metrics; yet the implementation of sustainable development
has been largely unsuccessful. The world has made little progress in implementing programs and
policies to improve the lives of the poor (Moyo, 2009), and the integration of the three pillars of
economic development, social development, and environmental improvements remains a challenge.
Sustainable development is not easy and will take considerable time and effort. It emphasizes a
holistic, equitable and far-sighted approach to decision making at all levels. It emphasizes not just
strong economic performance but intragenerational and intergenerational equity. It rests on
integration and a balanced consideration of social, economic and environmental goals and objectives
in both public and private decision-making .The concept of sustainable development emerged from
anxieties that accompanied the triumphant rise in living standards enjoyed in developed countries
during the second half of the 20th century.
Encapsulated in the Club of Rome’s 1972 publication of The Limits to Growth, this unease sprang
from two painful realities. It had become clear that the life-sustaining role of the biosphere was at risk
from open-ended consumption of natural resources.
In this paper, effort is devoted in the understanding of relevance of global mindset
development in the enhancement of sustainable development in Africa. Leaders in various capacities
in Africa should strive to build a global mindset that would give them the opportunity to explore all
avenues across the world to help realize their goals.
Conceptual Underpining
Global Mindset
Global mindset means we can scan the world .it combines an openness to and awareness of
diversity across cultures and markets with ability to synthesize across the diversity. With this
,countries in African would be able to understand what is obtainable elsewhere in the world and the
scope of thinking is enlarged.
The achievement of global sustainability objectives is best propelled by a country-wide
alignment of global mindset, when each and every employee, leader and entire citizenry knows their
part in fulfilling the national and international ’s vision and is prepared to work effectively in the
global complex environment.
Global mindset Helps managers, and leaders see possibilities when opportunities arise and
share best practices with the surroundings, Speeds up cross-country sharing of information, Enhances
the capability of risk-taking, gets innovations and better ways of doing things on the globe in a
shorter time and facilitates the convergence of local adjustments with global standardization
With this increasing flattening of the world, is the fact that to effectively engender change in
this new world will require a more different kind of leader than ever before. A leader who will not
only have to be generally effective in the traditional skills expected but also with additional
knowledge, skills and above all mindset to navigate through the complexities brought on by moving
beyond one's traditional borders.
But, what then exactly is a global mindset and how does it impact the way nations lead? It is
the ability to influence individuals, groups, organizations, and systems that have different intellectual,
social, and psychological knowledge or intelligence from your own. But, more than the old adage,
“think globally and act locally,” it's now “think and act both globally and locally” at the same time.
This means not only recognize when it is beneficial to create a consistent global standard, but also
deepen the understanding of local and cultural differences, crossing cultures and changing contexts. It
requires simultaneously recognizing situations in which demands from both global and local elements
are compelling, while combining an openness to and awareness of diversity across cultures and
markets with a willingness and ability to synthesize across this diversity.(Cohen, 2010).
The concept of global mindset has been suggested by scholars as a way to achieve a better
understanding of ways to engage in appropriate levels of cross-cultural functioning, (Bartlett &
Ghoshal, 1998). Global mindset has been defined as “the cognitive ability that helps individuals
figure out how to best understand and influence individuals, groups, and organizations from diverse
socio/cultural systems” (Beechler & Javidan, 2007). In today’s complex and changing environment
with its concomitant effects, nations are increasingly looking for ways to develop global mindset
among their leaders. To be successful in the global economy, leaders must have the ability to
navigate the needs and norms of multiple cultural groups simultaneously. Global mindset provides
leaders with the capacity to not only understand the nuances of culture, but to also have a broader
understanding of the impact of global trends on local strategies.
The mindset is the repository of meaning and global mindset develops as individuals transform
into more complex meaning makers (Kegan, 1983), who incorporate multiple cultural frameworks
into their meaning systems. The construction of meaning is a personal experience, in which we
develop constructs to understand what is happening around us . Thus, meaning making is simply the
activity of being and we experience our reality as the meaning we make of it ,said kegan .In this era
of climate change ,nations need to start thinking deeply on how to make meaning in the direction of
sustainability.
Global mindset development is a process that can occur throughout the life span. The
constructivist/developmental model provided by Kegan allows us to understand how global mindset
is not a factor of traits and skills, but rather a process of knowing one’s capacities to make meaning
of events and to use this capacity to display appropriate behaviours, in this case, developing
behavioural patterns and attitudes that are not at variance with the principles of sustainable
development.
Additionally, Gupta and Govindarajan ( 2004) described the development of global mindset as
a series of S-curves, in which individuals become aware of their current mindsets, find a means to
articulate these and become more inquisitive and open to learning about new cultures, which again
exposes their current mindset, and thus the process continues .
Individuals differ in how they sense and interpret the world around them. So do organizations
and nations ,and these differences matter. They matter because it is how we perceive our environment
as well as ourselves that determines which of the multitude of opportunities and problems we go after
and how we do so. We would define a global mindset as one that combines an openness to and
awareness of diversity across cultures and markets with a propensity and ability to synthesize across
this diversity.
Global mindset leadership in African countries would be proactive in benchmarking and
learning from product and process innovations outside their domestic borders. Global mindset should
make the countries much more alert to the entry of non-traditional (that is, foreign) competitors in its
local environment especially if it has to do with new ways of engendering sustainability.
Sustainable Development
The term, sustainable development, was popularized in Our Common Future, a report published
by the World Commission on Environment and Development in 1987. Also known as the Brundtland
report, Our Common Future included the “classic” definition of sustainable development:
“development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.” Acceptance of the report by the United Nations General
Assembly gave the term political salience; and in 1992 leaders set out the principles of sustainable
development at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil. It is generally accepted that sustainable development calls for a convergence between the
three pillars of economic development, social equity, and environmental protection. Sustainable
development is a visionary development paradigm; and over the past 20 years governments,
businesses, and civil society have accepted sustainable development as a guiding principle, made
progress on sustainable development metrics, and improved business and NGO participation in the
sustainable development process. Yet the concept remains elusive and implementation has proven
difficult. Unsustainable trends continue and sustainable development has not found the political entry
points to make real progress. As a result, climate change has become the de facto proxy for
implementation of the sustainable development agenda; but the framework of the climate change
negotiations are not always the appropriate forum for broader strategic discussions of sustainable
development. While sustainable development is intended to encompass three pillars, over the past 20
years it has often been compartmentalized as an environmental issue (Drexhage, and Murphy, 2010)
Added to the above, and potentially more limiting for the sustainable development agenda, is
the reigning orientation of development as purely economic growth. This has been the framework
used by developed countries in attaining their unprecedented levels of wealth, and major and rapidly
developing countries are following the same course. The problem with such an approach is that
natural resources are in imminent peril of being exhausted or their quality being compromised to an
extent that threatens current biodiversity and natural environments. Addressing this challenge calls
for changes at the consumer level in developed countries. Developed countries have the wealth and
technical capacity to implement more sustainable policies and measures, yet the required level of
political leadership and citizen engagement is still a long way off. The lack of action in developed
countries is compounded by economic growth in developing countries that follows the resourceintensive model of developed countries. Without change and real action to address levels of
consumerism and resource use in developed countries, one can hardly expect a receptive audience
among developing countries when attempts are made to direct attention to their economic
development practices. More sustainable development pathways are needed in both developed and
developing countries; which require a level of dialogue, cooperation and, most importantly, trust that
simply is not reflected in today’s multilateral institutions or regimes.
There is a huge gap between the multilateral processes, with their broad goals and policies; and
national action, which reflects domestic political and economic realities. A huge constituency around
the world cares deeply and talks about sustainable development, but has not taken serious on-theground action. Deep structural changes are needed in the ways that societies manage their economic,
social, and environmental affairs; and hard choices are needed to move from talk to action. While
some would argue that we have failed on sustainable development, 20 years is a relatively short time
frame to implement the required changes in such a daunting area. The needed systemic changes will
require a revolution in the way the world does business. This will have an impact on lifestyles and
consumption patterns— especially so in developed countries, but also for the growing middle class in
developing countries. The recent financial crisis and the beginning of the decline of trust in the
liberalization and globalization model could mean some renewed receptivity for a new sustainable
development paradigm. A new model could chart a development path that truly is concerned with
equity, poverty alleviation, reducing resource use, and integrating economic, environmental, and
social issues in decision making. The opportunity is ripe to move beyond incrementalism to real
systemic change.
Since the Brundtland report and the Rio Summit, sustainable development has transitioned from
being an interesting yet at times contested ideal, to a concept that enjoys widespread endorsement by
international institutions, governments, businesses, and civil society. The nearly universal adoption of
sustainable development as a guiding principle is, in part, due to its flexibility. It allows various
stakeholders to adapt the concept to their own purposes. This strength, however, is also a liability
because various interpretations have led to confusion and compromised implementation Nonetheless,
sustainable development has been integrated into the operations and governing mandate of many
prominent international organizations. These include the World Bank , which has affirmed a
commitment to “sustainable globalization” that “enhances growth with care for the environment”; the
International Monetary Fund (IMF, 2010), with a commitment to “sustainable economic growth”; as
well as the World Trade Organization which endeavours to contribute to sustainable development
through the pursuit of open borders and the removals of barriers to trade. Sustainable development is
also a prominent component of the MDGs, which have been widely endorsed by national
governments and the world’s foremost development organizations since they were adopted at the
Millennium Summit in 2000.
Sustainable development has also gained currency in the private sector—often in the form of
the corporate social responsibility (CSR) agenda. Several voluntary initiatives have been formed over
the past 20 years, including the World Business Council on Sustainable Development (WBCSD),
Global Compact, Equator Principles, Global Reporting Initiative, and Extractive Industries
Transparency Initiative. In addition, various major international NGOs, such as Friends of the Earth,
have increased the scale and sophistication of their involvement in sustainability principles. Local
NGOs around the world have taken up the cause of sustainable development.
Others view sustainable development as a balancing act between the economy and the
environment—meaning that the economy is an entity that is separate from the environment, where
the latter inevitably loses out (Caccia, 2001). Some critics accuse the business community of using
sustainable development as a way to paint environmentally destructive practices green—a
rationalization for economic growth without due concern for environmental or social imperatives.
Others question if sustainable development should continue to support economic growth at all,
given the physical limits of the global ecosystem; while others have suggested that the concept does
not give enough attention to the poor and their acute vulnerability to environmental degradation
(Adams, 2008).
The concept has also become synonymous for some with particular political agendas: in that
those most vocal in support of sustainable development often come with political agendas that, at
least in North America, are often associated with the left wing of the political spectrum. On the other
hand, many developing countries see sustainable development as an ideology developed by
developed countries for the purpose of imposing stricter conditions and rules on development aid and
international trade.
Despite all these detractors, one could argue that sustainable development might be the only
paradigm of development left standing. With the recent fiscal and financial crises, and the loss of
faith in the pure economic growth model of the Washington Consensus, there is renewed interest in
the potential of sustainable development as an effective framework and tool to address these core
structural challenges.
The Synergy
There is a synergy between global mindset and sustainability. Sustainable development
in Africa and across the world is often directed and driven by leaders and heads of governments,
institutions, Non-Governmental Organizations, the organized private sector , etc as the case may be.
To a large extent, subordinates and citizens in general act in consonance with the direction of their
leaders .Any leader with a global mindset of sustainability is capable of influencing subjects/citizens
and would motivate them towards the enhancement of sustainable development and therefore would
mobilize efforts towards the achievement of the predetermined objective.
Global mindset leaders are sensitive. Sustainable development issues are so sensitive to
comprehend and implement. The more damaging the economic activity, the more perverse are the
results. For example, the construction of a new airport has a positive effect on GDP. Climate change,
noise pollution, loss of habitat and the increase in inequality (airports benefit richer rather than poorer
families) are all excluded from the calculations. Yet GDP is universally regarded as the most
important of all economic indicators.
Without global mindset leadership approach, Sustainable development will remain the El
Dorado of modern times, a vaguely charted dream of everlasting prosperity which inspires discourse
rather than deeds .With the cultivation of global mindset, world leaders would be reminded always
that their domestic difficulties have no lasting remedy unless they are aligned with stewardship of our
planetary home and provision for all members of the human family. This becomes more urgent when
we realize that sustainable development is the imperative of the twenty-first century.
Nations driven by leaders with global mindset have the abilities to understand sustainable
development issues of their local environments and then compare and contrast such with what is
obtainable in other regions of the world. They have the ability for knowledge and innovation
transfer. In this era of technology, it is important for nations to get into partnership that can better
their situations.
A nation's vision and values must show global consistency. However, its workplace practices,
which translate policy guidelines into day-to-day procedures, should be locally determined. A need
for global consistency would favour policies that accentuate formalization, standardization and global
dictates, whereas a need for local responsiveness would favor flexibility, customization and
delegation.
Global mindset in the context of sustainable development pursues the achievement of an
atmosphere of trust especially between developed and developing countries(Africa in particular).
Presently, what is seen is the reverse. Developed countries have not met commitments to developing
countries, generating an atmosphere of distrust .The international discussions on sustainable
development are permeated by a lack of trust between developed and developing countries. This is
underpinned by developed countries not meeting their financial and technology transfer commitments
to developing countries. An implicit deal of the Rio Summit was that developing countries would pay
attention to the sustainable development agenda if developed countries increase development
assistance significantly. Developed countries have failed to live up to this bargain. Most developed
countries (with the exception of Sweden, Norway, Luxembourg, Denmark, and the Netherlands) have
not reached the goal of allocating 0.7 percent of GDP to aid for developing countries.
In another wise, Developing countries also question developed countries’ commitment to
undertake the required changes to relieve the pressure their societies place on the global environment;
and are suspicious of their demands for change in developing countries. An example is a request by
some developed countries that the World Bank not fund coal-fired power plants in developing
countries, while the construction of such plants continues in some of these developed countries.
Developed countries have taken no significant action to change production and consumption patterns;
and developing countries are likely to resist significant radical action without developed countries
leading the way. All these discrepancies and lack of commitment to agreement would be better
resolved when leaders in developed and developing countries build global mindset, because the
world would be considered as truly a global village and that whatever anybody does would affect
everybody not minding the geographical location. The notion of global mindset and sustainability
frowns at issues that magnify Bias, sentiment, favouritism and ethnicity.
Sustainable development is part of the international lexicon, but the concept remains too
amorphous to be clearly defined, and hence implemented. The effective implementation of
sustainable development would be easily achievable through the use of global mindset. Since the
Brundtland report and the Rio Summit sustainable development has largely remained an idea and a
conceptual framework. There are many acceptable views of sustainable development, and it has been
taken up as a starting point or perhaps an end goal—but the implementation of sustainable
development has lagged.
One means that Sustainable Developers have to ensure continuing support of their anti-human
programs is through moulding the minds of the next generation. Chapter 25 of the UN Sustainable
Development Agenda 21 calls for the need to “enlist and empower children and youth in reaching for
sustainability. Again ,what this attempts to tackle is the development of global mindset of the youths
because they are the leaders of tomorrow and sustainable development is focused on how to enable
future generation to meet up their own needs
A global mindset can be the new competitive advantage in the arena of sustainability, so a
global strategy needs a high stock of global mindset! Countries across the world must take much
more responsibility for their own development. It is critical to remember the quest for a global
mindset may never end. The complex and dynamic world in which we live provides unlimited
opportunities for exploring the many linkages across our wide world of diversity.
Conclusion
As nations across the world grapple through efforts toward sustainable development , the
acquisition of a true global mindset that will enable leadership effectiveness in a global capacity
remains worthwhile. Without acquiring such a mindset, all the global leader experience in the world
is not likely to improve one's effectiveness on the global stage. As social, cultural, economic,
political, and business complexity increase so does the demand for a global mindset, almost
exponentially given the intersect of this complex environment. There is therefore the need for leaders
and all stakeholders in the business of sustainability to incorporate the essence of global mindset
development into their faculties and systems and frameworks.
Recommendations
The following recommendations remain worthwhile.



There should be continuous awareness creation and capacity building towards global mindset
development. This could be achieved through training programs for citizens, to develop
mindset and skills to work effectively across cultures .Training programs for Africa’s current
and future leaders and stakeholders, to develop competencies to lead in a global context is also
advocated.
Nations across Africa and the world should understand the synergy between global mindset and
sustainable development and therefore ensure that priority attention is placed on achieving
global mindset development
Since sustainable development is a life-long process ,leaders in Africa and the world should
develop more proactive measures in tackling and addressing challenges staring on them.
References:
Adams, William M., (2008). Green Development: Environment and Sustainability in a
Developing World (third edition). London: Routledge.
Bartlett, C., & Ghoshal, S. (1998). Managing across borders: The transnational solution
(2 ed.). Boston,
MA:Harvard Business School Press.
Bartunek, J. M. (1988). The dynamics of personal and organizational reframing. In K. S.
Cameron (Ed.), Paradox and transformation: Toward a theory of change in organization and
management. (pp. 137162). Cambridge, MA: Ballinger.
Beechler, S., & Javidan, M. (2007). Leading with a global mindset. In M. A. Hitt, R. Steers&
M. Javidan (Eds.), The global mindset: Advances in international management (Vol. 19, pp.
131-169). Oxford: Elsevier.
Caccia, C. (2001). The Politics of Sustainable Development. Hammond Lecture Series,
Guelph University, 1 November
Cohen S.L. (2010). Effective global leadership requires a global mindset. Industrial and
Commercial
Training Volume, 42; Number: 1; pp 3-10 Emerald Group Publishing Limited
Drexhage, J. and Murphy, D (2010). Sustainable Development: From Brundtland to Rio
2012.International institute for sustainable Development(IISD), New York, United Nations
Headquarters
Gupta, A. K., & Govindarajan, V. (2004). Global strategy and organization. Hoboken,
NJ: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
Kegan, R. (1983). The evolving self: Problem and process in human development.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press
Moyo, D. (2009). Dead Aid: Why Aid is Not Working and How there is a Better Way for
Africa. New York:
Farrar,Straus and Giroux
INVESTMENT IN EDUCATION: A PANACEA FOR
NATIONAL ECONOMIC VIBRANCY
Ezekiel O. Akpan
Department of Vocational Education, University of Uyo, Uyo-Nigeria
Allen Anthony Ozuruoke
School of Business Education, Federal College of Education(Technical), Omoku -Nigeria
Abstract
This paper introduces the issue at stake here by highlighting on the meaning of
investment in Education using dictionary definition. It expresses the bodies that ought to
be involved and be responsible in investing and financing Education in Nigeria to give it
the right boost. The paper further talk about the funding administration and planning of
investment in education sectors presented in a table and how this will culminate to
economic vibrancy when all the areas that need to be taken care of through such
investments are considered appropriately and recommended fore herein. This work is
concluded by reiterating that the right fund should be invested through the right process
on the right programme level area such as for equipment, facilities, and personnel as to
achieve the desired national economic vibrancy.
Keywords : Investments, National economy, Education
Introduction
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English has investment as “The
money that people or organization has put into a accompany or business or bank in order
to get a profit or to make a business activity successful.It has been generally accepted that
education is a veritable instrument for socio-economic development of nations Amahua
(2010). To Okafor (1981) Education is a process of the development of potentialities of
the individual and their maximum activation when necessary according to right reason
and to achieve thereby his perfect self fulfillment.
Investment in education therefore is putting money into the development of
potentialities of the individual and their maximum activation to get profit or make them
successful. The National Policy on Education in ‘The Road Map to Nigerian Education
System 2009’, has it that ‘education in Nigeria is no more a private enterprises, but a
huge Government venture that has witnessed a progressive evolution of Government’s
complete and dynamic intervention and active participation’. This document further has it
that ‘the Federal Government of Nigeria has adopted education as an instrument par
excellence for effecting national development. It is only natural then that government
should clarify the philosophy and objectives that underlie its current massive investment
in education, and spell out in clear unequivocal terms the policies that guide
government’s educational efforts’.
It further stated that it is Government’s wish that any existing contradictions,
ambiguities, and lack of uniformity in educational practices in the different parts of the
Federation should be removed to ensure an even and orderly development of the country.
Government has also stated that for the benefit of all citizens the country’s
educational goal in terms of its relevance to the need of the individual as well as in terms
of the kind of society desired in relation to the environment and the realities of the
modern world and rapid social changes should be clearly set out. In vies of these facts it
become imperative that investment in education in Nigeria should be paramount no
matter how expensive it might seem.It is government’s intention that the far-reaching
recommendations set out in twelve sections of this document should start to transform all
aspects of the action’s life without delay. Government has therefore set up a National
Education Policy Implementation Committee which translated the policy into a workable
blueprint that will guide the bodies whose duty it is to implement educational policy, and
will also develop a monitoring system of the progress of the planned educational
evolution to ensure that infrastructures are prepared and bottle-necks removed.
Since education is a dynamic instrument of change, there is therefore the need the
processes, methods and all associated with education to be constantly reviewed to ensure
its adequacy and continued relevance to national needs and objectives.
The Need for Investment
Since a National policy on education is way of achieving part of its national
objectives that can be achieved using education as a tool, no policy on investment on
education can be formulated without first identifying the overall philosophy and
objectives of the Nation. The five main national objectives of Nigeria as stated in the
Second National Development Plan, and endorsed as the necessary foundation for the
National policy on Education, are the building of: A free and democratic society; A just
and egalitarian society; A united, strong and self-reliant nation; A great and dynamic
economy; and A land of bright and full opportunities for all citizens
Nigeria’s philosophy of education, therefore, is based on the integration of the
individual into a sound and effective citizen and equal education opportunities for all
citizen of the nation at the primary, secondary and tertiary levels, both inside and outside
the formal school system. In consequence, the quality of instructions at all levels have to
be oriented towards inculcating values such as:- Respect for the worth and dignity of the
individuals; Faith in man’s ability to make decisions; Moral and spiritual values in interpersonal and human relations; Shared responsibility for the common good of society;
Promotion of the emotional, physical and psychological health of all. For the philosophy
to be in harmony with Nigeria’s objectives, it has to be geared towards self-realization,
better human relationship, individual and a national efficiency, effective citizenship,
national consciousness, national unity, as well as towards social, cultural, economic,
political, scientific and technological progress.
Educational investments in Nigeria should therefore aim at: inculcation of
national consciousness and national unity; the right type of values and attitude for the
survival of the individual and the Nigeria society; training of the mind in the
understanding of the word around; and acquisition of appropriate skills, abilities and
competences both mental and physical as equipment for the individuals to live in and
contribute to the development of his society
Financing Investment in Nigerian Education
Education is an expensive social service and requires adequate financial
provision. Investment in education should be taken as a matter of necessity by tier of
government; Multinational companies; Financial institutions such as banks and insurance
companies; highly financial blessed individuals philanthropists; the large and prosperous
Religious bodies and other institutions for a successful implementation of the education
programmes at all recognized levels.
The ultimate objective should be to make education affordable or free at all
levels. The financing of education should be a joint responsibility of the federal state and
local government in addition to such other bodies mentioned above. The importance of
science, technical and commercial education and the need to relate all educational
programmes to industry and societal demand is very necessary. Formulae for
collaboration and joint responsibility, such as is already being carried out in schemes like
the industrial training fund (ITF) should be designed for sharing cost burden between the
public and private sectors.
Investment Funding Responsibilities
Attention should be given here to the draft special report of the comprehensive
education sector situation analysis carried out by the Federal Ministry of Education in
2006 as presented in the National Action Plan to meet the 2015 timeline of Education For
All and Nigerian vision 20,2020 education targets. The sector analysis was based on
policy, structure/governance, infrastructure, deployment of ICT, academic achievement,
monitoring inspection, quality of curriculum, teacher quality and supply, funding and
equity issues. The Table here below explains this better:
Table:1 Showing funding Situation Analysis of Nigerian Education Sector
B
C
D
Education Sectors A
Total
Curricul
Teacher
Academic
For Investment
Score
um
Qulty & Achieve’t
Funding
Quality
Supply
50
unding
F
Monitori
F
ng/
Inspect.
ECCD
1
07
1
1
1
1
0
PRIMARY
2
22
5
1
1
1
1
NON
3 FORMAL
09
1
1
1
1
1
SECONDARY
4
18
1
3
1
3
1
SPECIAL
5
NEED
07
1
3
0
1
0
TERTIARY
6
20
1
3
1
3
1
Adapted from FRN (2006)
The Nigerian Federal Government and all other bodies herein suggested, should
invest adequate fund for basic infrastructure, deployment of ICT, academic achievement,
monitoring inspection, quality of curriculum, teacher quality and supply, funding and
equity issues. Aim the investment to meet all costs relating to standard maintenance and
supervision of facilities and ensure quality service delivery in all the identified sectors of
education; Such investment should be to establish and adequately fund a national
specialized resource centre to serve as a research and information base for all the various
levels of educational system and for manpower regular participation in all level
considering also related conferences, workshops seminars etc.
The state government should channel investment towards ensuring friendly
atmosphere through the provision of related educational infrastructures that will enhance
learning and stimulate interests and environmental friendliness for all. The state should
also invest on recurrent expenditures relating to operation and maintenance of publicly
owned facilities. Considering the provision of at least one meal for the children while in
school is also necessaryThe Local government should focus its educational investment on
the area of funding the training requirement of Caregivers and teachers at the early
educational levels for children, considers investments in the health sectors for these
children and provision of crèches, Day Care-Centers as required in the local
communities.
Other bodies as mentioned earlier should focus investments in education into
sources that can support crèche, Day-Care Centers and Nursery schools established to
complement government efforts. Other forms of investments could be;-Donation in cash
and kind by Civil Society (NGOs CBOs), Religious Organizations, Philanthropists, Local
Committee, Organizations, Private Companies Grants and Loans from Internal and
International Development Partners.
Investment projection of what should be required at each level of education
activities based on the needs including the personnel salaries and allowances,
infrastructural facilities, playing equipment and materials, training, inspection and
supervision. A financial plan specifying the detail requirement and the sources of funds
vis-à-vis the integrated strategic investment approach should be drawn up.
Administration and Planning of Investment in Education
The success of investment on any system of education is hinged on proper
planning, efficient administration and adequate financing. Investment planning and
administration includes organization and structure, proprietorship and control, inspection
and supervision of the educational system ie the schools.
School systems, and consequently their management and day-to-day
administration should grow out of the life and social ethos of the community which they
serve: consequently the administrative machinery for the national education system
should be based on some cardinal principles such as: Intimate and direct participation and
involvement at the level, of the administration and management of the educational
system school. Effective lines of communication should exist between the immediate
community and the state and national machinery for policy formulated and
implementation. A devotion of functions whereby the management of the educational
system should be placed in the hands of zonal school boards management. The coordination, planning, financing, and direction of the total educational effort within the
state should be placed in the hands of the State Ministry, Department or Directorate for
Education. Again the integration of educational development and policy with national
objectives and programmes should be made the responsibility of a Federal Ministry,
Department or Directorate of Education.
Global view also has it that conventional wisdom has it that economics growth is
the key to a successful poverty reduction strategy. This is well articulated in the 20002001 World Development report
Societal growth and poverty reduction for economic vibrancy over the various
regions in the globe is highly influenced by investment in education. The Figure below
attests to this.
Fig.3 Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction by Region 1980-2000
12
Europe and
Central Asia
8
4
Latin American and the Caribbean
0
Sub-Saharan
African
-4
South Asia
East Asia and Pacific
-8
-12
-5
Middle East and North Africa
0
5
10
Average annual growth in per capital GDP (percent)
(Source Adapted from World Bank 2001 Fig.3.3)
For these functions to be discharged efficiently, a cadre of staff should be
provided in adequate numbers and quality at the different operational level in the local,
state, and federal as well as in all the private institutions. Financial investment should be
adequate to cater for both personnel, equipment and facilities as may be demanded by all
the educational sectors, be it science, technical, vocational or commercial.
Funding Investment in Nigerian Education
Education has been recognized and adopted as a tool par excellence for
individual, communal and national development and investment can not be
overemphasized. The subscription of education for all, the millennium development
goals, the national economic empowerment and development strategy ad mist others are
cases in point that will invariably reinstate economic vibrancy
Funds for our purpose mean the sum of money available for educational
programmes. Educational fund therefore means the sum of money allocated to education
sector. The financial problem of any country affects the implementation of any policies
since the implementation of policy depends on the financial resources available for
implementing them
Evidence abound that Nigeria’s educational sector is grossly under funded over
the years. This under funding of education adversely affects the status of all other critical
success factors impacting or determining the performance of the sector in terms of the
quality of the product of education.
The issue of funding education has been a recurrent one in the history of Nigeria’s
educational system (Amahua 2004). Records shows that Nigeria allocates less than 10
percent of her annual budget to education in spite of the ram shackled state of the
Nigerian education system and the wealth of the nation. Iganiga and Ogieriakhi (2008)
confirmed this unreasonable allocation when they stated that “total federal government
allocation to education sector average 8 percent from 1980 to 2008”. This trend of the
share of education in total federal expenditure does not suggest any serious effort by the
government to shift financial resources allocation to education to improve its lot. The
allocation is for below the United Nation (UNO’S) prescription that a minimum of 26
percent of annual budget of the developing countries be allocated to funding of education
All this indicate gross under funding of Nigerian’s educational sector by the federal
government. Agbem (1997), also affirms the nation’s non compliance to the UNOs
recommendation on budgetary allocation to science and technology education
Similarly, Maduabum (1992) reports that science and technological education
researches are poorly funded and laboratories are inadequate and ill-equipped. Also
Olorutegbe (1997) points out cases of abandoned educational projects and innovations
due to lack of funds. Furthermore, Ukeje (1978). Abackwueme (1982), Nwogu (1985),
Olaitan (1980) in Amahua (2010) all affirmed the shortfall in educational funding. The
list is inexhaustible. All these imply that the government of the federation pays lips
service to science and technology education and that the nation’s commitment rarely on
the documentary/paper provisions.
Investment for Economic Vibrancy
The positive influence of economic growth through investment in education on
poverty reduction is supported by several studies. Ghen and Revallion (2002) shows that
economic growth is highly correlated with “absolute poverty” Historically too Europe
and the United States, long term economic growth since the beginning of the nineteenth
century reduced poverty in 180 years from levels near three-qquarters of the population
to under 15 percent in the United States and far less in other countries (Aassanini and
Scarpetta, 2001)
As economics grow through positive investment, income distribution may change
which in turn changes poverty rate over time
Fig.3: Average Annual Poverty Reduction with percent increase per Unit of Investment
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
……..
Investment Levels
0.2
0.4
0.6
(Source: Adopted from World Bank 2001 (fig.3-6
Economists have established that the quantity and quality of output is determined
by the quantity and quality of the input factors. Furthermore, the availability of the input
factors depends on the financial resources that are available to the producers. The
producer in this case, is the educational institution producing the graduates who are
expected to be of the right quality in terms of skills and competencies as graduates. Low
quality input is a basic factor for low quality output hence, total quality management
(TQM) paradigm demands that quality should be injected and allowed to permeate the
entirety of any system that is desirous of excellence. This is particularly with regards to
what goes in (investments) and what goes on (process/system) and what goes out of any
enterprise (output/products). Therefore to achieve economic vibrancy, education requires
the right quantity and quality of personnel and equipment or facilities which attracts
investment in the following areas:Investment on Teachers and Supportive Staffs
The academic personnel and the non academic staff in the educational institutions
must be of the right quality and with well trained and qualified lecturers/teachers who are
directly involved in the training process. Currently, most educational institutions lack the
right quality of manpower for the education pedagogy. In the spirit of total quality
management, the quality of any institutions workforce is the most critical success factor
in addition to quality leadership at all levels of the institutions.
Investment on Facilities/Equipment
Essentially, the aim to master subjects teaching is to achieve mastery of the skill
which should be measured by the trainn’s (students/pupils) ability to use the knowledge
in solving problems. The teacher demonstrates and allows students to do it, while care is
given to the weak ones. The current status of facilities and equipment in educational
institutions indicate that relevant facilities, tools and equipment are in acute shortage and
in some cases visibly exposed to practical orientation and as a result their acquisition of
the expected knowledge and competencies will be hampered. Such students/pupils will
lack the quality or competence expected of them when they graduate.
The provision of the right type and necessary equipment for business education
handled by qualified teacher will obviously call for quality, Agomuo (1993). Uzoagulu
(2009) in Amahua (2010) observed that the achievement off the objectives of education
has largely been frustrated by lack of facilities and qualified personnel.
Investment on Research and Curricular Implementation
To ensure that the output of out educational institutions possess the knowledge
and competencies that would enable them meet the demand and expectations of
economic vibrancy in the modern world of work, certain elements or methods should be
injected and maintained in the entire educational process. These include participation in
research work, appropriate curriculum and the teaching methods evaluated at reasonable
intervals. Along with this are teachers update, projects, seminars, assignment, and
counseling services. The application of better teaching methods and full implementation
of the curriculum will reduce the number of graduates that will be classified as failures or
half baked as a result of defectives educational process.
Investment in this are should also provide for inspection that will ensure that the
existing educational programme should be geared towards the need of the immediate
socio-economic environment.
It is the contention of this paper that the issues examined above are the critical
success factors which are the essential prerequisites that should be injected and
maintained in the entire education investment process to ensure national economic
vibrancy as they will ensure that the expected quality of candidates will only be turned
out from a well investment educational system.
Conclusion
The ultimate goal of the education programme is to equip the graduates with
appropriate knowledge, and competencies that will enable them to meet the expectation
and demand of the contemporary economic world. Achieving and maintaining economic
vibrancy and excellence involves ensuring that only the right quality and quantity of the
befitting and necessary factors are invested upon. In the education sector, these include
investment on the right quality and quantity of personnel; and related programmes. There
is also as recommended herein, the high need for facilities, equipment and infrastructures
as well as the provision of adequate incentive for the staff and evaluating and supervising
agents. With these, the economic vibrancy of a nation is highly ensured
Recommendations
1.
Measures that will enhance the admission of students that are at least of
average academic ability should be adopted. The right caliber of students will
obviously cope with the task in education thereby promoting quality of the
graduates of the educational system.
2.
The government and the suggested bodies herein should seriously improve the
funding of investments in education in its budget as funding is the confluence
of all other factors determining investment. Something more than that
executed through the current Educational Trust Fund (ETF) because education
is capital intensive but the bedrock of economic vibrancy.
3.
Conducive teaching environment that includes incentives and motivational
ingredients for teachers should be ensured at all time and at all levels of
education
4.
Quality teachers production for all level should be intensified to meet the
required manpower in the classroom and for other administrative functions
5.
Essential equipment and facilities should be made more than enough for all
categories of learning and teaching.
References:
Amahua, S, A. (2004), Enhancing Education Programme in Nigeria Colleges of
Education. Expectations, Status and Improvement Strategies. Journal of Business and
General Education (3:1) 136-144
Amahua, S. A. (2010) Underfunding Education in Nigeria. The case of Research and
Development for quality assurance in Business Education. A Book of Reading Vol.1
No.10 –p184-189
Akuezuilo, E. O. (1993) Research Methodology and Statistic, Awkwa, Nuel Cent. (Nig.)
Publisher.
Iganiga, B. O. and Ogieriakhi, S. (2000) Democratic Governance and University
Education: Nigerian Experience. Unpublished Paper Presented at the National
Association of Research Development Conference (FCE(T) Asaba, Delta State.
Federal Republic of Nigeria; National Policy on Education Roadmap for Nigerian
Education Sector; March 2009
Federal Ministry of Education; The Development of Education National Report of
Nigeria. The Forty-Eight Session of the International Conference on Education (ICE)
SWITZERLAND 25-28 November 2008
United Nation Organization (UNO) World Development Report (1995); 11(12).26
Uzoagulu, A. (2009) Skill Development in Voc. & Tech. Edu. A Lead paper presented at
the Annual Conference on Skill Development in Science and Technology development
Research and Conference Unit F C E (T) Umunze
World Bank 2002 World Development Report 2000/2001 Attacking Poverty New York
Oxford University Press
World Bank 2005 Poverty Reduction and Social Development in the Middle East and
North Africa 1960-2000 Washington, DC. World Bank
PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS TOWARDS
IMPLEMENTING UBIQUITOUS COMPUTING
Mohammed Abubakar
Dept of Information Technology,Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola.
Nigeria
Arthur U. Ume
School of Information Technology and Communications, American University of
Nigeria, Yola, Nigeria
Abstract
Ubiquitous Computing means network connectivity everywhere, linking devices
and systems as tiny as a drawing pin and as large as a worldwide product distribution
chain. This paper explores issues arising with implementing Ubiquitous computing, and
gives examples of success stories where researchers leveraged Ubiquitous computing
effectively. The paper further enumerates certain key issues and factors that affect the
implementation of Ubiquitous computing, and finally provides insights towards how to
seamlessly achieve the adoption of this new era approach to computing.
Keywords : Ubiquitous Computing, Problems, problems
Introduction
The idea behind Ubiquitous Computing is to surround humans with computers
and software that are carefully tuned to offer them unobtrusive assistance as they
navigate through their work and personal lives. Ubiquitous Computing according to the
founder Mark Weiser is the third generation of computing. This generation will lead to an
entirely new way of computing as compared to the previous two generations of
computing. This generation of computing will see computers everywhere. That is, the
computers will be with humans in their living space, and they would be interacting with
the computing devices which will be unseen to their naked eyes. This is because, the
devices will be embedded, so natural, so friendly, and so fitting to the extent that people
would use them without even noticing.
Ubiquitous Computing aims to make human lives simpler through the use of tools
that allow individuals to manage information easily. In essence, Ubiquitous Computing is
a challenge that affects all Information Technology and Computer Science. The field of
ubiquitous computing asks fundamental questions about how to put/implant computers
everywhere and make them unseen? This challenge is drawing together researchers
together from three (3) distinct perspectives which are:
i.
The Experience Perspective: This perspective focuses on how people might
share a world with Ubiquitous Computing environments. What interacting
principle underpins the human interaction with them, and how might a
Ubiquitous Computing society be shaped from a socio-technical perspective?
ii.
iii.
The Engineering Perspective: This focuses on the architectural and network
challenges posed by the large scale, heterogeneous and dynamic nature of
Ubiquitous Computing. What engineering principles are needed to allow a
vast array of devices to be interconnected in a system and how might we
understand and respond to the system’s emergent behavior?
Theoretical Perspective: This focuses on concepts and rigorous models that
capture the behavior of Ubiquitous systems at varying levels of abstraction.
How do humans reason about such a system in order to understand its
aggregate behavior in terms of the behavior of its subsystems?
Collectively, these researchers constitute a response to a grand challenge whose
goals are as follows:
a. To develop Ubiquitous Computing methods and techniques that is sensitive both
to the needs of individuals and society, and the impact upon them. These will
support the realization of human experiences and will include new forms of
interaction and new interaction paradigms that make Ubiquitous Computing
usable by all.
b. To define a set of system design principles that pertain to all aspects of ubiquitous
Computing which are agreed among both academic and professional engineers,
taught regularly in master’s degree courses, and are instantiated in the design and
rigorous documentation of several computational systems with a successful
operational history.
c. To develop a coherent informatics science whose concepts, models, theories, and
tools allow descriptive, explanatory, and predictive analysis of Ubiquitous
Computing at many levels of abstraction. And also to employ these analysis to
derive al its systems and software including languages, and justify all its
constructions by these analytic tools.
The above are ideal goals, but there is no argument that place a limit on the extent
to which they can be achieved. The grand challenge must be addressed by collaboration
across the researchers’ perspectives and usage guidelines together in an iterative manner.
The Previous Generations Of Computing
Despite the fact that Ubiquitous Computing will lead to an entirely new way of
computing, this paper thinks that there is need to understand the previous generations of
computing.
The first era of computing is known as the Mainframe era of computing whereby
many people use one computer. This computer was the central system from which entire
offices and sometimes companies called their computing infrastructure. The mainframe
computers are extremely expensive and very difficult to use for the average employee.
Every computing task is done on the mainframe computer.
The second era of computing is known as PC – era whereby one computer is
allocated to one person. This era saw an explosion in the area of information technology.
That is, in this era computers became a mandatory device for use in business
applications, and almost as commonplace as a television or telephone in today’s homes.
According to Weiser (1996), it is an era with person and machine staring uneasily at each
other across the desktop.
Therefore, with the above previous generations of computing, one can understand
that people interact with computers directly and physically. But Ubiquitous computing
will advance the trend of computing devices to be more and more integrated into people’s
daily lives. According to Weiser (1996), it will become the “Age of Calm Technology”
as technology recedes into the background of human lives.
The Beginning Of Ubiquitous Computing
Mark Weiser is considered as the father of Ubiquitous Computing. Weiser
envisioned the third era of computing (Ubiquitous Computing) in 1985 when he was
working at the XEROX Palo Alto Research Centre (PARC) as Chief Technologist. He
describes Ubiquitous as follows:
“For thirty years most interface design and most computer design has been
headed down the path of the “dramatic” machine. Its highest ideal is to make a
computer so exciting, so wonderful, and so interesting that we never want to be
without it. A less-traveled path I call the “invisible”, its highest ideal is to make a
computer so embedded, so fitting, and so natural that we use it without even
thinking about it”.
According to the above descriptions, one understands that the idea behind
Ubiquitous Computing is to make people interact with the computers in all their
endeavors without even noticing the existence of the computing device. That is,
computing devices will surround every aspects of human environment without
necessarily being seen physically.
The research at the PARC headed by Weiser produced three types of wireless
computing devices which serve as the first Ubiquitous Computing devices. These devices
are affectionately named as tabs, pads, and boards.
Tabs were small handheld computing devices similar to today’s palmtop
computers. The PARC envisioned Tabs as the entry way for data in the Ubiquitous
Computing era. It is useful enough to be used by everyone and small enough to be
everywhere.
Pads were tablet sized laptop computers similar to today’s tablet Pc’s. It was
designed to provide the freedom of portable and wireless tablet computers while still
maintaining the power of a workstation. This task was accomplished by separating the
computational engine from the display device, thus reducing the power to weight ratio
(Ubiquitous Computing movies, 1995).
Boards are the yard-size displays that serve a number of purposes such as video
screen, bulletin boards, and white boards or flip charts. A board might also serve as an
electronic bookcase from which one might download texts to a pad or tab.
Therefore, when integrating the tabs and pads with the presentation – sized
displays provided by the boards, the researchers at the XEROX PARC paved the way for
the third era of computing which is known as Ubiquitous Computing. The paper will go
ahead and point to some other examples where Ubiquitous Computing was leveraged
positively.
Of recent, Ubiquitous learning was promoted by researchers who were examining
the excellent attention and immersion which pupils can achieve while working on a
computer; researchers are coming up with ubiquitous learning environments in which
students engage in pedagogical activities. This area of research and case-studies has
already yielded fruitful results such as the Research-based Educational Software called
Cooties. “Cooties” is a virus-transfer simulation program designed for Pocket PC
handheld computers; it supports socio-kinesthetic learning; i.e. incorporating social
interaction with hands-on activity. Teachers determine variables such as incubation time
of the simulated virus, individual immunity levels, and the number of initial carriers in
the simulation. The program is appropriate for students from Grades 3 and up and can be
used in science, anthropological, and mathematics.
Another success story is the Gaia project by Roy Campbell (2012): This
researcher used Active Spaces to organize networked computer devices into a distributed
system that cooperates and coordinates its activities with its mobile users. The
researcher’s work on Active Spaces examined how ubiquitous computing would support
different physical human activities, from classroom and office activities to entertainment
and communication. His Gaia project combined elements of HDTV, sensor networks,
plasma touch panels, tracking cameras, mobile devices, speech recognition and synthesis,
and location tracking into a rich tapestry. To enable location aware applications, he
utilized various location sensing technologies including RFID, biometrics, Bluetooth,
WiFi, and Ubisense. [Note: Ubisense represents a new class of UWB-based sensing
devices that are economic to deploy in a building and have an accuracy of 6 inches 95%
of the time]. The researcher reported that this ubiquitous arrangement when used in the
classroom empowered students’ and teachers’ effective communication in a seamless
fashion thereby encouraging larger number of students to participate actively even in
large scale class settings.
Also, Emmanuel Agu of Worcester Polytechnic Institute (2012) discussed
successes with ubiquitous computing in a healthcare setting, as exemplified with a
Diabetics Self Aware tool which was successfully integrated with patients’ Cell phone
devices.
Key Factors Working Against Extensive Implementation Of Ubiquitous Computing
i.
The Environment: If one walks into an environment anywhere in the world,
he/she would probably not find any structure suitable for Ubiquitous
Computing devices. Instead, one would find an infrastructure suited towards
established and well-grounded technologies such as electricity running
through the walls, phone lines running into and out of buildings, and
conveniences such as indoor plumbing. The individual is not likely to see
newly constructed buildings equipped with devices to support Ubiquitous
Computing.
ii.
Impromptu Interoperability: Ubiquitous Computing as its name implies
must have devices everywhere. But the problem now is that, who will make
all these devices? It surely would not be left to a single company or
manufacturer; it has to be a joint venture. Thus this presents one small
problem. This is because, many technology-producing companies desire to
produce their own proprietary products which will be structured to understand
their own proprietary language which will eventually lead to noninteroperability between devices from different companies.
iii.
No System Administrator: It should be noted that most individuals who
operate personal computers have no intimate knowledge on how to administer
a single workstation. It would be unrealistic for the manufacturers of
Ubiquitous Computing devices to expect their users to administer a complex
network consisting of multiple devices.
iv.
Social Implications of aware technologies: Ubiquitous Computing will have
a social impact on society just as the previous two eras of computing did.
However, as these devices are constantly bombarded with input from their
surroundings, the major effect now is the privacy of the society. That is, how
v.
vi.
will society turn to a social solution, legal solution, ethical solution, or
technological solution to protect their privacy?
Reliability: Being devices everywhere and bombarded with different input
from different angles, any failure in the devices or insecure of software will
definitely affect the reliability of Ubiquitous Computing.
Presence of Ambiguity: The role of Ubiquitous Computing must completely
change the role of computing as offered by the personal computer. The
personal computing era saw the development and proliferation of desktop
computers. The computer did what it was told to do. That is, if one punches a
key on the keyboard or clicks the mouse, the computer processed the request,
e.g. if a person requests the machine to send an email, it will automatically
send it when he/she presses the send command button. But with Ubiquitous
Computing where devices are everywhere and ready to accept input from any
angle, all the devices would become nuisance with the bombarded input. The
devices will be confused on what input belongs to which device.
Insights On How To Overcome The Above Factors/Challenges
i.
Concerning the environmental factor, in order to support and implement the
technologies of Ubiquitous computing, the environments of the users must be
upgraded. Users should be able to realize the potential of these computing
devices and gradually integrate them into their environments (Edwards and
Grinter, 2001).
ii.
For Ubiquitous Computing to be successful, the devices must have impromptu
interoperability. That is, they should not just interoperate but should be able to
interconnect and communicate with little or no advance planning. However,
the Ubiquitous computing devices should be designed or written to understand
the software of every other device.
iii.
The “No system administrator” issue would be addressed through the idea of
an already existing infrastructure known as telephone system. The telephone
system is unique and possesses a “thin-client” alongside a robust and
intelligent network. In this type of system, the telephone company services the
network while the customer services the receiver. When users have an
intention to use the telephone system, they simply pick up the receiver (thin
client) and dial the appropriate number to access the network. As outlined by
Edwards and Grinter (2001), to implement Ubiquitous computing
successfully, there is need to provide solutions for remote administration,
diagnostics, and upgrades to the existing telephone system.
iv.
For Ubiquitous computing to be implemented, there is need to address the
following questions as relate to the society. How will an individual know if
they are within a “smart” environment where embedded devices are gathering
data? Is it ethical to gather information from individuals without their
knowledge? What information may be gathered? How may the information
gathered be used, by whom, and under what circumstances? All these
questions relate to individuals’ privacy; they need to be answered before
Ubiquitous computing can take real hold.
v.
The Ubiquitous computing devices must be reliable. More so, the designers of
today’s computing devices (Ubiquitous devices) must analyze the design
issues, interoperability issues, and perception issues that separate today’s
vi.
reliable and embedded technologies from today’s unreliable personal
computing devices.
Because of the bombarded input to the Ubiquitous computing and also to
avoid ambiguity, ubiquitous computing devices must be able to recognize
changes in their environment, infer the action needed, and either complete the
action or ask the user if they would like the action to be completed. The
designers of these devices should make them very smart in accomplishing
tasks, they should be able to make decisions on their own based on an event,
they should have substantial model of the human world with which to make
decisions.
Conclusion
The era of personal computing is coming to a close and the era of Ubiquitous
computing is emerging. Both technologically advanced countries and developing
economies are about entering a brave new world; a world where computers are
everywhere, but rarely seen. Computing machinery will be embedded into devices hidden
from view, while other computing will seem so natural that humans will use them
without actually believing that they are computers. Ubiquitous computing era will create
a new life style for human beings. It will be a life style where computers aid and assist
humans in every of their daily lives. This new era of computing is fast moving from the
realm of fiction to reality. This paper therefore calls and challenges software engineers
and information systems analysts in developing countries like Nigeria to start reckoning
with this phenomenon; It is also worth-noting, that this new era of Ubiquitous computing
is bound to invade lives and bring discussions around individuals’ privacy in the face of
pervasive computing, even more to the forefront.
References:
Edwards, K.W. & Grinter, R.E. (2001). At home with ubiquitous computing: Seven
Challenges. From http://www.parc.com/csl/members/grinter/ubicomp.pdf
Hightower, j. & Borriello, G. (2001) Location systems for ubiquitous computing. IEEE
Compute 57-66
ITU (2005). Ubiquitous Network Societies edition 2005. ITU
Roy Campbell: The Gaia project on Pervasive Computing. University of Newcastle upon
Tyne. Accessed: 12/10/2012; http://gaia.cs.uiuc.edu/
Weiser, M. (1993). Ubiquitous computing. IEEE computer, p. 71-72
Weiser, M. & Brown, J. S. (1996). The Coming Age of Calm Technology. PowerGrid
Journal,
vol.1.01.
Appear
at
http://www.ubiq.com/hypertext/weiser/calmtech/calmtech.htm
STRATEGIES FOR IMPLEMENTATION OF
AGRICULTURAL SCIENCE CURRICULUM IN IMO
STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM: IMPERATIVES FOR
OCCUPATIONAL SKILLS ACQUISITION BY STUDENTS
Ugochukwu P.N Amadi
Federal College of Education (Technical.), Umunze-Anambra State, Nigeria
Abstract
The inability of secondary school graduates of Agriculture to secure jobs or be
self-employed has sustained the perceived generation gap, which has been blamed on the
way and manner in which secondary education Agriculture curriculum is implemented.
Four objectives were addressed by the study. A total of 200 teachers of Agriculture
randomly selected from 298 secondary schools across the three Education Zones of Imo
state constituted the study sample. A questionnaire structured on a 4- point rating scale
and with stability coefficients of 0.82, 0.76, 0.70 and 0.86 for sections B to E respectively
was used in generating data for the study. Findings of the study indicated that some
teacher-related factors are necessary for effective implementation of the curriculum
among which is teacher’s moral disposition, commitment, and teaching styles were
indicated. Use of modular teaching methods, establishment of good school – community
relationships and combined use of performance–based test and written test used for the
purpose of occupation skills acquisition.
Keywords: Agriculture, education, students, Curriculum, school
Introduction
As provided in the National Curriculum for senior secondary school vol. 2 (FME,
2008), Agricultural Education is designed to lay a solid foundation for vocational
agriculture that is proposed to train individuals to acquire relevant occupation skills, that
will make them to be productive farmers.
The relevance of the current senior secondary vocational agriculture curriculum
has raised divergent views from different stakeholders. For instance, Ochu and
Umunnagbu (1995) in a study on “Relevance of the Practical Content of the senior
secondary vocational agriculture programme” opined that the programmes are suitable
for developing the right calibre of middle level manpower for the agricultural subsector
of the economy. This finding however indicated an improvement over findings in the
earlier reports made by Ivowi (1983) and Zahradeen (1990) who variously reported skilsl
content deficiency. Ochu and Umunnaegbu therefore concluded that given the right
environment, the existing content will guarantee the acquisition of relevant occupational
skills. Granted that the curriculum is suitable and appropriate all that remains would be
an enabling environment for full expression of intended objectives (Amadi, Orikpe &
Osinem 1997). This observation agrees with the views of Agwubuike (1985) that “the
curriculum is adequate but what remained a significant shortcoming are the resources for
its implementation. Ajalla(1985) in a study on The Educational resources for effective
teaching of vocational agriculture in secondary schools” revealed that the nation is
witnessing unprecedented high-level youth unemployment even with great number of
students that offered agriculture in the school certificate examinations.
Nwabuisi (1993) reported dearth of instructional resources for teaching
agriculture at vocational level in the secondary schools. Harping on the various
limitations of the curriculum, Uwadiae (1993) observes that most schools have been
unable to teach for the acquisition of occupational skills rather than knowledge needed to
pass prescribed examinations. This has been blamed on absence of enabling
environments due to poor infrastructural facilities in school.
Speaking on instructional methods for effective occupational skills acquisition,
Okorie (1992) recommended ‘guided discovery’ as very potent. In another opinion,
Olaitan and Uwadiae (1993) emphasized “learning –by-doing”. They were of the view
that:
If the primary objective of the secondary level agriculture Curriculum is to equip
students with occupational skills … the recommended approach to teaching and learning
should be learning- by- doing and nothing more
The attainment of the objectives of senior secondary vocational agriculture in
schools depends on how well a teacher is able to present the learning experiences to the
students. The Nigerian society is dynamic and in the face of these changes, new and
better ways of planning and prosecution of learning experiences must be explored. It
therefore behoves on the teacher who implements the ‘taught curriculum’ (Akusoba,
1995) to up-date his ideas, methods and experiences and to effectively ensure full
integration of worthy “old practices” and experiences into new paradigms in the new
world order (Amadi, 2002).
The teaching-learning milieu provides the medium with which the teacher assists
his pupils to imbibe the learning experiences presented to them. In line with the above,
Olaitan (1986) avers that:
The acquisition of the desired experiences by the students depends on how
effective the teacher is able to present the learning experiences to them. The
effectiveness of any teaching depends on the teaching strategies used.
Agricultural education has received a new emphasis considering the intent and
purpose for its introduction. Some novelties in the new order required that teachers with
special skills and competencies be mobilized to be in the vanguard of implementing the
curriculum (Okorie, 1997).
The 6-3-3-4-education model was conceived to re-orientate and reorganizes our
value system in the world or work. Consequently, non-acquisition of requisite
occupational skills in identified areas would inadvertently result in the production of illequipped labour force. This old underemployed, hence the new wave of emphasis on job
oriented education.
The introduction of agricultural programme as a pre-vocational core- subject at
the junior and as a vocational core- subject in the senior secondary levels respectively
(National Policy on Education, 1998) makes a lot of demands teachers as stakeholders.
First as a relatively new curriculum signifying a complete departure from the old bookish
model inherited from the Colonial masters it requires teachers who posses requisites
knowledge, skills, attitudes and competencies. The effectiveness of any teaching is
relatively a function of teaching styles, methods and strategies which were employed in
the process. Quite regrettably, there is dearth of professionally qualified teachers of
agriculture in the school system. Nwabuisi (1992) in a study on resources for teaching
and learning agriculture science in Lagos State Junior secondary schools reported a low
teacher/student ratio of 1:60. In a later study conducted in Imo State, Amadi (2010) also
reported a low teacher/student ratio of 1:158, which is just a marginal improvement on
Nwabuisi’s. Though as reported by Amadi, (2010) there are more qualified teachers of
agriculture these days, the imbalance stems from the population explosion since every
student is expected to offer the subject.
Amadi’s (2001) study further revealed more importantly that the skill content of
the agricultural programme for the senior secondary is too comprehensive to lend itself to
meaningful coverage within the time space of three years. Olaitan (1986) maintains that
in a bid to cover the prescribed content, the teachers teach at a tremendous speed, which
negates proper articulation by students. Further, Olaitan points that it does seem that host
communities of some secondary schools as stakeholders do not realize or appreciate the
magnitude of their responsibilities towards the teaching and learning of agriculture.
Consequent upon the above revelations some vital questions needed to be addressed,
namely;
 Could lack of equipment and facilities be responsible for the poor implementation
of the curriculum?
 Is it possible that teachers are responsible for observed shortcomings due to lack
of initiative to mobilize and utilize instructional resources in teaching agricultural
skills?
 Could the problem be rightly situated on the nature of curriculum?
It is this problem summarized in the above three questions that prompted this
study.
Population for the Study
The population for this study comprised all teachers of agriculture in all the 289
secondary schools in Imo State offering agriculture science. The population is estimated
to be 1,938 (Imo State Secondary Education Management Board ( ISEMB), 2011).
Sample for the Study
A total of 200 teachers of agriculture chosen by multi-stage sampling based on
school location, school type and age as main criteria constituted the sample for the study.
Instrumentation
A self-designed structured questionnaire made up of forty-two items was used for
collecting data for the study. The questionnaire items rated on a 4 –point scale namely;
Strongly Agree (40) Agree (3), Disagree (2), and Strongly Disagree (1) were derived
from the research questions raised for the study. And for each of the items, respondents
rated using the key provided.
Validation of Instrument
A draft of the instrument was criticized by five seasoned lecturers in the
Department of Agricultural Education of the Federal College of Education (Technical),
Umunze, Anambra. Any item that was accepted by at least any three of the five was
deemed to be suitable. In essence, the final instrument was made on the basis of the
comments and criticisms made by the lecturers
Reliability of the Instrument
The questionnaire was subjected to a pretest using 10 secondary school teachers
of agriculture drawn from Aguata Education Zone of Anambra State. The responses of
these teachers to the items were later subjected to a test to ascertain the degree of internal
consistency of the instrument. The results of the analysis for section B, C, D and E,
indicated stability coefficients (SC) of 0.82, 0.76, 0.70 and 0.86 respectively and a mean
SC of 0.76 which were considered high enough for the study.
Data Collection
The instrument was administered to teachers of agriculture in the selected
secondary schools in Imo State by personal contacts however, using three research
assistants who were fully instructed on what to do. All the 200 copies were completed
and returned giving 100% return rate.
Data analysis
Analysis of the data was carried out using some descriptive statistics, which
included frequency distributions, means and standard deviations, in line with the
questions raised for the study. Using a 4-point scale the mean decision point was
established at 2.50. Thus any item that received mean rating of 2.50 was accepted while
any one that received less than 2.50 was not accepted.
Presentation of Result
The results of the data analysis are as presented in the table below: teacher
characteristics (qualities, skills and competencies) required of senior secondary school
teachers of vocational agriculture.
Research Question 1: What qualities and competencies are required of secondary
school teachers of vocational agriculture?
Table 1 : Mean responses of teachers of Agriculture on qualities and competencies required of teachers of
Agriculture.
Teacher
S
Characteristics
/N
0
Must
1 possess teaching qualifications of minimum of
NCE.
.96
Must
2
hold a university degree in agriculture or
equivalent qualification.
.5
Must
3 demonstrate good psycho-production skills
.40
Teachers
4
must be masters of the various areas of
agriculture with skill emphases
.69
Should
5
specialize in a particular aspect of agriculture
.50
Ability
6
to carry out practical exercises, in workshops
and laboratories
.06
Must
7 demonstrate enough interest in students
.36
Teacher
8
must be sympathetic, humble, friendly but
firm and resolute on matters of discipline
.68
Must
9 be of outstanding moral caliber
.40
Must
1 be highly resourceful
.36
Source: field survey, 2012
X
D
2
.60
2
.52
3
.61
3
.44
2
.51
3
.48
3
.62
3
.43
3
.66
3
.41
Decision
S
Accepted
0
Accepted
0
Accepted
0
Accepted
0
Not.Accepted
0
Accepted
0
Accepted
0
Accepted
0
Accepted
0
Accepted
0
The table above indicates that all the suggested teacher characteristics got mean
response ranging from 2.50 to 3.96 above the 2.50 mean decision point on ways of
utilizing instructional resources for effective teaching and learning of Agriculture
Occupation skills.
Research Question 2: By what means could available resources be utilized to
ensure effective acquisition of agricultural occupation skills?
Tables 2: Mean responses of Teachers of Agriculture on means of utilizing resources for teaching and
learning of agriculture.
S
Suggested means/strategies
X
/N
.
D
Involving
Students in supervised realistic farm projects
1
Demonstration
2
teaching
Instructional stimulation/games and modeling in teaching entrepreneurship
skills
3
Group
4
project farming
5
3
.33
.46
3
.02
.54
3
.66
.41
3
6.
7.
Individual project farming
Use of Audio/visuals
S
D
ecision
Accepted
0
Accepted
Accepted
0
.35
Accepted
0
Accepted
0
.42
3
.68
0
.52
3
Accepted
.00
0
.42
Source: Field Survey, 2012
All the six items were rated highly above the 2.50 decision mark and therefore
accepted as ways of utilizing instructional resources for effective teaching and learning of
agricultural occupation skills.
Research Question 3: How can resources that abound in the neighbourhood be
harnessed for effective teaching and acquisition of agricultural occupation skills?
Table 3: Mean Responses of teachers on means of utilizing community-based resources in teaching
agriculture.
S
Suggested Strategies
X
S
D
/N
D
ecision
Use
1 of successful non-graduate farmers as resource persons
3
Accepted
0
.20
.42
Use
2 of successful graduate farmers only as resource persons/role models
2
Accepted
0
.58
.55
Establishing
3
healthy relationship between teachers, students and the work3
Accepted
0
world.
.66
.41
Regular
4
use of master crafts men (farmers) as resources persons
3
Accepted
0
.35
.42
Student
5
should be given assignments and projects bordering on skills on
regular basis.
3
Accepted
0
.68
.52
Regular
6
use of field trips and excursions.
3
Accepted
0
.00
.42
Use
7 of team- teaching based on level of competency in different areas of
agriculture.
3
.48
Accepted
0
.32
2
.56
Accepted
0
.68
3
.54
3
.34
Accepted
0
Use
8 of Cooperative Education/work Experience Programme (CEWEP)
Organizing
9
pupils’ lectures/speech days on topics of agriculture
relevance.
.42
Involving
1
students in realistic/live projects.
0
.60
Accepted
0
Source: Field Survey, 2012
Research Question 4: How would the content of the secondary agriculture
Curriculum be implemented to guarantee effective skills acquisition?
Table 4: Mean responses of teachers on ways of implementing agriculture curriculum to ensure acquisition
of Agricultural Occupation skills.
S
Suggestions
X
D
Decision
S
Accepted
0
.62
3
.36
3
.42
Accepted
0
.33
N.A
0
.45
2
.53
/N
Curriculum
1
should be arranged in modular packages.
Team
2 teaching based on specialization should be adopted.
Curriculum
3
should be compartmentalized.
Every
4
practical lesson should be preceded by its theoretical
lesson.
.56
Tasks
5
implied in skill lesson must be analyzed preparatory
to the actual teaching.
.56
Evaluation
6
should be performance based only
.02
Evaluation
7
should combine performance based (PBT) and
theoretical.
.66
2
2
.56
2
.62
Accepted
0
3
.48
Accepted
0
N.A
0
Source: Field Survey, 2001
NA - Not accepted
*moderately accepted
Items number 2, 2, and 7 were highly rated as possible ways of improving the
implementation and evaluation of the agriculture curriculum so as to ensure skills
acquisition. Item 5 was moderately accepted.
Major Findings
The study came up with the following major findings:
On teacher characteristics it was indicated that:
1.
Requisite academic and professional qualifications are imperative.
2.
Teachers of agriculture must be able to demonstrate mastery of the skills
and knowledge of agriculture.
3.
Teachers must be humane, sympathetic but firm and resolute in terms of
moral discipline.
On ways of utilizing instructional resources for effective teaching and learning of
agricultural occupation skills the following were indicated.
4.
Involving students in supervised live individually or in groups.
5.
Use of demonstration, task analysis.
On effective ways of harnessing community-bound resources the following were
indicated:
6.
use of successful farmers as resource persons
7.
Establishing healthy school-community relationship
8.
Regular use of field trip and excursions.
9.
Involving students in homestead farming and live-projects
Ways of improving curriculum implementation and evaluation indicated include:
10.
Modular arrangement o the curriculum
11.
Team Teaching
12.
Evaluation based on combined use Performance Based tests (PBTs) and
essays.
Discussions
For teachers of agriculture to be effective in the teaching of manipulative skills
knowledge, they must possess both academic and professional qualifications. They must
be pedagogically competent while possessing special attributes such as humaneness,
being sympathetic but firm and resolute. They must be of high mastery of the discipline
because in the words of Okorie (1997) “a teacher cannot teach a skill which he has not
mastery”. This statement is somewhat in line with Ajala (1987) who opined that the
effectiveness of skills acquisition by student depends on the extent available human
resources are utilized. It is only the good teacher who can comfortably mobilize resources
for effective teaching.
It was indicated in the findings that involving students in real projects either
individually or in groups, use of field trips and involvement of students in home-stead
farming are sure ways by which students could acquire basic agricultural occupation
skills and knowledge. By extension, it implies that teachers of agriculture should as much
as it is possible teach students by demonstration and by practical hands-on experiences.
It was further indicated that effective skill acquisition will be possible if the
curriculum is modulated and if evaluation of skills learning programmes is undertaken
performance-based. Each module should contain enough skills to be acquired, delivery
system as well as methods or techniques of evaluation (Amadi 2001).
Recommendation
Based on the aforestated findings, the following recommendations are made:
1.
Only qualified teachers of agriculture should be engaged.
2.
There should be retraining of unqualified teachers of agriculture.
3.
Technical assistants should be trained and deployed to schools.
4.
Students should be involved in supervised live projects individually or in
groups.
5.
Successful farmers should be used as resource persons and role models.
6.
Students should be involved in regular field trips and homestead farming.
7.
Team-teaching should be emphasized.
8.
Evaluation should be performance-based.
Conclusion
This study was a response to the perceived deficiency in the implementation of
secondary school agricultural curriculum. Efforts were made to isolated basic issues
which if properly addressed would encourage proper teachings that will in turn promote
agricultural occupation skills acquisition by secondary school students.
References:
Agwubuike C.C. (1985). The Place of Professional Teachers in Vocational Subjects.
Education Today 3 (2).
Alaja, A.A. (1985). Availability of Educational Resources for Effective Teaching of PreVocational Agricultural Sciences in Secondary Schools in Anambra State. A Journal of
Research in Learning and Teaching 1.
Akuoba, E.U. (1995). Curriculum Decision in Our Education System. Lead Paper
Presented
at the 9th National Conference of the Technological Writer Association of Nigeria
(TEWAN)
held at FCE (Technical) Umunze.
Amadi, U.P.N. (2001). Availability and Utilization of Instructional Resources in
Teaching
and Learning Agricultural Occupation Skills in Imo State Secondary Schools
Unpublished
PhD Thesis Nnamdi Azikwe University , Awka.
Amadi, U.P.N. (2011). Availability and Utilization of Instructional Resources in
Teaching
and Learning of Agriculture in Primary schools in Anambra State of Nigeria. Lead paper
presented at Inaugural Workshop/Orientation for primary school teachers held at Awka
12-16
July.
Amadi, U.P N Orikpe E A & Osinem E.C. (1997): Introduction to Vocational Technical
Education Owerri: The Alphabet Publishers Ltd.
Daugherty, L. (1979). Effective Teaching Strategies in Secondary Physical Education
Philadelpedia: Press of Saunders Company.
Federal Ministry of Education (FME) (1985). National Curriculum for Senior Secondary
Schools, Ibadan: Heinemann Educational books (Nig) Ltd.
Nwabuisi, G.M. (1993). A Survey of Resources for Teaching and Learning Agricultural
Science in Lagos State Junior Secondary Schools. ANDRIAN FORUM 6 (1 & 2).
Journal of
the St. Andrews College of Education, Oyo.
Ochu, A.O. & Umunnagbu, M.I. (1993). An Assessment of the Effectiveness of the
Senior
Secondary School Agricultural Education Programme in Manpower Development in
Nigeria.
Journal of Teacher Education V (2).
Okorie, J.U. (1997). Instructional Facilities for Growing Vocational and Technical
Institutions in Nigeria. Lead Paper Presented at the National Conference on Vocational
Education held at federal College of Education (Tech) Umunze 11 – 15th August.
Olaitan, S.O. (2009). Strategies for Meeting the Demands for Effective Teaching of
Introductory Technology in Junior Secondary Schools of Anambra State. Seminar Paper
Presented at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
Olaitan, S.O. & Uwadiae, S.A. (1993). Rationale for Re-thinking the Agricultural
Science
Curriculum for Secondary Schools. In B.G. Nworgu (Ed.) Curriculum Development,
Implementation and Evaluation. Nsukka; Association for the Promotion of Quality
Education
in Nigeria (APQEN).
Zahradeen, U.A. (1990). Integrating productive Work into Vocational and Technical
Education in Nigeria. Technical Education Today 2 (1).
THE ROLE OF INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION
TECHNOLOGY IN VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL
EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
Elijah Tsado
School of Technical Education, Niger State College of Education, Minna, Nigeria
Abstract
This paper attempts to examine the roles of Information Communication and
Technology (ICT) in Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) in Nigeria. To achieve
this, the definitions of ICT and VTE were given. The benefits of ICT and the use of ICT
were also discussed. The challenges of VTE were also highlighted before the exposition
on the role of ICT in VTE. It was concluded that the emergence of ICT remain at the
centre of global socioeconomic transformation. The paper recommended that schools
offering VTE should be connected to ICT facilities and the staff should be properly
trained to be ICT compliant.
Keywords: ICT facilities, Vocational and Technical Education, Nigeria, School system
Introduction
The concept of Information Communication Technology (ICT) is seen from
different perspective by people based on their accessibility and the use of these facilities.
ICTs, however are facilities, tools or resources that could be used to process store,
preserve, access, retrieve and disseminate information with ease.
Mansell and Silverstone (1996) defined ICT to include electronic networkembodying complex hardware and software - linked by a vast array of technical protocol.
On the other hand, the United Nation Economic Commission for Africa, UNECA (1999)
also stated that ICTs cover internet serve provision, telecommunication equipment and
services, information technology equipment services, media and broadcasting library and
documentation centers, commercial information provider, network-based information
services and other related communication activities.
Human being needs information to reduce the ambiguity in their environment, to
define and solve problems. ICT have made it possible to access multifarious information
sources scattered in every part of the world (Olatokun, 2007). The convergences of
information Technology (IT) with communication to form ICTs according to Onilude
and Adesanya (2007) brought the resolution on ICTs which has not only altered the way
people live, work and play, but has also created a new infrastructure for business,
scientific advancement and social interaction. These advances in science and technology
and the advent of internet in recent years has led to cultural, Political, geographical and
socio-economic transformation on a monumental scale world wide.
Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) on the other hand is defined by
Ogunyemi (2001) as the kind of training pertaining to a particular art, science or
occupation. It is composed of theoretical and practical instructions given to those to be
employed in commerce, industry on any type of enterprise, using tools, industry or any
type of enterprise using tools and machinery for the operation, production and
distribution of goods and services.
The Federal Republic of Nigeria, FRN (2004) in its 4th revised edition of National
Policy on Education, defined VTE as “those aspects of the educational process involving
in addition to general education, the acquisition of practical skills, attitude, understanding
and knowledge A reality to occupation in various sectors of economics and social life.
From these definitions, it is explicit that VTE is an educational phase that trains
individual to acquire specific mechanical or manipulation skills required to function
effectively in a rapid changing technological society. Its primary philosophy is seeking to
graduate individuals for gainful employment, with the aim of making them selfsufficient, economically, politically and socially. In actual sense, VTE courses are
offered in Vocational and Technical Colleges, Monotechnics, Universities, etc.
Benefits of ICT
With ICT, numerous benefits have been recorded in government agencies,
educational and research institutes, private sectors, Non-governmental organizations
(NGOs), etc. Iskander (2003) stated that Internet as an ICT tool has been recorded to be
widely spread and influencing almost all human activities. Information seekers according
to Ubogu (2000) increasingly want instant individual access to information without any
mediation. They are expecting to find the resources they want in a digital form and
accessible electronically, which is achievable through the use of ICTs.
Gleeson (2001) commenting on the benefits of ICT: Posit that the last couple of
decades witness revolution in computer-based communication technology. These
changes have revolutionalised the way people utilized information in various
communities. One of the more recent advances in this realm has been electronic
publishing, especially the production of electronic journals. Electronic Journal also
known as e-journals have not only affected the way information is acquired and how
scientific and technology research, seeks that needed information.
With the general communication infrastructures such as electronic mail,
telephone, web pages, instant messaging, chat wikis provided by ICTs, allow the
technologist and scientist to plan, share data and result, write academic papers and
maintain contacts. Dissemination, ICTs, such as electronic journals, popular media web
sites, transmit finding to the audience are crucial in facilitating communication and
access to information for research development activities in all sector of the economy be
it in VTE, health, science and technology, etc.
Galbreath (2000) opines that ICT have become central to contemporary society.
Whether one is talking on phone, sending an email, going to the bank, using a library,
listening to sports, coverage on the radio, watching the news on television, working in an
office or in the field, constructing practical projects, driving a car or catching a plane, one
is using ICT. He further asserted that the prevailance and rapid development of ICT has
transformed human society form IT age to the knowledge age.
Considering the benefits of ICT to educational institutions, Obioha (2005) posited
that ICT tools aids researchers in their information seeking and use of information
speedily. It helps in the acquisition of more knowledge. She also found out from her
work, that in view of these benefits, aids from both local and international agencies are
made to support research activities including the provision of ICT tools and training and
re-training of users. From the foregoing, it is clear, that the benefits of ICT most
especially to educational sector cannot be over emphasized, which Raymond (2006)
stated that set pace for any form of innovation and change for the society.
The Aims and Objectives of VTE
The goals of VTE is encapsulated in the National Policy on Education (FRN,
2004) to among others, provide trained manpower in the applied science, technology and
business particularly at craft, advanced craft and technical level; provide the technical
knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, commercial and economical
development as well as to give training and impart the necessary skills to individual who
shall be self reliant economically.
In pursuance of the above goal, the training of VTE is articulated I n both theory
and practical with the aim that on completion of training period, the trainee shall have
three options: (a) Secure employment either at the end of the whole course or after
completing one or more module of employable skills (b) Set up their own business and
become self-employed (c) Pursue further education in advances craft/technical
programme.
The major aim of VTE as a business enterprise, is to become an instrument of self
employment to the individual who has been empowered not only by subject matter
inhibition but who through experimental learning perceived it as real life solution to
problems and can make use of his initiative in labour market (Hassan, 2006). The major
thrust
of
VTE
thus can be described not just has knowledge or facts, but includes also the practice and
comprehensive command of one “peculiar ability after training in solving human
problems.”
Gambo (2000) highlighted the objective of a functional VTE to secure as a
catalyst for socio-economic development. He further explains that a relevant VTE will
not only assist in development of skilled manpower as required by the nation but will
also help in laying a solid foundation and industrial development as well as income
generation for the individual and the nation, which invariably will serve as a facilitator
for realizing the true perspective of self-reliance and sustained development at the same
time reduce unemployment, poverty and hunger.
Barriers to the Adoption and the Use of ICTs
Even with the numerous benefits of ICT to all facets of human life, there are still
barriers to its adoption in developing countries like Nigeria. Research carried out by
Gbenga (2006) revealed that many schools in developing countries do not have
computers and have no access to the Internet, which is an important requirement for
supporting networking for learners and teachers as well as for collaborative learning. The
internet can provide wealth of learning resources access to which is at present very
limited to many educational institutions in developing countries. Spherically, Gbenga
(2006), listed main obstacles faced by Africans schools including tertiary institutions
with respect to internet access as follows; lack of infrastructure generally and network
infrastructure in particular; high cost of ICT skills level and lack of enabling policy
environment.
Another obstacle to the adoption and the use of ICT in higher institutions in
Nigeria as identified by Gambari and Chike-Okoli (2007) is that, Nigeria is not fully part
of Global University System (GUS). The GUS is an initiative to educate students through
a satellite or wireless telecommunication infrastructure, mostly using internet.
Lack of proper acquisition of ICT resulting in utility, low ICT skills, inadequate
supporting infrastructure and high cost of maintaining and servicing equipment are all
barriers to the adoption of ICT (Olatokun, 2007). This fact was corroborated by
Unegbu’a (1999) that high cost of purchasing and replacing the ICT facilities and high
cost of training and retraining staff resulting in low ICT skills on the part of the personnel
as a major obstacle.
Other findings further revealed irregular power supply, as one of the major
hindrance to ICT adoption and use. Alabi (1995) identified incessant failure of power
supply and irregular functioning of telecommunication system as factor constraining the
effective and efficient adoption and use of ICT.
The Challenges of VTE
The journey towards national self-reliance through technology education has
remained elusive due to problems confronting VTE (Tsado, 2010). These challenges
include lack of well trained manpower to teach VTE related courses in our schools. Nosufficient fund to provide modern facilities of learning which Nzelum (1993) opines is
often neglected by the decision makers, is one factor militating against the realization of
goal of VTE in Nigeria because most of the tools, machines and equipment in technical
workshops are obsoletes.
Non-availability of learning facilities such as ICTs, computers and other
educational media is also a problem in VTE. The curriculum of VTE is well defined with
clear
set
goals
but
learning
facilities
designed
for
the
implementation of these contents are not available and where available, they are non
functional.
Absences of ICT experts in VTE are other challenges in VTE. This problem has
made it difficult for those schools to be ICT compliance, as a result most of the academic
information are still sourced manually from textbooks, journals, newsletters, etc.
similarly, the over dependence on the traditional chalk-and-chalk method of impacting
knowledge in VTE instead of employing modern technique of teaching, including
educational media, ICTs, is still a major threat to the realization of the stated goals of
VTE (Tsado, 2003).
The Role of ICT in VTE
To promote effective teaching and learning in VTE, ICT has crucial roles to play
by embodying complex software and hardware through electronic network (ICTs).
Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) which is an outstanding automated instructional
programme packaged for learners through an interaction process can be access from the
net to guide effecting learning among VTE students. Akinyemi (1991) supported this
assertion that gains attention of the learner from the attention through appropriate
programming. He further stated that CAT guide students thinking and responding to
students questions.
ICT can also be adopted to improve teaching and learning in VTE distance
learning programme by using mechanical and electronic network of programme
Instruction (PT) made accessible from the internet. PT is the presentation of the materials
to be learned by students in a series of carefully validated order and in explicit steps.
According to Adigun (1997) PT may be written in form of programmed text, laboratory
worksheet, tape recorder, etc either printed or recording all accessible from the internet
which is usually suitable for providing a more practical application in problem solving.
Current research findings, latest practical projects, technological innovations, upto-date published academic papers, recent manufactured tools, machines, equipment with
manual (used for VTE practical), etc, are all accessible from the internet and the simple
fact that computer has both primary and secondary storing facilities make the retrieval of
these information easy. Thus a functional digital library institutions offering VTE will
immensely improve the quality of teaching and learning. Onilude and Adesanya (2007)
also confirmed that electronic journal (e-journal) and other related publication accessible
from the net has not only affected the way information is spread, but the way the
information is acquired.
Alternative to practical in VTE made accessible from the internet, in form of PT,
can be administered to the students, where tools, machines and equipment are not
available. Where time to carry out practical in the workshop is a constraints, alternative
to practical’s from net will serve, because skills acquisition is an important aspect of
VTE (Ogunyemi, 2001). Thus where practical are not possible, an alternative can be
adopted.
Evaluation of learning outcomes in VTE can be achieved by using ICTs, through e-test,
e-examination, etc. Evaluation is a process of finding out the extent and kind of
behavioral changes that resulted from instruction or teaching activities in the programme.
Abimbolade (1996) stated that a well packaged e-examination guides students thinking
and assess students performance.
Conclusion
The emergence and convergence of ICT remain at the centre of global socioeconomic transformation, thus the role of ICT, in VTE can not be over emphasized.
Recommendations
For ICT to play its expected roles in VTE, the following recommendations are
proffered:
All the schools offering VTE should be connected to ICT facilities.

The PHCN should improve on its generation of electricity and the government
should extend electricity to the rural communities when VTE institutions are cited,
considering that most of ICT and their accessories are electricity-driven.

ICT experts should be posted to VTE institutions as a government policy.

Digital libraries should be established in institutions offering VTE by both
government and NGOs.

Training programme like workshops, seminar etc should be organized often for the
staff of VTE institutions.
References:
Abimbade, A (1999). Computer Literacy and the Nigeria School System. NIgeria
Journal of
Computer Literacy (1,).
Adigun, A. 0 (1997). Introduction to Vocational Technical Education. Lagos Raytel
Communication Press Ltd.
Akinyemi, K. (1991). Computer in Education. Fundamental of Educational Technology.
Ibadan: Y. Books.
Ala bi; M (1995). Impact of In formation Technology Infrastructure. A Case Study of
Kano
Industrial Sector Proceeding of the 4th National Conference of COAN held in Kano.
FRN (2004). National Poilcy on Education. Abuja: Federal Ministry of Education.
Gaibreath, J. (2000). Knowledge Management Technology in Education: An overview
Educational Technology 40(5).
Gambari, A.I and Chike-Okoli (2007). Availability and Utilization of ICT Facilities in
Higher
Institutions in Niger State, Nigeria. Information Technologist Vol. 4 (1).
Gambo, E.K. (2002). Making Vocational Institute in Nigeria Self-Sustained. Journal of
Issues in Technical Teachers Educations 1(2).
Gbenga, A (2006). ICT and Web Mining Techniques: A Paper Presented at ETF
Capacity
Building Workshop held at University of Ilorin.
Gleeson, A. C (2001). A Master Paper: Information Seeking Behavior of Scientist and
Adaptation to Electronic Journal Retrieved from
http:///ils.unc.edu/mspape.
Hassan, A.M. (2006). Technical Education: A Tool for Poverty Alleviation and National
Stability. The Belt Journal of Education in Nigeria 1(1).
Iskandar, F. (2003). Information Communication and Technology Retrieved from
www.connectonline.org/stories/story.5601.
Mansell R and Silver stone, R. (1996). Communication by Design. The Politics of ICTs:
Ibadan Oxford University Press.
Nzelum, V.N (1993). Problems and Constraints in VTE. Journal of Ntgeria Vocational
Association, UN N.
Obioha, J. (2005). The Role of ICT in Information Seeking and Use Amongst Research
Officers in Research Institute in Nigeria. The International In formation and Library
Review
137(4).
Ogunyemi, M.A (2001). The Relevance of Technical Education to Poverty Alleviation.
Lagos: Fembis Publishers.
Olatokun, W.M (2007).Adoption and Use of ICTs in Nigeria Manufacturing Industries:
A
Preliminary Survey. Infrastructure Technology 4(1).
Onilude, 0.0 and Adesanya, 0.0 (2007). The Impact of ICTs in information Seeking. In
formation Technologist An International Journal of ICT 4(2).
Raymond, B.B (2006). Internet cafes: Academic Cyber Freedom and the Challenges of
Teaching in Nigerian Universities. Journal of educational Research & Development 11
(7).
Tsado, E.B. (2010). The Attainment of Self-Reliance Through the Acquisition of
Practical
Skills in Technology Education in Nigeria. Niger Journal of Technology Education. Vol.
I
Tsado, E.B. (2003). The Effects of Transparencies as an Instructional Media for Teaching
TCI Building Students in Technical Colleges in Niger State. Journal of MIJESI(1).
Ubogu, F.N. (2000). The Paperless Society, Force or Reality. African Journal of Library,
Achieves and information Science .10 (1).
UNECA(1999). Developing National Information and Communication Infrastructure
CNICD
Policies, Plans and Strategies.
Unegbu, M.C (1999). Impact Assessment of IT on the performance of the Nigerian
Manufacturing Sector. A project Submitted to African Regional Centre for In formation
Science, University of Ibadan.
AN ANALYSIS OF JOB PERFORMANCE AMONG
ACADEMIC STAFF OF FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC OFFA,
KWARA STATE
Sikirat Abiodun Raji
Department of Educational Foundations, Federal College of Education, Zaria, Nigeria
Abstract
This paper conducted a study on Assessment of Job Performance among
academic staff of Federal Po1ytechnic Offa, Kwara State. Two research questions and
hypotheses each were formulated for this study involving a random sample of two
hundred (200) respondents’ from a total population of five hundred and seventy-three
(573). Structured questionnaire was the research instrument employed for data collection.
It was however, analyzed using Pearson product moment co-efficient of correlation
(PPMC) statistical procedure. The study reveals a number of findings among which were;
condition of service are essential to effective job performance and it also recommended
that management boards should review condition of service of academic staff favourably
with enabling working situations.
Keywords: Assessment , Job Performance, Academic staff ,Federal and Kwara State
Introduction
Teachers are the hub of any educational system. The school plant, cash, working
tools, well designed curriculum and good leadership are all essentials but the most crucial
element is the rate the teachers’ are charged with the task of effecting desirable changes
in the learners as potential future leaders of this country. FRN (2004) asserted that no
educational system may rise above the quality of its teachers. The quality of school
productivity will be meaningless if attitude of academic staff in this institution is
neglected.
Productivity could be enhanced when academic staff feels gratified to see their
students’ progress academically in their studies. The Federal Government of Nigeria had
invested huge amount of its budgeting allocation on capital and recurrent expenditure to
this educational institutions aimed at creating a conducive teaching and learning
atmosphere both for teachers’ and students’ respectively. In spite of this, such revenues
cannot cope with the enormous challenges leading to inadequate school plant facilities
and poor conduct of research among other responsibilities.
Job performance as defined by (Steers, 1999) is an act or process of getting the
work or task done by an individual as demanded by an organization. School heads in the
various institutions performed their duties differently. Their performance is determined
by the circumstances they find themselves. It is possible to see schools’ where teachers’
enjoyed friendly relations with one another and with the school head as well. It is also
possible to find a situation where the school head had established good staff - student
relations. In other schools, where the head is highly directive and not sensitive to the
views of teachers’ or students, the atmosphere might be unfriendly and uncooperative
(Maina, 2003)
The reviewed literatures on the key variables of job performance aimed at
assessing the academic pursuit of the students. The theoretical framework dealt with the
origin of human relations and behavioural science theories. In defining the concept,
Steers (1999) viewed Job satisfaction has a conduct-pipe to job performance in either
formal or informal organization. Employee turn-over, motivation, organization size and
job enrichment are likely factors that can marred the success or otherwise of the
performance of an organization. It is worthy of note that job performance amongst the
academic staff could be ascertained through students’ academic records, accessibility and
usability of teaching materials, working conditions and conditions of service. Civil
service rules governed the conduct of both academic and non-academic staff of either
State or Federal civil service. It is not however different except in terms of financial
benefits in some areas (Federal Civil Service Manual. 1987). Timothy (1991) was of the
opinion that academic staff that are at the centre-stage in this case need to have a
conducive classroom environment, cordial teacher- students relation and apply suitable
teaching methods if truly improved academic performances- are being targeted at.
According to Safurat (1987) as cited in Akpan (2003), Lecturers’ desire more time, more
interaction with their colleagues, better professional development opportunities,
improved support services, better students, improved media and instructional materials in
order to enhance job performance.
Statement of the Problem
The alarming rate of students’ failure in Federal Polytechnic, Offa, Kwara State is
becoming worrisome to all stakeholders. Regrettably, academic staff is being pointed
accusing fingers on. This is because highly productive job performances by this group are
sine-qua non to satisfying academic performance of the students. It appears other
problems included are industrial action, absenteeism, lack of commitment from lecturers
and students alike, poor working conditions, occupational mobility among a number of
other factors.
Purpose of the Study
The main objectives of this study were to:
1. Find out if there exists any significant relationship between students’ academic
performance and job performance of their lecturers.
2. Identify how leadership styles of departmental heads promote effective job
performance of lecturers in Federal Polytechnic, Offa.
Significance of the Study
This research becomes necessary as the outcomes could be a guide to the school
planners and administrators to be able to identify the extent of the Job Performance
among academic staff. The findings of this study would help to guide the policy makers
and educational managers those things that need to be put in place to make teaching and
learning attractive.
Research Questions
The following questions were formulated to guide the study.
1. To what extent does students’ academic performance encourage job performance of
their lecturers’ in Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State?
2. To what extent does leadership style influence job performance among lecturers’
and departmental heads’ in Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State?
Research Hypotheses
The study formulated the following null-hypotheses:
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between students’ academic performance and
job performance of lecturers.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between the type of leadership styles of
management and lecturers’ job performance.
Research Methodology
The study centered on academic staff of Federal Polytechnic, Offa, Kwara State
with a total population put at Five Hundred and Seventy-Three (573) cut across six
schools. These are Engineering, General Studies, Environmental Studies, Business and
Management Studies, Communication and Information technology and finally Applied
Science and Technology. Sample of 200 respondents were randomly selected using a
descriptive survey type. A structured questionnaire tagged ‘Academic staff job
performance questionnaire” (ASJPQ) was employed in line with modified Likert 5-point
rating scale. The data was analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Coefficient of
correlation (PPMC) at 0.05 level of significance. The use of research assistants was
further employed in the administration of research instruments. The table1 provides
tabular discussion of sampled respondents according to schools.
Table1: Sample for the study
S
School
/N
.
.
.
Sample
No. of
Males
Sampled
No. of
Females
Total
Sampled
1Applied
Science
and
Technology
2Business and Management
Studies
3Communication and
Information technology
42
21
63
22
07
27
10
09
19
4Engineering technology
17
05
22
5General Studies
11
19
320
129
61
200
.
.
Total
Instrument for Data Collection
The instrument used for data collection was academic staff job performance
questionnaire (ASJPQ). The instrument was divided into two sections. Sections A and B
using the Likert-type five point rating, scales as Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A),
Disagree (D) Strongly Disagree (SD) and Undecided (U). Section A was to elicit
information on respondents’ bio-data and section B contained respondents’ opinion of
students’ performance, leadership style and job performance.
Results
Research Question 1: To what extent does students’ academic performance enhance job
performance of lecturers in Federal Polytechnic, Offa.
Table 2: Opinion of Academic Staff on the Students’ Academic and Job Performance.
S/N
Item
Statements
Agr
Responses
Und
Di
To
eed
.
.
.
.
.
Academic
1
achievement of
students in my class during
examination
provides
satisfaction to the job.
Supply
2
of teaching and
learning equipment to my
school encourages lecturers’
to engage students in
practical.
Lecturers
3
feel satisfied when
students’ comprehend what
they have learnt in class.
Students
4
who indulge in
examination malpractice put
the lecturer in bad light.
Promotions
5
are guaranteed
when students excel in their
semester examination.
35
F
1
7.6
ecided
%
F
7
1
3
.5
sagreed
%
F
7
2
6
4.9
tal
%
1
74
F
1
00
%
1
1
6.7
6
6
2
5.2
1
1
3
8.1
1
71
1
00
1
14
7
4.6
4
5
1
6.9
4
75
1
00
1
.5
8
2
8
8
1
5.5
6
6
3
0.7
2
4
2
3.8
1
74
1
00
1
14
6
7
3.9
4
5
3
0.3
2
2
5.8
6
3
73
1
00
1
From table 2 , 77.6% of the responses’ agreed that academic achievement of
students in classes provides satisfaction to the job while only 13.8 % disagreed that
students who indulge in examination malpractice put the lecture in bad light.
Research Question 2: To what extent does leadership style influence job performance
among lecturers’ and departmental heads in Federal Polytechnic, Offa Kwara State.
Table 3: Opinion of Academic Staff on Leadership Style of Departmental Heads Job Performance
Item
S/N Statements
F
1
00
%
1
9
F
9
7.2
Responses
Unde
Dis
cided
agreed
al
%
F
%
F
%
5
3
1
4
2
0
7.3
4
5.5
73
17
1
6.9
6
3
3
8.8
1
5
4.3
04
1
2.3
6
4
1
.4
8
9
9.3
03
1
0.6
6
1
2
2.4
1
6
7.0
32
1
6.7
7
2
2
2.8
1
8
0.5
Agre
ed
.
.
.
.
.
The
1 head of my department is
autocratic and rigid in
decision making.
The
2 freewill to operate and
initiate policies is a welcome
development outside my
department.
My
3 boss in the department
intimate the staff in line with
what is expected of them as
set out in this plan.
Staffers
4
in my department are
accorded the same recognition
and respect to work and in
productivity.
My
5 head of department places
high premium on his/her
subordinates as his network.
Tot
2
1
75
1
00
1
4
2
67
1
00
1
4
2
70
1
00
1
1
1
72
1
00
1
.
Human
6
relations between the
staff and boss are cordial and
ultimate to educational goals.
6
8.9
7
3
9
2
6.9
1
6
4.2
7
4
72
1
00
From table 3 , 76.7% of the responses’ agreed that their head of departments
places high premium on their subordinates while only 38.9 % agreed that human relations
between the staff and boss are cordial and ultimate to educational goals.
Hypotheses Testing
Ho1: There is no significant relationship between students’ academic performance of
students’ and lecturer’s job motivation in Federal Polytechnic Offa, Kwara State.
Table 4: Correlation on Students Academic Performance and Job Performance of Lecturers. (N197)
Variable
x
d
Students academic
18.6023
.57
Job performance
17.5000
.48
T-Critical=1.96
r
.490
dp
76
.000
P<0.05
With the observed r-value of 0.490 which is lower than the critical value of 1.90
and observed significant level (P) of 0.000 is lower, than the accepted level of 0.05
(P<0.05). The hypothesis is therefore rejected because there is significant correlation
between academic performance of students’ and job motivation of lecturers.
Ho2: There is no significant relationship between the leadership style of departmental
heads and job performance of lecturers.
Table 5: Correlation between Leadership Style of Departmental Heads’ and Job Performance of
Lecturers’. (N =197).
Variable
x
sd
r
Leadership style
17.89
.44
0.464
Job performance
17.50
.48
T-Critical=1.96
dp
71
.000
P<0.05
From the above, the observed r-value of 0.464 which is lower than the critical
value of 1.96 and observed significant level (P) of 0.000 is higher than the accepted level
of 0.05
(P> 0.05). The null hypothesis is hereby rejected since there exist significant
correlation between the leadership style of departmental heads and job performance of
lecturers.
Discussions
It is evident from table 1 above that available statistics showed increase in the
number of respondents’ to the variables, as this is likely to enhance high academic
achievement of the students’. Sunda, (1994) argue in support of this assertion that job
performance is the product of improved staff motivation. The null hypothesis 4 analyzed
in the study also gave a strong backings to the outcome of research question analyzed
above.
From the table 3, the analysis of this research question agreed that management
leadership style could better result to improved job performance if not too rigid but
targeted at achieving a purposeful goal.
1
Conclusion
The study has shown a positive and significant relationship between students’
academic performance and job performance of lecturers. In addition, it can be concluded
that correlation exist between leadership style among lecturers in the study area.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, the following recommendations are made.
1. That adequate provision of teaching materials is essential for teaching and research.
Any factors such as poor record keeping and bureaucratic process involved in
disbursement of funds allocated that will slow down the provisions of these items
should be promptly addressed.
2. Management should work with the, relevant labour bodies in the institution to
appraise working conditions internally and see how such can help increase student’s
academic achievement.
3. Preferred leadership style of the various levels of the institutions’ authorities in
relation to job performance of the lecturers should be investigated.
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EFFICACY, AGENCY AND BEHAVIOURAL CHANGE:
EVALUATION OF A LOCAL/GLOBAL SUSTAINABILITY
EDUCATION PROGRAM
John Buchanan
School of Education, University of Technology, Sydney
Abstract
As world population increases, and as more and more individuals make increasing
demands on the earth’s resources, the mandate for effective Sustainability Education (SE)
becomes more urgent. This paper describes a longitudinal evaluation of a project
currently being undertaken in government primary and secondary schools in New South
Wales, Australia, funded by the NSW Department of Education and Communities
(DEC). The Climate Clever Energy Savers (CCES) Project is designed to raise awareness
among school students about ways of reducing electricity consumption at their schools.
Students are invited to tender for funds of up to $2000.00 to support a program (such as
an education campaign, or building or appliance modification) to reduce electricity
consumption. The overarching research question concerns the extent to which and ways
in which the program has achieved the desired behaviour changes and educational
outcomes. We have found the project to be highly effective, but also suggest some
modifications to further enhance its effectiveness.
Keywords: Sustainability, environment, education, efficacy agency
Introduction
A mandate exists for effective Sustainability Education (SE), to educate us how to
“live as if the world mattered” (Jickling, 2009, p. 209). This paper describes a
longitudinal evaluation of a project currently being undertaken in government primary
and secondary schools in New South Wales, Australia, funded by the NSW Department
of Education and Communities (DEC).
The Climate Clever Energy Savers (CCES) Project was established and is jointly
managed by the NSW Department of Education and Communities and the state
Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water. The $5 million funding is
delivered through the Asset Management Directorate and managed by the K-12
Directorate. The CCES project aims to raise awareness among school students about
ways of reducing electricity consumption at their schools. The evaluation of this project
was implemented by a university team who sought to answer a number of research
questions, which are discussed later in this paper. The overarching research question
concerns the extent to which and ways in which the program has achieved the desired
behaviour changes and educational outcomes.
The project under evaluation
The following section derives heavily from the resource and information kit
provided to participating teachers, Resources for teachers 2010: Climate Clever Energy
Savers (NSW DET, 2009).
The CCES program’s aims are to assist students in years 3-10, aged about 7-16
years, to devise proposals aimed at reducing electricity consumption at their school. The
program provides an interdisciplinary approach to studies of sustainability; and offers a
real-world, problem-solving approach to issues of sustainability, supported and
scaffolded by Department personnel and technology. As part of the program, students are
invited to submit applications for funding to support an initiative that will reduce their
school’s electricity consumption and associated costs. Each project can apply for up to
$2000.00.
The DEC, via the CCES team, provides support in a number of ways for the
projects, including in-service workshops, a resource kit with teaching/learning activities
and advice on how to implement the program, and links to a variety of subject-based
syllabuses. Support is also offered via a teacher wiki, an e-folio and via email, as well as
the possibility of site visits from CCES team members.
Conceptual Framework
Sustainable development and the environment
The NSW Department of Education and Training (DET1) defined ‘environment’
as “the aggregate of all the conditions that support living things” or “the aggregate of all
the conditions that influence the life of an individual or population” (NSW DET, 2001, p.
7). Bridge and Demicco (2008, p. 9) discern four elements of the (Natural) Environment:
the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and hydrosphere. These are components of the
biophysical system, which is one of four broader systems, each of which is sustained in
the following ways, according to Fien (2004, pp. 185, 186): the biophysical system
(sustained through conservation), the social system (sustained through peace), the
economic system (sustained through development) and the political system (sustained
through democracy). Each of these, we believe, is open to contestation.
‘Ecologically sustainable development’ describes “a pattern of activities that meet
the needs of the current generation without prejudicing the ability of future generations to
meet their needs” (NSW DET, 2001, p. 9). Purnell, Sinclair and Gralton (2004) discern
direct and indirect sustainability behaviours. The former includes tree-planting, recycling
and diligence in switching appliances off when not in use. The latter refers to political
and social actions, such as writing to the media and politicians, and discussions with
others. This definition would also include a good deal of current education for
sustainability.
Education for sustainable development
Education is surely central to any significant response to concerns with regard to
sustainability. UNESCO (2004, p. 11) reported “a common consensus that education is a
driving force for the change needed” with regard to education for sustainable
development (ESD). Both government policy documents and syllabuses are replete with
statements affirming education for sustainability. It is acknowledged here that various
terms exist for this field of education, such as Education for Sustainable Development
(ESD; Summers, Childs & Corney, 2005) and Environmental Education, and Education
for Sustainability (Littledyke, Taylor & Eames, 2009).
The Australian Department of Sustainability, Environment, Water, and
Population and Communities (ADSEWPC, 2011) offers a helpful set of criteria against
which to measure ESD. Such education must “involve everyone, be lifelong, be holistic
and about connections, be practical and be in harmony with social and economic goals
1
In 2011, the funding body changed its name from the Department of Education and Training
(DET) to the Department of Education and Communities (DEC).
and accorded equal priority” (paras 1-13). This equal accordance to environment, society
and economy is the so-called “triple bottom line” or “three pillars”.
Agency, efficacy and leadership
The development of leadership and agency is vital to action on sustainability
(Hill, Wilson & Watson, 2004). Similarly, Reynolds (2009, p. 109) refers to the agency
potential of ESD, claiming that it “is about empowering people to contribute to a better
future through mindset changes, critical reflection and building new skills”. The NSW
DET K-12 Curriculum Directorate developed a five-step Sustainability Action Process.
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts further funded and
developed this process: making a case for change; defining scope for action; developing a
proposal for action; implementing the proposal; evaluating and reflecting (DEWHA,
2010, p. 9).
Fullan (2001) places teachers first and foremost in their role as change agents at a
local level. And yet, leadership itself needs to be sustainable (Hargreaves & Fink, 2006),
and needs, in turn, to be supported by appropriate and adequate resources. Similarly,
collegiality and teamwork are essential, although there are some pitfalls associated with
contrived collegiality (Grimmett & Crehan, 1992).
Fullan (2001) places teachers first and foremost in their role as change agents at a
local level. And yet, leadership itself needs to be sustainable (Hargreaves & Fink, 2006),
and needs, in turn, to be supported by appropriate and adequate resources. Similarly,
collegiality and teamwork are essential, although there are some pitfalls associated with
contrived collegiality (Grimmett & Crehan, 1992).
Education for sustainable development needs to be ‘enabling in nature’, in
affording learners a sense of agency, in terms of their capacity to effect change with
regard to the natural world. This, it is hoped, will enable the natural environment to repair
and renew itself with fewer human impediments. Summers, Childs and Corney (2005, p.
629) observe that ESD enables people to develop the knowledge, values and skills to
participate in decisions about the way we do things individually and collectively, both
globally and locally, that will improve the quality of life now and without damaging the
planet for the future.
These two dimensions, the individual-collective and the local-global, offer
another potentially useful frame of reference for both our education and our actions for
sustainability.
Agency or efficacy (Bandura, 1977, 1997) refers to developing the capacity,
confidence and sensed mandate for key stakeholders to take action on a matter
considered important. There is a considerable body of literature on the significance of
teacher efficacy and agency, particularly as predictors of resilience, satisfaction,
commitment and retention. For the purposes of this study, we will adopt TschannenMoran and Woolfolk Hoy’s (2001) definition of teacher efficacy as a teacher’s,
“judgment of his or her capabilities to bring about desired outcomes of student
engagement and learning, even among those students who may be difficult or
unmotivated” (p. 783). Clearly, a teacher’s perceived ability or inability to effect a love
of learning on the part of their students is a key contributor to successful educational and
behavioural outcomes on the part of students.
While the following refers broadly to teacher commitment and contentment, it has
relevance for all of teachers’ undertakings, including engagement in sustainability
education. Chan, Lau, Nie, Lim and Hogan (2008) discovered that, along with
identification with school, teacher efficacy was a strong predictor of commitment to
teaching. Equally relevant to this study, they found that perceptions of organisational
politics correlated negatively with commitment, while opportunities for reflective
dialogue formed a positive correlation with intentions to remain in the profession.
Similarly, Ware and Kitsantas (2007), in a large-scale study of more than 26000 teachers
and 6000 principals, identified strong links between teacher efficacy beliefs and
commitment to the profession.
More recently, Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2010), in a study with more than 2000
teachers, established a link between teacher efficacy, job satisfaction and burnout. They
discerned five contextual elements affecting teacher efficacy for the purposes of their
study: time pressures, autonomy, relations with parents, discipline problems and
supervisory support. Interestingly, relations with parents emerged as the most influential
contributor to teacher efficacy. (See also Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler & Brissie (1987),
who established a link between school-home relationships and teacher efficacy, but
stopped short of ascribing causality.) Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2010) also identified a
strong correlation between the two elements of autonomy and supervisory support. By
contrast, discipline problems were found to correlate more weakly with teacher efficacy.
This confirms anecdotal evidence and literature that teaching is most importantly about
relationships, as part of a community of practice (Allen, 2007; Wenger, 1998). Secondly,
Skaalvik and Skaalvik’s (2010) findings also suggest that discipline problems, as might
be encountered in schools that are difficult to staff, do not necessarily undermine teacher
efficacy, at least when they are encountered in a context of strong support from
supervisors. Similarly, Ross and Gray (2006) established a direct link between effective
leadership and both teacher commitment and efficacy, in a study involving more than
3000 teachers.
In an Australian study, Le Cornu (2009) investigated the contribution of
Professional Experience to teacher resilience. As with other studies, relationships
emerged as central “to the complex and dynamic interactions between individuals and
their ‘student teaching’ contexts” (p. 717). As mentioned above, this has important
implications for any teacher undertaking, including the program under investigation here.
Behavioural change
While it is not our purpose to provide a treatise on behavioural change here,
existing frameworks can inform our understanding of the processes involved in the
program under evaluation, and reasons for its success or frustration. It is widely accepted
that some combination of individual variables (such as knowledge, skills, belief, attitudes
and values) interacts with social and environmental factors to operate on human
behaviour (Kollmuss & Agyeman (2002). There is a range of views about the form that
this interaction takes, or the relative importance of, or interaction among, these factors.
They are discussed in relation to environmental behaviours or pro-environmental
collective action. Ultimately, we concur with Jackson (2005, p.6), who asserts that,
Human motivations are so multifaceted that about the only thing one can say with
absolute certainty is that it is virtually impossible to derive universal causal models with
which to construct behaviour change policies in different domains.
Nevertheless, as stated above, we discuss some approaches in terms of how they
may inform our understanding of this program and its associated projects, in terms of
changed behaviour and understanding on the part of both teachers and students.
Making sense of behaviour inevitably requires a multi-dimensional view that
incorporates both internal and external elements. In particular, as Stern (2000) has noted,
a useful model has to account for: motivations, attitudes and values; contextual or
situational factors; social influences; personal capabilities; and habits. Kollmuss and
Agyeman (2002, p. 240) summarise the main models of behaviour in the literature on
environmental behaviour/action as falling under the following categories: the linear
progression model; altruism, empathy and pro-social behaviour models; sociological
models.
Stern (2000) points out that there are several distinct types of environmentally
significant behaviour and that varying combinations of causal factors determine the
different types. There is a range of theories as to the determinants of environmentalism or
the values from which pro-environmental behaviours arise. Further, Stern (p. 412)
proposes the Value-Belief-Norm theory to explain why people take action due to proenvironment personal norms. With this theory, environmental action is motivated by:
altruistic and biospheric values; an ecological worldview; a belief that something of value
is under threat; a sense of responsibility to take action, coupled with a perceived ability to
have an impact on the threat.
Bamberg and Moser (2007) assert that pro-environmental behaviour is best
viewed as a mixture of self-interest and pro-social motives. They suggest that attitude,
social norm, and perceived behavioural control (PBC) as well as moral norm, combine to
predict intention. Intention to act in a pro-environmental way was identified as a key
determinant, accounting for, on average, 27% of the variance of pro-environmental
behaviours (p. 20), although how such a figure is determined is open to conjecture.
Attitude, behavioural control and personal moral norm were identified as the three main
predictors of pro-environmental behaviour, with problem awareness an indirect
determinant of pro-environmental intention. The impact of problem awareness seems to
be mediated by moral and social norms, guilt, and attribution processes.
Behavioural economics contends that we do not reach individual decisions in
isolation, but look to others to determine our behaviour, a form of social conformity.
Dawnay and Shah (2005) identify a number of relevant theories underpinning the concept
of social norms. Social learning indicates that we learn by observing what other people
do; social proof contends that we look to others to see how to behave, especially in
situations of risk and uncertainty; and social identity theory notes that we demonstrate a
strong bias toward ‘similar others’ or members of the ‘in-group’. For policy makers, the
important lesson is that we may need to focus on changing social norms in the medium to
long-term to achieve lasting behavioural change. Examples of where this has been
successfully done include smoking in public places and, picking up one’s dog’s
droppings.
Conduct of the study
The methodological approach is informed by the team’s experience carrying out
evaluations of school-based projects and sustainability initiatives in a wide range of
settings.
The key principles that have embodied the methodology include: participatory
inquiry; a mix of quantitative and qualitative methods; use of a variety of inputs; use of a
mix of subjective and objective measures; drawing on existing materials to maximise
time effectiveness for the project. The project obtained ethical clearance from the
university and the funding body.
Further to the main research question, introduced above, on behavioural outcomes
from the project, the following sub-questions have driven our work:





How and to what extent have teachers linked syllabus and content outcomes to
energy saving and greenhouse gas reduction projects? Similarly, how have they
embedded sustainability education into their teaching and learning programs?
How and to what extent have students been engaged in authentic learning
(including those using an interdisciplinary or cross-curricular approach) in order
to develop deep understanding of the purpose, content and processes?
Within participating schools, has this program met students’ expectations for
support? (i.e. how well have students been supported to use the Sustainability
Action Process to generate and implement proposals for energy reduction and
engage in learning for sustainability?)
Have some schools had particular success with the program, and if so what were
the features of their approach and the factors that enhanced the CCES program?
Have schools struggled with implementing the program, and if so what were the
features of their approach and the factors that hindered the CCES program? What,
if any, unanticipated outcomes have there been?
While the full report on the project comprehensively addresses each of these
features of the program, a briefer account of these processes and their effects will be
provided in this paper.
Data Collection
The evaluation entailed a participatory enquiry approach, in which school
stakeholders were asked to provide existing data pertinent to the Climate Clever Energy
Savers (CCES) program.
An electronic survey of as many participating schools as possible. The purpose of
the survey was to obtain a broad picture of the level and nature of participation in
the program, as well as general perceptions of successes and barriers to
implementing the program in schools. All 189 participating schools were invited
to take part in this survey. Completion of the survey was a condition of funding,
and a response rate of over 90 percent was attained by the time the survey closed.
A pilot survey was conducted with small and diverse sample of schools.
Case studies of a sample of schools, six in total at the time of writing, to ensure a
representative sample. Principally, these comprised those schools that emerge as
sites of best practice. A smaller number of studies have been undertaken with
schools that identified particular problems and difficulties in implementing the
CCES Program.
Case studies comprised:
On-site visits or telephone conversations, each supplemented by a member check
of notes arising from the interactions; interviews with key stakeholders, focusing mainly
on project co-ordinators; analysis where possible and appropriate of documents such as
the school’s SEMP (School Environmental Management Program), curriculum
documents, lesson plans and teacher evaluations thereof, teaching/learning resources,
student work samples, evidence of energy consumption, saving and actions collected by
in-school student project teams, utility bills over time; CCES curriculum and professional
learning materials; records from CCES Regional meetings.
Data collection has been guided by advice obtained from the NSW DET
Curriculum Directorate and consultations with school teams.
Data Analysis
CCES is implemented through a five-step action process: making the case for
change; defining the scope for action; developing the proposal for action; implementing
the proposal; and evaluating and reflecting. The evaluation sought to determine: the
extent to which this process scaffolded the energy reduction initiatives; and the capacity
of the process to contribute to students’ autonomy in sustainability action. Further to
this, the project investigated effects on morale and pedagogy, of projects deemed by
stakeholders to have failed or to have had limited success. The project interrogated the
initial criteria, stated or implicit, for the projects concerned, and factors that promoted or
inhibited the projects. It also sought participants’ views on what might be done
differently in future.
Qualitative and quantitative data analysis was undertaken with regard to the ways
in which schools have managed to achieve the stated aims of the program, that is, the
extent to which schools:
enabled students to undertake energy saving and greenhouse gas reduction
projects, linked to syllabus-based outcomes and content;
enhanced student engagement in learning through interdisciplinary, authentic
project-based sustainability work;
embedded learning for sustainability into the school curriculum;
expanded the participation of primary and secondary teachers from a range of
subject areas in student-directed, project-based sustainability learning by providing
structured professional learning and scaffolded teaching and learning resources.
Investigations took place in the context of the Human Society and Its
Environment (HSIE) and Science and Technology curricula in particular in senior
primary years, and with regard to Technology, Science, Geography as well as Design and
Technology syllabuses in the junior secondary years.
Data were gathered formatively and iteratively, providing opportunity to advise
the DEC CCES Team about the findings as the project proceeded.
Findings and Discussion
The findings are overwhelmingly favourable. For example, when asked how to
improve the program, one primary teacher from the south coast replied,
I think it’s quite good as it is and has enough broad scope to cover a
multitude of approaches and provide option for different capacity levels.
Generally it’s succinct, well set up and clear. Don’t mess with a good thing!
This project constitutes a helpful source of assistance for the school, albeit
arguably small in school budgetary terms. We note that some schools ‘topped up’ their
CCES budget with their own financial support. One Northern Sydney secondary teacher
observed, “the implementation of the winning proposal has been an asset to the school”
as well as being highly rewarding for the students.
Nature of the project
Programs were divided into five main types. Note that the total number of theme
codes exceeds the number of projects analysed, as some projects corresponded to more
than one category. It should be noted that probably all projects come under the umbrella
of ‘awareness campaigns’. Results are shown below.
Table 10 Program type (n = 409)
PROGRAM TYPE
NUMBER
PERCENTAGE OF
VALID RESPONSES
AWARENESS CAMPAIGN
125
30
SWITCH OFF
APPLIANCES
LIGHTS,
110
26
APPLIANCE
MODIFICATION (TIMERS
ETC.)
75
18
BUILDING
MODIFICATION
(SKYLIGHTS ETC.)
62
15
ADAPTATION
(E.G.
WEARING A JUMPER)
37
9
Examples of an awareness campaign include: the production of badges, posters,
bumper stickers or dramatic performances educating and reminding people to switch
unused appliances off.
Money was devoted to, among other causes:
 buying equipment such as lux meters to measure existing light in classrooms;
 materials and installations, such as skylights, insulation and automatic door
closers;
 purchase of appliances such as cameras to record performances and the like;
 release from face to face teaching;
 paying a general assistant to undertake tasks such as replacing all light globes
with more environmentally friendly ones;
 travel for site visits and/or and payment of guest speakers;
 consumables such as paper and lamination, or prizes and other incentives.
Most commonly, the projects involved the following subject areas: English,
Human Society and its Environment, Science and Technology, and mathematics in
primary school, and Geography Science in the secondary years.
As mentioned above, the CCES projects appear to have achieved a high degree of
educational efficacy, and have garnered a good deal of interest across the gamut of
students, including those with special needs or learning difficulties, and those in gifted
and talented or opportunity classes, as well as other non-mainstream students.
Features of the projects and program that appear to be attractive, and to contribute
to this success, include:
 Student-centredness. The projects are student-centred, -owned and -driven, in that
they invite, indeed demand, responses and initiatives from students;
 Authenticity. The projects are authentic, practical and ‘real-world’, entailing
applications for real funds. The CCES projects are significant and relevant to the
lives and futures of students involved;
 Immediacy of context. The projects seek local solutions to identified local
problems, as illustrations of a global issue, as part of a ‘think global, act local’
approach and philosophy;
 A problem-solving approach. The projects entail identification of a matter to be
resolved at school. This results not only in a quest to solve a problem, but, as we
have seen from discussion of proposals at various schools, the problematising of
solutions, with the evaluation of various ways forward.
 Capacity for service. The projects involve service learning, with its inherent
capacity to extend students beyond, themselves, as well as to explore the
experiences and perspectives of others, and to develop empathy;
 Transdisciplinarity. The projects often transcend subject areas, and also venture
beyond sustainability matters, developing students’ expertise in literacy,
numeracy, team work and advocacy skills among others, as well as engendering
higher-order thinking. They are ambiguous and unpredictable in nature, rendering
them educationally rich, albeit with the potential problems that can accompany
unpredictable teaching/learning experiences.
 Concrete outcomes. One of these is the success of the grant itself, resulting in the
receipt of money. Beyond this, many projects resulted in physical reminders of
changed or changing behaviour and attitudes, ranging from advertising posters
and stickers, to skylights and appliance timers.
We also believe that the program ‘positions itself’ very effectively, with its
ostensible rationale of saving money for the school, as much as saving the planet. This
fiscal rationale serves to neutralise to some extent the arguments proffered by climate
change sceptics or deniers, and establishes common ground and goals, regardless of one’s
views on the veracity of climate change. The argument of saving money for the school is
a compelling one to put to principals, and to parents who contribute to their children’s
education through taxes and perhaps other support. The goal of reducing electricity costs
is an attractive, local and measurable one. One Western NSW high school identified an
estimated annual energy-related wastage of over $5000.00. A school is an ideal
microcosm for young people’s investigation of energy use globally. As intimated above,
a number of projects snowballed and took teachers and students in unexpected directions.
We add, however, some generic caveats with regard to the project:
 We believe the approach has much to offer. If overused, however, the approach
could lose its current appeal, so we suggest this as a one-off for any particular
student.
 It is not always a straightforward matter to separate CCES outcomes from other,
related outcomes, some of which might arguably have happened in any case. This
is not necessarily a shortcoming of the projects; arguably it is in fact a virtue. If
the projects fit relatively seamlessly into existing programs, this is to their credit.
We mention it, however, in order not to ascribe to the projects outcomes that may
have occurred in their absence.
 By definition, these projects in their current form are not sustainable without
continued funding. It is possible that savings effected by reduced electricity
consumption could be devoted to future projects. Nevertheless, it should be kept
in mind that money is not the only currency in this equation. The outcomes relate
as much to education, citizenship and sustainability as they do to matters fiscal.
We also note that some projects will need little or no ongoing funding, such as the
installation of solar panels, appliance timers or skylights. It may be worth
bringing this fact to the attention of prospective project leaders.
 The process is labour intensive, but perhaps no more so than any other suite of
teaching/learning activities being planned for the first time. As ideas that have
been tried accrue and are made available to new participants, the amount of
planning and preparation work should diminish commensurately.
 While we want to applaud the creativity, energy and ingenuity of the teaching and
learning activities that were reported to us, we do offer a few words of caution.
There is a risk of style over substance, or rhetoric over science. It is our view that
the ‘climate sceptics’ are arguably more guilty of the latter (rhetoric over
science). This only adds to the mandate not to fall into the same trap, however,
particularly with young, impressionable people. Metaphor is an excellent way of
linking the unknown to the known, the invisible or the nano- (minute scale) or
tera- (immense scale) to the readily observable (Aubusson, Harrison & Ritchie,
2006). Metaphors are inevitably limited, however, and there is always a risk of
style displacing substance in any teaching/learning endeavour.
Illustrating the above, one school correctly interpreted a declining trend in
electricity consumption at school. It may be, however, that in the months from August to
November, the last four months depicted in the graph, power usage declined in line with
a reduction in heating use, during the southern hemisphere spring season.
More broadly, we note that schools, systems and assessment regimes tend to
engender a ‘culture of correct answers’. Children have become conditioned to this, and
CCES is not immune to it. CCES is to be applauded for its capacity to challenge and
transcend this, but this potential, along with the potential complexity of CCES projects,
may need to be specifically brought to the attention of teachers and students.
Concluding remarks
Suffice it to say that the CCES projects meet many of the criteria associated with
effective education, as set out at the beginning of this section. We offer again our
congratulations to the teachers, students, regional coordinators and the CCES team.
Foster (2006) among others, refers to the so-called triple bottom line: social
equity, economic prosperity and environmental quality (p. 126). Subsequently, however,
he asserts that, “the environment is always the bottom bottom line” (p. 128, emphasis in
original). He continues, “the other two goals, of material prosperity and social justice are
important and must be pursued by any civilised society, but there can be no prospect at
all of achieving them unless basic survival conditions are met”. Our congratulations
extend beyond solely organisational and educational ones. If the majority of scientists are
correct, and climate change is real, these students are leading the way in mitigating its
causes.
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REAL-TIME E-LEARNING SYSTEM: “A TOOL FOR
STUDENTS POPULATION DECONGESTION IN NIGERIA
PUBLIC HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF LEARNING” (CASE
STUDY OF YABA COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY
NIGERIA)
M.K. Ladipo
Yaba College of Technology, Lagos Nigeria
I.K. Oyeyinka
Center for information Technology and Management, Yaba College of Technology,
Lagos Nigeria
N.A. Yekini
Department of Computer Technology, Yaba College of Technology, Lagos Nigeria
Abstract
The focus of this research work was to develop a sustainable real-time e-learning
system with the contents to be delivered via the Internet using online real-time processing
techniques. We present the conceptual framework of the model of real-time e-learning
system to reduce congestion in Nigeria higher institutions using Yaba College of
Technology as a case study. The system if developed and implemented, it will decongest
the population of students in our higher institutions, hence reduce or eliminate the
problems associated with students population congestion in our schools.
Keywords: E-Learning, Higher Institutions, Students, Population Decongestion, and
Online Real-Time Processing
Introduction
There are more than 18 million students in Nigerian schools at all levels. That is
more than the total human population of South Africa, Ghana, Kenya, Egypt, Morocco,
Tanzania and the school population of France, Britain and Spain. While literacy rate
stands at about 50 per cent, one of the highest in Africa, the goal of Nigeria is to eradicate
illiteracy in the shortest time possible (www.nigeriatoday.com). E-learning comprises all
forms of electronically supported learning and teaching. The information and
communication systems, whether networked learning or not, serve as specific media to
implement the learning process (Tavangarian D., et al.). The term will still most likely be
utilized to reference out-of-classroom and in-classroom educational experiences via
technology, even as advances continue in regard to devices and curriculum. E-learning is
essentially the computer and network-enabled transfer of skills and knowledge. E-
learning applications and processes include Web-based learning, computer-based
learning, virtual education opportunities and digital collaboration. Content is delivered
via the Internet, intranet/extranet, audio or video tape, satellite TV, and CD-ROM. It can
be self-paced or instructor-led and includes media in the form of text, image, animation,
streaming video and audio.
E-Learning is convenient and portable – Kerman (2004) is of the view that online
learning does not need physical attendance. Learning is self-spaced. One can study at
home, work or on the road, one can read materials online or download them for reading
later. Adebola (2008) stated that people no longer necessarily go to the library to obtain
information or knowledge because internet are now available to the user at his/her home,
office and cyber café centers. Greater Collaboration – Technology tools make
collaboration among academicians much easier. Borofield and Akinyede (2005)
maintained that since many researches or projects involve collaborative learning, the
online environment is far easier and often much comfortable to work in since learners do
not have to be in face-to-face setting. This will widen the intellectual horizon of the adult
educator with relative ease. Increased Access – With e-learning, adult educators of
highest caliber can share their knowledge across borders allowing students or learners to
attend courses across physical, political and economic boundaries. Recognized experts
also have the opportunity of making information available internationally to anyone
interested at minimum cost. (Borofield and Akinyede, 2005).
To eradicate illiteracy, there is needed to make quality education avoidable and
accessible to citizenry at little or no cost. Educating people in densely populated classes
which is not conducive for learning cannot provide an avenue for eradication of illiteracy
in Nigeria within shortest time if care is not taken. Some school leavers in Nigeria today
are still illiterate in one way or the other due to condition in which they are been taught.
The population of students in Nigeria higher institutions has directly or indirectly
contributed to the following problems in our higher institutions of learning: Quality of
graduates, Cultism and gangsters, quality of research, ranking, stamped, indecent
dressing etc.
The focus of this research work is to develop a real-time e-learning system with
the content to be delivered via the Internet. The system if developed and implemented, it
will decongest the population of students in our higher institutions, hence reduce or
eliminate the problems associated with students population congestion in our schools. We
present a literature survey that covered some areas that directly or indirectly related to
our paper title in section 2 of this paper. In section 3 of this paper we present
methodology and research framework which is focused on data collection, analysis,
results and finding. In section 4, we presents, the proposed real-time e-learning system
model and we discuses it usage and benefits to Nigeria educational system and Nigeria at
large. In section 5, we present the recommendation and conclusion.
Major research question: To what extent can e-learning be deployed to
decongest student’s population in Nigeria higher institution?
Literature Survey

Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board
The Joint Admissions and Matriculations Board (JAMB) is Nigeria's official entrance
examination board for tertiary-level institutions. The examinations being administered
are available for most students who choose to apply to Nigerian public and private
monotechnics, polytechnics, and universities. Most of these candidates must already have
concluded their external examinations, administered either by the West African
Examinations Council (WAEC) or the Nigerian National Examinations Council (NECO).
By 1974, there were seven federal universities in the country. Every one of these existing
universities conducted its own concessional examination and admitted its students.
However, this system of admission revealed serious limitations and quite often wastes of
resources in the process of administering the concessional examination, especially on the
part of the candidates.
The general untidiness in the uncoordinated system of admissions into universities
and the attendant problems were sufficient cause for concern to the committee of vice
chancellors. In the 2009 University Matriculation Exam, the grading system of the
normally reputable examination body was subject to serious controversy when the overall
performance was one of the poorest on records. Much to JAMB's embarrassment, it was
later revealed that the machines which optically graded the papers had erroneous answers
and the JAMB changed some student’s scores by as much as 15%
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Admissions_and_Matriculation_Board).

Relationship Of The Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board with
Tertiary Institutions
The enabling law of the Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board recognizes the
importance of the Tertiary Institutions in the discharge of the Board’s responsibilities.
Tertiary Institutions at very high level of their Chief Executives are represented
on the Governing Board. The law is emphatic on the collaboration of the Board with
tertiary institutions in the placement of suitably qualified. Many tertiary institutions staff
serves the Board in the areas of syllabi development, item writing, item moderation,
coordination and supervision of the matriculation examination (JAMB Annual Reports,
2000)
 Requirements for Admission
General guidelines for admission into the Nation’s tertiary institutions are contained
in a brochure which provides detailed information on courses and entry requirements
which include:
i. Five ‘O’ level credit passes in relevant subjects including English and
Mathematics particularly for science and social sciences while mathematics may
be required at an ordinary pass level for Arts students.
ii. Four credit ‘O’ level passes in relevant subjects for Monotechnics, Polytechnics
and Colleges of Education.
iii. The candidates must equally score the minimum cut-off marks for the desired
course of study.
The cut-off marks for selection vary from one institution to another depending on
the competitive nature of the desired course of study (Guidelines for Admissions into
Monotechnics, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education, 2010/2011).
 Problems in Higher Institutions of Learning in Nigeria That Can Be
Eliminate Or Reduce Through Population Decongestion
Cult Activities: The institutions of higher learning which ought to be ideal places for
the training of minds have become war zones where cult groups unleash their terror in the
community. Fajana (1999) enumerated some of the menace of the secret cults in our
institutions of higher learning thus:
 Illegal possession of firearms;
 Drug abuse
 Violent crimes like armed robbery
 Illicit sexual escapades
 Killing of innocent students, academic and non-academic staff
 Arson, rape, extortion, threats, physical attacks, blackmail and other inhuman
practices.
Indecent Appearance: Indecent appearance has come to characterize the dress
pattern of many students on the campuses of higher learning in Nigeria. There is hardly
any higher institution of learning in this country that is not faced with this nauseating
problem. The way students on these campuses of learning particularly, the female ones,
dress seductively leaves much to be desired. What the girls call skirts that they wear is
just a one inches longer than their pants. When they put on such dresses, they struggle to
sit down, find difficulty in climbing machines, cross gutters as well as pick anything from
the ground. Apart from the skimpy and tight fitting nature of these dresses, they are again
transparent; revealing certain parts of the bodies that under normal dressing patterns
ought to be hidden away from the glare of people (Indecent Dressing On Campuses Of
Higher Institutions Of Learning retrieved march 28 2012)
Research Methodology And Framework
A case study was chosen as the preferred research method for this study- case
study is Yaba College of Technology. The choice of this case study is based on its
Location, demand for admission by the prospective students year by year and status as
the first higher institution in the federal republic of Nigeria. Yaba College of technology
is a unique center of learning which prepares people for the world of work; it is an
environment for teaching and learning as well as research and development; Yaba
College of technology has over 15,000 students population, 8 faculties, 34 academic
department which cut across ND, HND and post HND levels (M.K. Ladipo 2011)
The research framework is based on collection of data by inspection of records
and visitation to newly completed and ongoing projects within the college. Data obtained
were presented in both figure and text. Data obtained were presents as follows:
Table 1: Data on Students Admission Request: Source from CITM Yaba College of Technology
YEAR
YEAR 2007
YEAR 2008
YEAR 2009
YEAR 2010
YEAR 2011
PS
12,000
19,000
23004
27,008
31012
NQ
8400
13300
16102.8
18905.6
21708.4
NNQ
3,600
5,700
6,901
8,102
9,304
NA
1092
1729
2093
2457
2822
Figure 1: Table 1 Converted to a Chart, where PS = prospective students, NQ
= Number qualified, NNQ = Number Not Qualified and NA = Number Admitted.
2. Data on Resources
a) Human resources Academic staff Training & Development between 2008 and
2011
S
/N
Name
Nature
Training
Of
Department
& School
Institution
University
Adewoye
Of Ibadan.
Sunkanmi
1
O
Ph.D Mathematics
Nigeria
Science
University
Olowofoyeku
Ph.D
Civil Of Ibadan.
Adeoye
2
Engineering
Nigeria
Engineering
University
Flavian
3
Obasi J.
Ph. D English
Of Lagos
Liberal Studies
Ph.D
Environmental
University
Environmental
Olatunde
4
Aremu
Planning
Of Ibadan
Studies
Winchester
Balogun
O Ma,Design (Fashion School Of Art
And
Emanuel
5
And Design)
Art Uk
Printing
University
Yekinafei
6
Nureni A Msc Computer
Of Lagos
Technology
University
Adiigun
7
J.0
M.Phil/Ph. D
Of Ibadan
Technology
Nzekwe
University
Scienc
Nwachukwu
8
Ph. D Ionospheric
Of Ibadan
e
Owoso
9
J. O.
Ph. D Chemistry
University
Scienc
Cost
1,500,000
1,500,000
1,050,000
1,500,000
5,170,462.50
700,000
1,500,000
1,500,000
1,50
0
1
Folorunso Olufemi
Ph. D Chemistry
1
Ogunleye
1
Christopher
Phd Textile Science
2
3
4
5
6
7
1
Biotidara O.F.
1
Mukaila Olawuyi
1
Ashiru Abiodun
1
Ojiodu Chukwuba
1
Omolabi Abimbola
1
Abiona Olaleye
Resrach/Benchwork
Chemistry
Msc Public Health
Phd Micro Biology
Ph.D Chemistry
Mphil Geography
Mphil
Civil
Engineering
2
1
Irokanulo Emanuel
1
Ndubuisi C. C.
2
Badmus Ismaila
Ogunremi
2
Ayorinde
2
Oladosu Olakunle
3
Ph.D Built
2
Natural
Akanbi Olusayo O. Environment
4
2
Ibrahim Adedotun
8
9
0
1
5
6
Phd Printing
Phd Creative Art
Mphil
Mech
Engineering
Mphil Physics
Msc Computer
And
Phd
Industrial
Innovation Science
PhD
Advance
Material
And
Manufacture
2
Fakolujo Olaniyi
Oluwolinge
2
Catering
Msc Printing
b) Data on Infrastructure Resources
Of Ibadan
University
Of
Technology
Malaysia
Nelson
Mandela
University
Tswane
University
Of
Tech
South Africa
University
Of Malasia
Olabisi
Onanbanjo
University
Ago Iwoye
University
Of Benin
University
Of Ibadan
University
Of Ibadan
Armada
Bello
University
Zaria
University
Of Lagos
University
Of Ibadan
University
Of Ibadan
University
Of Ibadan
University
Of Central
Lancanshire
Uk
Okayama
University
Japan
University
Of Ottawa
Canada
University
Of Ibadan
e
0,000
Technology
5,328,019
Art
Printing
4,668,500
And
Technology
5,000,000
Medica
l
2,208,020
Science
1,500,000
Science
1,500,000
Environmental 700,000
Engineering
Art
Printing
Art
Printing
And
And
700,000
1,050,000
1,050,000
Engineering
700,000
Science
700,000
Technology
700,000
Environmental 9,983,750
Engineering
9,250,380
Engineering
13,550,000
Art
And
Printing
700,000
Data here are present in figures: It includes the various completed and ongoing
project between 2008 and 2012.
Figure 1: Just completed new school of Science with several classrooms, laboratory and staff offices.
Figure 2: Completed 5 stories building named ETF building with several classrooms, lecture theater and staff
offices.
Figure 3: Completed EDP center, where students acquire knowledge practical knowledge on entrepreneurship
development
Figure 4: Just Completed multimillion Naira Computer Laboratory for Practical computer Training for
students and Staff
Figure 5: Ongoing multipurpose 12 stories building, first of it is type in the history of Nigeria polytechnics and
colleges of technology.
Figure 6: Completed foundry Laboratory, lecture rooms and staff offices; extension of school of
engineering.
Figure 7: Ongoing multipurpose stories building, with several classrooms, lecture theater and staff
offices.
Figures 1- 7, show the ongoing and completed infrastructure within Yaba college
of Technology between year 2008 and 2009. These projects illustrate the holistic
approach by the management of YCT to improve and upgrade the infrastructure within
the college based on the financial resource available and accessible. The buildings shown
in the figure are made up of classrooms, lecture theatre, offices, laboratory and
workshops, administrative offices etc. when all the project are completed it will help in
all ramification to provide conducive learning environment for both staff and students in
the college, increase the carrying capacity for the college i.e. more students shall be
admitted, and decongest the students populations in some classes and lecture room.
Results Analysis And Findings
From table 1, the analysis of the results indicated the population of the
prospective students increases year by year and more qualified prospective students are
been denied admission in our higher institutions of learning. This is due to non
availability of space and some other learning resources, where some of the resources are
available the number of students are more than it, thereby leading to over use of the
resources and this can affect teaching and learning negatively.
It was discovered that the current population of students in the college is more
compared to the available resources because as at the time of compiling this work, Yaba
College of technology has over 15,000 students population, 8 faculties, 34 academic
department which cut across ND, HND and post HND levels (M.K. Ladipo 2011).
Consequent to that; the available resources is currently been over utilized and this can
result to decline of quality of education at large. From table 2, we discovered that
management of Yaba College of technology through ETF (educational trust fund) have
spent sum of seventy-nine millions, eight hundred sixty eight thousand and eight hundred
eight one naira (79,868,881 million naira) for academic staff training and development
AS&D between 2008 and 2011.
We discovered that management of Yaba College of technology is also doing
everything possible in areas of physical infrastructures. The content of figures 1 – 7 is a
good testimony to this assertion. Meanwhile all this efforts been put together are not
enough to control the population of the students seeking for admission in our higher
institution, as a result there is urgent need for alternative means of teaching and learning
to accommodate more students in our schools so that literacy level in Nigeria will rise.
Based on the result and findings by the authors of this paper we then present the
model of e-learning system for decongestion of the student’s population in our higher
institutions of learning. If the proposed system is design an implemented, this will help
not only in decongesting the population of students but will also improve the quality of
education and made available human resources towards moving Nigeria forward.
Overview of Proposed Real-Time E-Learning System
The model of the proposed system by the authors of this research work is as
shown in figure 8. The proposed system work as follows:
The students (registered students) log in to the system with the username and
password generated when he/she registered as student through the college portal. If the
student is authenticated he/she can then proceed to use the e-learning system by taking
any of the following activities;
 View, download or printing of School calendar/time-table
 Access Yaba Tech Digital Library
 Online lectures/classroom
 Online exams for mid semester exams only
 Check his/her results
 Student forum (register club and society)
We proposed that the management of the college operate partial campus-based elearning system; in this case the students operate the same calendar with fully campus
based students. These categories of students start their own semester exam in their
various departments immediately the full campus-based students finish their own
semester exam and vacate the college on semester break. The reason for this is to make
sure that the online students are not ghost students, and for them to have interaction with
the college at large.
Recommendations And Conclusion
Recommendations
It is highly recommended that: Government should estatablished e-learning policy
that will be cost effective and easy to use by the citizens, should divert more fund on ICT
infrastructure, intensify effort to improve the state of electricity supply and training of
personnel so that e-learning will be more acceptable, convenient and durable in Nigeria,
government should harness the use of our satellites in space to improve the speed of
computer network to true broadband and citizens should brace up to understand the
positive impact of the e-learning policy, so that they can embrace it, for their own good.
L o g in to A c c e s s
e -le a rn in g s y s te m
T im e -T a b le
O n lin e
L e c tu re
S c h o ll T T
S chool
D ept TT
D ept
E xam T T
O n lin e e x a m
( o n ly fo r
C h e c k R e s u lt
c o u rs e w o rk)
L o g in
S e m e s te r
YCT DIGITAL LIBRARY
DISCUSSION FORUM
E xam
C o u rs e w o rk
A tte m p t
Q u e s tio n s
V irtu a l c la s s
ro o m
E n d L e c tu re
s u b m it
R e s u lt
c o u rs e w o rk
R e s u lt
S e m e s te r
Figure 8: The model of the proposed system
Conclusion
An e-learning system is a welcome idea in this modern day life, because the use
of ICT and computer based learning has become an established and popular alternative to
teaching learning, resources and development. It is then advisable for government at all
level to embrace this policy due to the population congestion in our public schools and
citizenry eagerness to acquiring degree in one discipline or others. This paper mentioned
some problems associated directly and indirectly to students population congestion in our
higher institutions of learning such as; Quality of graduates, Cultism and gangsters,
quality of research, ranking, stamped, indecent dressing etc. An e-learning system
Model was proposed which, if implemented in a proper manner, can engender a perfect
accessibility of education to all citizenry thereby result to high literacy rate in our country
Nigeria, and students can choose between campus based learning or e-learning system in
future, which will improve our educational system and reduce tension on our
infrastructure and human resources.
References:
Adebola, H.E. (2008). The Relevance and Consequences of Internet Browsing Among
Youths in Selected Tertiary Institutions in Nigeria. International Journal of Development
Studies. 6(1).
Borofield, R.A. and Akinyede, J.O. (2005). Space Technology and Development in
Africa and the Nigeria’s Experience. Abuja: Regent Printing and Publishing
Limited.
Fajana, F. (1999). The menace of secret cults on campuses. National Concord. Monday,
September 2000.
Guidelines for Admissions into Monotechnics, Polytechnics and Colleges of Education,
2010/2011: JAMB brochure.
Indecent Dressing On Campuses Of Higher Institutions Of Learning
http://projectstoc.com/read/97/indecent-dressing-on-campuses-of-higher-institutions-oflearning-in-nigeria-implications-for-counseling
Joint Admissions and Matriculation Board historical perspective:
(en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joint_Admissions_and_Matriculation_Board): retrieve March 13,
2012.
Joint Admissions and Matriculations Board (JAMB): Annual Reports, 2000.
Kerman, L. (2004). Convenience of Online Education Attracts Mid-career students.
Chronicle of Philanthropy. 16(6).
Ladipo M.K. (2011). Yaba College of Technology; Student Handbook, Oluabbey
Modern Press, Lagos Nigeria
Nigeria Leadership in Education:
http://www.nigeriatoday.com/basic_facts_about_nigeria.htm; retrieved April 9, 2012.
Tavangarian, D., Leypold M., Nolting K., Roser M.,(2004). E-learning the Solution for
Individual Learning Journal of e-learning, 2004.
NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF CHILDREN LESS THAN
FIVE YEAR OLD SUFFERING ANEMIA AND NIGHT
BLINDNESS IN KHARTOUM STATE, SUDAN
Samir Mohamed Ali Hassan Alredaisy
University of Khartoum, Faculty of Education, Omdurman, Sudan
Haram Omer El Hag Saeed
Ministry of Health, Gezira State, Rufaa Nutrition and Maternity Office, Sudan
Abstract
This work investigates nutritional status of children less than five year old
suffering anemia and night blindness in Khartoum State with particular emphasis to three
central children hospitals in Khartoum, Khartoum north and Omdurman. The sample size
was 138 children determined by 10% rate of prevalence of nutritional deficiency diseases
among children living in Khartoum State, and distributed proportionally according to the
number of children suffering these two diseases in each hospital. In addition, hemoglobin
and anthropometric measurements were done. Results depict that, physical symptoms of
anemia are loss of appetite (87.7%), paleness (93.5%), exhaust, and eating clay (29%),
while for night blindness they were xerophthalmia (20%); Pinot spots (52%);
karatomalacia (12%), and Cornea ulceration (4%). Acute malnutrition constituted 63% of
cases of children suffering anemia and night blindness. Children suffering anemia and
night blindness distributed among different age groups have very low percent of
hemoglobin concentration below 60% standard, confirming for prevalence of Iron
deficiency anemia. Malnutrition was highest among children aged 1-3 year old, and
females are less malnourished compared to males. There was low energy (calories), Iron
and Vitamin A levels of intake among these children. Some recommendations were
suggested to reduce anemia and night blindness among children in Khartoum State.
Keywords: Anemia, night blindness, malnutrition, Khartoum State
Introduction
Nutrition deficiency diseases are worldwide spreading. In Sudan, one child out of
ten dies before completing five years due to these diseases (UNICEF, 2008). Malnutrition
due to micro nutrients deficiency (hidden hunger) represents the most prevailing form of
nutrition deficiency diseases where more than two billions are suffering from it in the
world; in addition to more than 250,000 children are affected by night blindness every
year and more than half dies approximately (UNICEF, 2008). In Sudan, the estimated
rate of prevalence of hidden hunger is 4.8% while the rate of anemia (iron deficiency
anemia) for children less than five years old is about 55.1% (National Ministry of Health,
2008; World Health Organization, 2009). In Khartoum State, anemia due to Iron
deficiency is distributed as 76% in Khartoum town, 75.3% in Khartoum north town, and
23.9% in Omdurman town (National Ministry of Health, 2008; World Health
Organization, 2009). However, nutritional deficiency diseases as causes of death during
early childhood, have contributed by around 51% among overall causes of death during
this period (UNICEF, 2008).
Areas nutritionally insecure in Sudan include rural areas of low crop and animal
production; areas of low purchasing power and education and knowledge; and areas of
low access to health facilities, in addition to areas with low access to water especially
during dry season (Cambrez et al., 1998; FAO/WFP, 2006). Nutrition insecurity leads to
protein – energy malnutrition. Nutrition status is measured directly by dietary surveys,
biochemical data, and anthropometric and clinical examination methods. While food
adequacy is necessary for a household to achieve nutrition security, but it is not in itself
sufficient. This is because some other key contributors to good nutrition are also
important, such as poverty reduction, female education and a healthy environment.
This paper objects to investigate nutritional status of children less than five year
old suffering anemia and night blindness in Khartoum State and to propose some
recommendations to reduce their incidence.
Methodology
Data collection
The fieldwork took place in February 2009 through to February 2012 in central
pecialized children hospitals in each of the three towns, including Ga’far Bin Oaf
Hospital in Khartoum, Child Emergency Outpatient of Omdurman Hospital, and Ahmad
Grasim Hospital in Khartoum north. A questionnaire was designed to collect relevant
nutritional data of children suffering anemia and night blindness, as well clinical data on
symptoms of anaemia and night blindness. To estimate the sample size, based on that rate
of prevalence of nutritional deficiency diseases in Khartoum State which is 10%
(Khartoum State, Ministry of Health 2009), the following formula is used:n = sample size;
Z = 1.96; P = prevalence rate of nutritional deficiency
diseases; q = 1 – P; d = 0.05
The 10% prevalence rate of nutritional deficiency diseases in Khartoum State is
used to get q which gave 138 individuals, as follows:
=
= 138
To determine the share of each Hospital from this sample size, the equation of
distribution in proportion to size of population (children suffering nutritional deficiency
diseases) in each hospital is used, as follows:
Cases of malnutrition in Khartoum (15628) =
= 32%
Cases of malnutrition in Khartoum north (12602) =
Cases of malnutrition in Omdurman (20773) =
× 15628
× 12602
100
100
49003
49003
× 20773
100
49003
The total cases of malnutrition in Khartoum State = 49003
= 26%
= 42%
The share of each town (hospital) of the sample size is determined as:
3
Khartoum =
138 × 2
Khartoum north1= 2
= 44
= 36
Omdurman =
=58
00 138 × 6
1
42
138 × 00
10
0
Before conducting the fieldwork, anemia and night blindness were determined by
testing blood samples of the sick children which is executed by Technicians working in
each of the three hospitals, and by one of the authors. In addition, files of sick children
were used. Symptoms of anemia and night blindness were specified by Doctors during
their routine rounds in the hospital. Following that, the questionnaires were filled with
mothers of the sick children whom were chosen purposively. Hemoglobin measurement
was done by Colorimeter, by taking 20 micro millimeter of the blood of the 138 sick
children in a test tube, and 4 milliliter of Drabakin was added with 14.8 15 gram/deciliter
concentration and fully mixed, left for five minutes to be read by Colorimeter. This gave
that: Hemoglobin gm/Deciliter X 6.8 (constant factor) = Hemoglobin %
Anthropometric measurements are done using Salter’s scale to measure weight
versus age for all the 138 children to determine their nutritional status. The nutritional
status index of weight versus age is a quick and accurate method to determine the
nutritional status of children less than five year old.
The evaluation of the nutritional status of children less than five year old was
done using tables of estimation of rate for children less than five year old which is
published by World Health Organization. The most indexes used to measure body to
estimate nutritional status is weight for age index. Taking the measurement of weight is
easier compared to measuring height and enable for more precision. Therefore, this
measure is used into observing gradual growth in body volume and organs and helps into
detection of early malnutrition.
Food weight measurement was also done which weights for 3 kilograms
(electronic scale) to measure the amount of food consumed during the day. To determine
average of energy, protein, iron and Vitamin consumed relative to the size of the
household, children under study were divided into age groups including less than one
year, 1-3 years, and 4-6 years; and -1 year + 1-3 years, -1 year + 4-6 years, (1-3)+(4-6)
years and another age group including all age classes of 1 year + (1-3) + (4-6) years. This
classification facilitates comparison between food consumption according to age groups
of children less than five year old. Nutrients intake were calculated using food
composition tables for population in Sudan, provided by Sukar (1985). Conditions for
rejection included all children transferred from other States of Sudan hospitals during
fieldwork, and the study has restricted to those who live permanently in Khartoum State
during the time of fieldwork. The data was statistically analyzed to calculate frequencies,
percentages and Chi – square test.
The Study Area
Khartoum States consists of the three towns of Khartoum, Khartoum north and
Omdurman (Fig.1). Rate of population increase in Greater Khartoum was 4.92 in 1956,
7.76 in 1973, 8.75 in 1983, and 13.7 in 1993 (MFEP 1956–1993). The number of persons
per square kilometer was 55.6 persons in 1973, 85.5 in 1983 and 169 in 1993. In addition
Khartoum state accepted 39% of internal migration of the country in 1983 and 45% in
1993 (MFEP 1956 – 1993). This population increase is reflected in the expansion of
informal squatter areas (El Bushra, 1995) and consequently higher demand for public
services.
Fig.1. location of the three hospitals under study in Khartoum State
Results
Symptoms of anemia and night blindness
Physical symptoms of anemia are loss of appetite (87.7%), paleness (93.5%),
exhaust, eating clay (29%) and snow (2.9%). The symptoms of night blindness are night
blindness (12%); xerophthalmia (20%); Pinot spots (52%); karatomalacia (12%), and
Cornea ulceration (4%). Hemoglobin measurement for children suffering night blindness
(Table1) revealed that children aged 1-3 year old have less hemoglobin concentration
compared to those aged less than one year and 3-5 years old who have equal
concentration of hemoglobin. This means that children aged 1-3 year old suffers Iron
deficiency anemia compared to the two other two groups. This contrasts children
suffering anemia, where children aged 1-3 and 3-5 year old are almost have equal
concentration of hemoglobin which exceeds that for children aged less than one year old
who might differ significantly than the previous two age groups. This means that,
children -1 year old are more anemic compared to those aged 1-3, and 3-5 year old. The
general striking feature of distribution of night blindness and anemia among these three
age groups is that, each age group has acquired ⅓ of incidence of a disease and the
differences might be quite minor. The distribution of children suffering night blindness
by sex by percent of hemoglobin concentration (Table 1) depicts males to have higher
level than females, which is also applicable to anemia. However, the differences might
not be significant. Children suffering anemia and night blindness distributed among
different age groups have very low percent of hemoglobin concentration below 60%
standard, confirming for prevalence of Iron deficiency anemia.
Table 1: Hemoglobin range measurement (%) among children
suffering anemia and night blindness by age and by sex
Age / sex
Night
Anemia
blindness
freq
%
fre
%
uency
quency
-1 year
3
3
31
32.2
7
1-3years
3-5 years
Males
18
4
4.8
7
60
3
73
38.8
3
9
39.1
4
15
10.9
3
10
7.2
8
25
18.1
3.5
Female
53
8.4
Total
113
1.9
Anthropometric measurements
Table 2 depicts state of malnutrition as indicative by weight of children. Acute
malnutrition prevails with significant difference than the other three types of malnutrition
shown in the table. The difference between normal and simple types of malnutrition is
quite small. Acute malnutrition is a reflection of low nutritional status which makes
children vulnerable to childhood diseases. The distribution of rate of malnutrition by age
groups of these children suffering anemia and night blindness (Table 3), identified the
highest rate among those aged 1-3 year old, followed by -1 year old and lastly by those
aged 3-5 year old. This means that acute malnutrition remarkably prevails among
children aged 1-3 year old, and significantly differ than the other two age groups, and
furthermore, the difference between children aged -1 year old and children aged 3-5 year
old is more than doubled. The distribution of malnutrition by sex by age distinguishes
males first and then females. Females and males aged 1-3 year are most suffering.
However, females are generally less malnourished than males with difference of 8.6%
between them (Table 3).
Table 2: malnutrition among children less than 5 year old
in Khartoum State
Malnutritio
fr
%
n state
equency
Normal
11
8.0
simple
13
9.4
Medium
27
19.6
Acute
87
63.0
total
13
100.
8
0
A
ge / sex
-1 year
1-3years
3-5 years
Table 3: Malnutrition by sex by age
sex
total
Males
Females
frequency
%
frequency
frequency
%
%
1
1
2
18
16
34
3
1.6
4.6
3
3
6
47
43
90
4.1
1.2
5.3
7
2
1
10
4
14
.2
.9
0.1
total
5
75
4.3
4
63
5.7
1
138
00
Nutritional status of mothers during pregnancy and lactation
Table 4 depicts types of food intake during pregnancy and lactation. During
pregnancy, mothers used to consume vegetables, fruits, milk, cereals, meat, and legumes
abundantly. They also depend on porridge with sauce; salad and yogurt which are
connected with likes and dislikes of pregnant women. Lactating mothers largely depend
on vegetables, legumes, meat, cereals, milk, and fruits + sweet porridge which are
nutritionally valuable providing protein, energy, iron, minerals, and vitamins. There is
no noticeable difference in food types during pregnancy and lactation, except the
introduction of sweet porridge. Sweet porridge is a mixture of cereals, sugar, oil, and
ghee which activates producing much milk for lactating children. Traditional porridge is
made by boiling cereals (Dura or Dukhn), and usually taken with sauce or milk. Sauce is
a mixture of vegetables, meat, oil, and spices. In addition, cereals are fermented and
cooked to produce traditional bread (Kisra).
Table 5 depicts that, the majority of mothers did not take preventive or curative
doses of Vitamin A during pregnancy. This situation is somehow reversed concerning
Iron and Fevol. Folic acid recorded the worst position among these four protective
elements. This makes mothers and new born infants vulnerable to many childhood
diseases. However, this situation might be milder when putting into consideration that
61% of the mothers have been vaccinated, 32% partially vaccinated, and only 7% were
not vaccinated.
Table 4: types of foods during pregnancy and lactation (%)
Types of foods
Pregna
Lact
ncy (%)
ation (%)
Porridge with sauce
20.3
0.0
Salad
10.9
0.0
Salad with yogurt
9.4
0.0
Vegetables, legumes, meat, cereals, milk, and
56.4
18.1
fruits
Vegetables, legumes, meat, cereals, milk, and
fruits+ sweet porridge
total
0.0
81.9
100
100
Table 5: Preventive and curative elements taken during pregnancy among mothers
of children suffering anemia and night blindness in Khartoum State
Do you
take
these
elements
?
Yes
Vitamin A
preventive
Curative
frequen
frequ
%
cy
ency
Iron
Curative
%
freque
ncy
16
247
No
118
1.6
134
.9
118
8
5.5
total
41
4.1
891
5.5
others
Folic Acid
frequen
%
cy
Fevol
frequen
%
cy
23
292
.9
134
6
5.9
%
1
109
9
7.1
2
7
9.0
122
9
8138
138
1
138
1
7.1
8.4
00
00
00
Nutritional budget of children suffering anemia and night blindness
The majority of households depend on fathers (63.8%) for food provisioning,
while few households depend on mothers (10.1%), or relatives (26.1%). The majority of
the mothers (61.6%) perceive that breast feeding is important and prevents childhood
diseases, while some others (38.4%) ignore that. However, 97.1% of the mothers used to
breast feed their sick children after three days following their delivery. The average
period of breast feeding is eleven months. Mothers who did not breast feed their children;
have attributed that to death of a mother (25%), infection of mother with tuberculosis or
psychiatric diseases (50%), or the child being sick (25%).
During the early 6 months of a new born baby, 89.9% of the mothers used to
breast feed their children and give supplementary food, while few mothers (7.2%) depend
solely on breast feeding, and still very few mothers (2.9%) wholly depend on
supplementary food. During the second half of the first year of a child (6 - 12 months),
very few mothers (0.41%) depend on breast feeding as the main source of feeding their
children, while 87.7% of them combine breast feeding with supplementary food, and
10.9% give their children supplementary food only. This means that, the majority of
mothers did not change their behavioral pattern of feeding their children throughout the
first year of a child life. However, children prefer biscuits (14.3%), soft drinks (25.4%),
and chips (12.3%), juice (9.4%), cakes (5.8%), and sweets (8.6%) as supplementary food
types. This indicates to shift from traditional food types to read made food among urban
households. The majority of children (63.8%) take three meals a day, 21.9% take four
meals a day, 2.9% take more than four meals a day, and 11.6% take two meals a day.
More numbers of meals does not necessarily mean more amounts of food given to a child
as mothers have used to distribute a child meal within a day hours. The majority of the
households’ members shares the same dish (84.8%), or eats separately (15.2%).
Table 6 depicts average daily intake of energy, protein, iron, and vitamin A
among children suffering anemia and night blindness. From the table, children aged less
than one year old ranked first in energy intake compared to other two groups of 1-3, and
4-6 year old. Taking two age groups of children together, children aged -1 year old + 4 6 year old ranked first and followed by those aged -1 + 1- 3 year, with very small
difference between them. The general average intake of energy for the three age groups
reveals low energy (calories) intake among children aged less than five year old in
Khartoum State.
Taking daily protein intake by age group of these sick children, children aged less
than 1 year old ranked first, followed by 4-6 year old, and lastly 1- 3 year old. Taking
two age groups together, had ranked children aged -1 year old + 4-6 year old first, and
those aged -1 + 1- 3 year old second, while children aged 1-3 + 4-6 came lastly. The
general average intake of protein for the three age groups reveals low protein intake
1
among children aged less than five year old in Khartoum State. Moreover, ranking daily
intake of iron by age groups of these sick children puts children aged -1 year old first, 4-6
year second, and 1-3 year old last. There is slight difference in daily iron intake when two
age groups of children are taken together. This is more particular to children in the age
groups of -1 + 1- 3 and 1-3 + 4-6 year old. The general average of daily iron intake
depicts very low level among these children. This picture is also seen when daily intake
of Vitamin A is taken into consideration.
Average daily intake of energy, protein, iron, and vitamin A by age groups of
children suffering anemia and night blindness had identified children aged less than one
year as the most advantageous group compared to the other two groups. In addition, the
general average of each of these nutrients is far below the recommended level for
children to remain healthy in Arica and Sudan.
Table 6: average daily intake of energy, protein, iron, vitamin A
by age among children suffering anemia and night blindness
Age
groups
N
Energy
(calorie)
o.
- 51
1-3
1
4-6
1
0
53
11277.
7
Pro
tein (g)
326
8542.3
248
9756.6
279
06
-1
-1
+
6
1- 3
6
7
4-6
4
1
4-6
76
+
7
1-3 +4-6
6
+
1-3 +
-1
.5
.7
Iron
(milligram)
Vitamin
(microgram)
53.6
1239.7
40.0
858.0
45.7
979.7
25.7
534.4
26.5
638.9
22.7
462.8
17.5
366.4
A
.4
5476.0
155
.5
5484.3
159
.7
4900.6
140
3715.4
106
.0
.7
Table 7 depicts average hemoglobin measurement by age groups of children by
daily intake of animal and plant protein. Highest measurement of hemoglobin among
children aged less than one year old is coincided with highest levels of animal and plant
protein intake. This is similarly seen among children aged 4-6 year old. Taking two age
groups together had ranked children aged -1 + 4 - 6 year old first, and followed by
children aged -1 + 1-3 year old children, with very small difference between them.
Increasing hemoglobin is associated with increasing protein, confirming for better
nutritional status of these children. However, the general average of hemoglobin, as well
as the general average of both types of protein is far below the recommended levels for
children to remain healthy. The fact here is that, an increase in consumption of legumes
will reduce Iron absorption due to Fianite and Vitamin C which reduces blood
hemoglobin.
Table 7: average hemoglobin measurement (%) and daily intake of animal and plant
protein among children suffering anemia and night blindness by age groups
groups
Age
o.
-1
N
hem
oglobin
protein
Animal
protein
Plant
5
39.57
111.40
215.20
1
31.60
93.85
154.90
1
33.65
98.29
181.10
6
19.00
48.69
106.90
7
19.13
52.41
107.40
1
16.62
49.27
90.74
7
12.40
33.81
72.92
0
1-3
4-6
3
-1 + 1-
53
06
6
-1 + 4-6
4
1-3 + 46
76
-1 + 1-3
+4-6
6
Discussion
The investigation of nutritional status of children suffering anemia and night
blindness in Khartoum State suggests low hemoglobin rate; inadequate food intake and
prevalence of malnutrition by age and sex with major and minor differences. Males
suffering anemia and night blindness are more malnourished compared to females. This
agrees with the fact that, generally children suffer night blindness between second and
fifth year of childhood, with more emphasis to males than females, but differs concerning
anemia which prevails more between 6 to 8 months of a childhood, but with more
emphasis to males than females (Hassan et al., 2002). The high rate of hemoglobin
concentration among children aged less than 1 year old might be attributed to more care
given to a lactating mother in Sudanese culture which effectively supports neonatal
period and early childhood, where relatives could supply with nutritional food types such
as sweet porridge. Children aged 1-3 year old have less hemoglobin concentration and
suffers Iron deficiency anemia compared to the two other two groups. This might be
attributed to average short period of parities and to poverty which make the majority of
Sudanese to afford living costs in situations of accelerating financial inflation. However,
prevalence of breast feeding in the study area is attributed to the awareness of mothers to
its nutritional value to a newborn child, and to the inherited Islamic culture which
enhances mothers to breast feed their children for two complete years. It might be also
attributed to the fact the majority of urban households are incapable to purchase ready
made food for their children where 70 to 80% of urban population live below the poverty
line (Hamid, 2000), and also many of the mothers are mainly housewives who have
devoted themselves to child bearing. However, this is supported by the fact that, during
pregnancy and lactation, mothers used to consume vegetables, fruits, milk, cereals, meat,
and legumes abundantly compared to less amounts of these food types during lactation.
Prevalence of low weight and malnutrition among children less than 5 years old
in Khartoum State (Table 2) is almost similar to the 50 % cited by FAO and WFP for pre2001 studies for North Kordofan state (FAO/WFP, 2006). However, it was higher than
the most recent report Sudan household health survey of 42.9% (SHHA, 2006). The
result was also higher than all previous studies carried out in Sudan, although it is similar
to that by Al Jaloudi for children less than five years old living in poor urban Khartoum
state (Al Jaloudi, 2000). In addition, the difference in malnutrition is possibly due to
geographic reasons. In Khartoum State, squatter areas have expanded rapidly in recent
decades, occupied by poorest people who are generally facing inadequate food intake and
unhygienic residential environment (Alredaisy and Davies, 2003, Babiker and Alredaisy,
1997).
Comparing macronutrients daily intake in the study area (Table 6) with the study
by Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Sudan (FSU, 2005) puts the study area below
by that there are less protein, carbohydrates and lower energy intakes. There are less
animal protein; vitamins, minerals consumed and abundant cereal are consumed. In the
study area, fat and carbohydrates (calories) consumed were lower than the recommended
values (Katch, 1983) and for population in Africa which is 2041.7 calories (Latham,
1997). This study agrees with Mohammed's study in Al Shigla area in east Khartoum
State, which indicated to imbalanced intake of food types where legumes and cereals are
abundantly consumed while meat, fish and chickens are less consumed among surveyed
households (Mohamed, 1999). It also agrees with Ali's study in north state of Sudan
where cereals are the main source for poor households although cereals are deficient in
vitamin A, and 41% of the sample suffers vitamin A deficiency (Ali, 2005). Energy
obtained by higher protein and carbohydrates intakes was more than double the value
obtained by excess fat intake in this study (FSU, 2005). Cereals highly contribute to
energy and protein intake in the study area, a situation similar to rural Philippines where
361g/person/day are consumed there (Florentino, 1996). Animal protein sources such as
meat and milk provide less than the recommended value which is 55.3g (FSU, 2005).
Conclusion And Recommendations
The general conclusions of this study are as follows:
1- Children aged less than five year old living in Khartoum State are suffering
anemia and night blindness.
2- Malnutrition and underweight are prevalent in Khartoum State.
3- Promotion of community and child nutrition is a necessity in the study area.
Based on that, some suggestions could be presented. Firstly, breast feeding should
be enhanced from delivery up to six months of a child age, and should be accompanied
by supplementary feeding thereafter up to the completion of two years of a child age.
Secondly, more care should be devoted to qualitative and quantitative complementary
feeding. Thirdly, introduction of balance diets rich in vitamin A, and Iron when a child
completes six months of age, and during pregnancy and lactation is a necessity. Fourthly,
nutrition education should be introduced and enhanced among mothers to accept
knowledge about good child feeding. Fifthly, urban poor should be supported by
appropriate socioeconomic development programs to curb financial inflation which
adversely depriving this segment of the society.
References:
Al Jaloudi AE. 2000. Assessment of the nutritional status and household food security in
the poor urban areas in Khartoum state: case study ‘’Marzouk in Omdurman’’. Unpub.
PhD. Thesis, University of Khartoum, Sudan.
Ali, A.M. 2005. Vitamin A deficiency and nutritional status among basic schools
students in Dongola town. M Sc. University of Khartoum.
Alredaisy, S.M.A. and Davies, H.R.J. 2003. The ecology of malaria in urban squatters of
Greater Khartoum, Gamier area in Omdurman,’’ Arab World Geographer Journal, 6(3):
178-193, Canada.
Babiker A/Bagi A/Ghani and Alredaisy, S.M.A. 1997. Evaluation of food situation and
survival strategies in urban Sudan, case studies from Omdurman,’’ Bayreuther
Geowissenschaftliche Arbeiten, 16: 291-300. Germany.
Cambrez C, el Magboul b1. 1998. Food security and nutrition situation in north Sudan.
FAO/WFO Crop assessment mission for Sudan. Khartoum, Sudan.
El-Bushra, E-S. 1995. Two Million Squatter Settlements in Khartoum Urban Complex.
The Dilemma of Sudan National Capital” GeoJournal, Vol.34 #4.505-514.
FAO/WFP. 2006. Special report, crop and food supply. Assessment mission to Sudan, 8–
27/10/2005, FAO, Rome.
Florentino RF. 1996. Contribution of major food items on calorie and protein in takes in
Filipinos. Joint technical workshop of the micro impacts of macroeconomics adjustment
policies and the Philippine Institute of Development Studies technical resources project,
11-12/4/1996, Calatagen, Phillip.
FSU. 2005. Food security annual report. Food Security Unit, Ministry of Agriculture and
Forestry, Khartoum, Sudan.
Hamid, G.M. 2000. Local level authorities and local action in Greater Khartoum. The
Arab World Geographer 3:230-48.
Hassan, Samir and Hindi, H. 2002. Human Nutrition. First Edition, Alexandria, Egypt
(Arabic).
Katch F. 1983. In nutrition, weight control and exercise. 2 nd edition, Lea and Bebiger,
Philadelphia.
Latham, H.C. 1979. Human nutrition in tropical Africa. No.11. Rev.1. RAR. Rome.
Ithaca. USA.
Ministry of Finance & Economic Planning, MFEP 1956-1993: Population censuses of
Sudan 1956 – 1993, Khartoum, Sudan.
Mohammed, F. O. 1999. Iron deficiency anemia among children less than five year old in
Alshigla area, Khartoum State. M Sc. University of Khartoum.
National Ministry of Health, 2008. Guidelines for combating micronutrients deficiency.
National Ministry of Health, Khartoum (Arabic).
SHHA. 2006. Sudan household health survey. National report, Government of Sudan,
WFP/UNEFPA/WHO/USAID/UNICEF, Khartoum, Sudan.
Sukkar, M.Y. 1985. In human nutrition. Khartoum, Sudan.
UNICEF, 2008. Nutrition. WWW. Unicef org/Arabic.
World Health Organization, 2009. Guidelines for combating micronutrients deficiency.
WHO. Geneva.
E-LEARNING: A VERITABLE TOOL TO STEP UP
ACCESSIBILITY IN THE NIGERIAN EDUCATIONAL
SECTOR
Florence Imaobong Archibong
Chima Sabastine Ugwulashi
Department of Educational Management, University of Port Harcourt, Nigeria
Abstract
This paper addresses E-learning as a veritable tool to step up accessibility in the
Nigerian educational sector highlighting the concepts of ICT as a tool for improving
educational process, access and availability of ICT resources in Nigeria secondary
schools, e-learning technologies and sustainable development as well as e-learning/online
learning/distance learning. Also, challenges to e-learning in the Nigerian higher
education sector and benefits of e-learning in the Nigerian educational system were
treated. Since e-education facilitates teaching and learning, it is therefore suggested that a
comprehensive feasibility study be adopted by all stakeholders, there should be mass
computer literacy programmes, government should ensure the growth of ICT from
primary to tertiary institution, and the ICT teachers should be motivated through
incentives to enhance job satisfaction.
Keywords: E-learning, ICT, distance learning, online learning, Nigerian education
Introduction
Education in Nigeria is structured in three tiers: basic education, secondary
school education and tertiary education. Traditional basic education offered to children
between ages four and 14 in Nigeria consists of three years of early childcare and
development education, 6 years of primary education and three years of junior secondary.
Non-traditional/basic education includes educational outreach to nomadic and migrant
children, almaijiris and mass literacy intervention. Traditional basic education is followed
by three years of senior secondary school and then tertiary education. (Nwangwu,2012).
E-learning a sub-system within ICT is the electronic process which enhances the
delivering and administration of learning opportunities and support via computer,
networked and web-based technology to help individual performance and development.
The basic principle of e-learning is connectivity – the process by which computers are
networked to share information which can connect people. This is provided for by what
is often called the e-learning landscape or architecture, which refers to the hardware,
software and connectivity components required to facilitate learning. (Okure,2008 p
303).
The National Policy on Education (2004.17) places emphasis on the provision and
utilization of information and communication technology (ICT) when it states that “in
recognition of the prominent roles of information and communication technology in
advancing knowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning in the modern world,
there is urgent need to integrate information and communication technology (ICT) into
education in Nigeria”.
This paper therefore seeks to focus on e-learning as a veritable tool to step up
accessibility in the Nigerian educational sector.
ICT as a Tool for Improving Educational Process
Today, ICT is a very important tool for improving teaching and learning. It has
transformed the traditional method of teaching and learning where the teacher according
to Ike (2009) like “Master Bull Frog” dishes out information to the learners who listened
and watched. ICT has made teaching and learning very interactive, making the teacher to
be a facilitator while the students do the actual work.The use of ICT teaching tools like
computer, multimedia, projectors, interactive whiteboard (Smart Board), power point,
word processors, spreadsheets, databases, macromedia flash, hyperlink mark up language
(HTML), etc in preparing and delivering of lecture, one could imagine how lovely and
interactive the lecture class would be.
With the use of ICT facilities, students do not need lecturers/teachers for them to
learn as Opara (2003) opined that with the computer-based teaching, it becomes easy for
students to learn on their own and at their own pace. ICT has provided enough
instructional materials for all students and instructors in different areas of study. With
Computer Aided/Assisted Instructions (CAI), Computer Aided Learning (CAL), in this
area, students and other interested scholars can learn at their own time and pace. CAI are
information that help teach or encourage interaction which is presented on computers in
the form of text or multimedia formats, which include photographs, videos, animation,
speech, and music (Arnold, 2008). The guided drill and practice exercise which is a
computer program that poses questions to students, returns feedback and selects
additional questions based on the students’ responses is example of CAI. Recent guided
drill systems incorporate the principles of education in addition to subject matter
knowledge into the computer program. The dawn of internet has made provision for all
these tutorials available online.
Access and Availability of ICT Resources in Nigerian Secondary Schools
ICT resources in Nigerian secondary school is still grossly inadequate. Studies
carried out on secondary school science teachers by Aladejana revealed that the schools
lacked laptop, LCD projector, video recorder, talking books and floor robots. She said
4.0% of the sampled schools have an overhead projector, 4.0% have fixed line internet
access and that 5.67% of the teachers have personal computers majority used for
business and commercial purposes. She however submitted that classrooms are still very
much traditional without much influence on ICT.
The development of ICT-based initiatives in Nigeria was kicked-started in 2002
(Jegede 2002). ICT-based initiatives is to develop computer and technology literacy
through the introduction of computers in secondary schools similar to what has been
done in many other countries including Turkey Morocco and others. Concerted efforts
are on to improve the level of ICT infrastructure and accessibility. Education Tax Fund
and School Net Nigeria have projects in which there is a provision of shared internet
access for schools and communities. School Net Nigeria is an internet project for
teachers and technical training development at 35 rural sites. Education Tax Fund, private
sector, MOE, Telecom companies all worked together to start school net Nigeria.
Schools have been benefiting from series of aids and initiatives. Universal Service
Provision Fund (USPF) has really assisted in making provision for ICT resources in
secondary schools. A total of 109 primary and secondary schools have been selected as
beneficiaries of the first phase of the schools, University Access Programme to Digital
Life Style Project of the (USPF), an initiative of the Nigeria Communications
Commission (NCC). The project was to equip the benefiting schools with (ICT) tools
(Ndukwe 2008).
Conclusively the use of ICT in secondary school is still at the initial stage. The
school system still face a lot of challenges as far as availability of infrastructure is
concerned. Access to ICT is still met with constraints in terms of infrastructure, funding
and government little attention to its utilization.
E-learning Technologies and Sustainable Development in Nigeria
Okure (2008 p 306) posit that citizens of this country who have not been
privileged to attend the conventional University had demanded for higher education for
their job improvement. Among such are young married women who could not easily go
back to school with their tender children. E-learning facilities can offer opportunity for
them to still be nursing mothers at home and also acquire higher education.
In the light of this, Akukwe (2003) affirms that “with the invention of the
computer, the society gradually got transformed from an industrial society into an
information society whereby the collection, processing and distribution information
replaces the manufacturing of goods as primary source of wealth and work”.
Okoli (2007) asserts that ordinarily one would look at this statement with
suspicion, but that a careful consideration would reveal that nowadays information
services garners a lot of money which is wealth.The instance of the open university
makes the E-learning indispensable for this nation. The various gadgets can be utilized to
enable citizens benefit from the education provided by the open university. The number
of universities in the country has not been adequate to admit all the university aspirants.
Besides, the Nigeria University System has developed less rationally than anticipated.
The system had a good beginning from the colonial times and was effective up to
the late 1970s as an instrument for national development until its nature changed from
late 1980s owing to enrolment explosion. The total enrolment in the universities in 1980
was 73,425 but by 1990, this figure had risen to 180, 871 and by 2001 university
education because of the number of students then exceeded the available facilities while
the staff/students ratio increased beyond manageable proportions.
Poor staffing is another problem that undermines the issue of quality in National
University Commission (NUC). Statistics of 2000 showed a total of 18,328 academic
staff in universities to take care of 244,871 students (FME 2003 in Okure 2008). By NUC
staffing norms, a total of 33,951 should have been in the system at that time. This means
that there was a short fall of 15,718 (46%) in Nigerian universities in 2000. Academic
staff is the most crucial resources of all the resources required by the knowledge industry
of this nation. This intellectual resource entity which Nigeria is not able to sustain and
adequately preserve, constrains universities capacity to produce graduates who could be
self sustaining through engagements in viable vocation and entrepreneurship projects.
The E-learning technology is the answer for training the required staff to take care of
teachers hence institutions can produce skilled graduates to sustain the nation.
E-learning, Online Learning and Distance learning Environments
The origins of the term e-learning is not certain, although it is suggested that the
term most likely originated during the 1980s within the similar time frame of another
delivering mode online learning. While some authors explicitly define e-learning, others
imply a specific definition or view of e-learning in their article. In particular, Ellis (2004)
disagrees with authors like Nichols (2003) who define e- learning as strictly being
accessible using technological tools that are either web-based, web-distributed or webcapable. The belief that e-learning not only covers content and instructional methods
delivered via CD-ROM , the internet or an intranet (Benson et al. 2002; Clark, 2002) but
also includes audio and videotape, satellites broadcast and interactive TV is one held by
Ellis. Although technological characteristics are included in the definition of the term,
Tavangarian, Leypold, Nolting, Roser and Voigt (2004) as well as Triacca, Bolchine,
Botturi and Inversini (2004) felt that the technology being used was insufficient as a
descriptor. Tavangarian et al. (2004) included the constructivist theoretical model as a
framework for their definition by stating that e-learning is not only procedural but also
shows some transformation of an individual’s experience into the individual’s knowledge
through the knowledge construction process. Both Ellis(2004) and Triacca et al. (2004)
believed that some level of interactivity needs to be included to make the definition truly
applicable in describing the learning experience, even though Triacca et al. (2004) added
that e-learning was a type of online learning.
Online learning is described by most authors as access to learning experiences via
the use of some technology (Benson, 2002; Carliner, 2004; Conrad, 2002). Both Benson
(2002) and Conrad (2002) identify online learning as a more recent version of distance
learning which improves access to educational opportunities for learness described as
both nontraditional and disenfranchised. Other authors discuss not only the accessibility
of online learning but also its connectivity, flexibility and ability to promote varied
interactions (Ally, 2004; Hiltz & Turoff, 2005; Oblinger & Oblinger, 2005). Benson
(2002) makes a clear statement that online learning is a newer version or and improved
version of distance learning. These authors, like, many, believe that there is a relationship
between distance education or learning and online learning but appear unsure in their
own descriptive narratives.
Distance education is the most renowned descriptor used when referencing
distance learning. It often describes the effort of providing access to learning for those
who are geographically distant. The instructional delivery included an instructor who
was physically located in a different place from the learner, as well as possibly providing
the instruction at disparate times. Distance education uses emerging media and associated
experiences to produce distributed learning opportunities. Keegan (1996) suggested that
the term distance education is an “umbrella” term consisting of correspondence education
or correspondence study that may have once been synonymous used, being clearly
identified as a potential offspring of distance education.
The term then evolved to describe other forms of learning e.g online learning, elearning, technology, mediated learning, online collaborative learning, virtual learning,
web-based learning etc. (Conrad, 2006). Thus, the commonalities found in all the
definitions is that some form of instruction occurs between two parties (a learner and an
instructor), it is held at different times and/or places, and uses varying forms of
instructional materials (Moore, 2011).
Challenges to e-learning in the Nigerian Higher Education Sector
According to Infinedo (2007 p 49-51) the conceptual framework illustrated in
figure 1 is used to guide the discourse on the challenges facing the diffusion of e-learning
in the Nigerian higher education environment. It draws upon developmental reports of
notable bodies, including the G8 DOT Force, UN ICT Task Force and UNPAN. These
bodies have used a similar model or framework to describe the problems faced by
developing societies in spreading ICT-based initiatives.
In brief, the broad categories of factors believed to be hindering efforts of
developing societies in using ICT products for development include the following:
1.
Infrastructural problems, i.e. poor information and telecommunication
technologies facilities
2.
Institution problems; and
3.
Human capital problems, e.g. awareness problems.
In fact, UNPAN (2005) highlighted poverty, low levels of literacy, lack of
adequate infrastructure, the high cost of ICT services, lack of investments, poor
institutional structures, absence of international cooperation, and lack of security (in that
order) as the major barriers to achieving an information society in developing countries.
Human
capital
problems
- Poverty
- Low literacy levels
- Poor IT skills & technical
ability
Spread of elearning
in
the
Nigerian
higher
education sector
Infrastructura
Institutiona
l problems
l problems
- Poor internet access
- Organizational
& low bandwidth
problems
- High cost of ICT
- Resistance
services
- Awareness
Lack
of investments
Adapted
from: G8 DOT Force (6) and UNPAN (22)
problems
in ICT
Human Capital Problems
Poor
power
As previously indicated, Nigeria is poor and indebted. The dire economic
generation
situation for both the country and its population exacerbates their inability
to make use of
ICT products especially those related to educationally related initiatives. The cost of a
personal computer (PC) in Nigeria is six times the monthly wage of an average worker.
The cost of subscribing to a telephone line or owning one is beyond the reach of an
Figure The
1: challenges
confronting
the spread ofofinternet
E-learning
Nigerian
average citizen.
same is true
for the procurement
accessininthe
Nigeria;
Higher
Education
Sector
ordinary citizens find it difficult to own such services due to lack of financial resources.
It goes without saying that a lack of funding is a major problem to the Nigerian education
sector. As such, it is not uncommon to read how limited financial resources have stalled
some notable ICT-enabled initiatives in the Nigerian education sector.
Furthermore, Nigeria lacks qualified information technology (IT) professionals as
Nigerian universities do not graduate sufficient numbers of skilled IT professionals to
match its current ICT needs. Oyebisi and Agboola note that the highest enrollment in the
University for Science and Technology in Nigeria between 1991 and 1998 was 0.31 per
1000 and only 0.05 per 1000 students earned a postgraduate degree in the field. It is easy
to see how e-learning projects can suffer when skilled professionals are not readily
available.
Institutional problems
Effective organizational skills are needed to develop and deliver education using
ICT. One might be tempted to call the role of policy makers and administrators in the
education sector in Nigeria into question. Do they understand want it takes to initiate and
deliver education using ICT facilities? The reality is that functionaries in developing
countries lack the necessary expertise to manage new innovation, including the
implementation and delivery of ICT-enabled education. The report by the
Commonwealth of Learning International suggests that the administrators in the Nigerian
higher education sector are either unfamiliar with the use of ICT in education or
unwilling to change from the status quo.
Commenting on the barriers to distance education using ICT in Nigeria, MacIkemenjima notes “resistance to change from (the Nigerian) traditional pedagogical
methods to more innovative, technology based teaching and learning methods, by both
students and academics” as a major problem facing such initiatives in the country.
Similarly, Folorunso et al shows a lack of awareness regarding how e-learning can be
used by higher education students as a major setback.
Infrastructural Problems
As is the case with the rest of Africa, Nigeria’s internet access is poor. As of
2005, there were about 3 million internet users in a country of 140 million inhabitants –
this is less than 1% of the population. Only recently did a few countries in Africa procure
bandwidths greater than 10 million bps. Previously, many countries in Africa, including
Nigeria, had bandwidths between 64,000 bps and 256,000 bps due to high international
tariffs and lack of circuit capacity in the region. Investments in the telecommunications
sector used to be very low on the African continent, but it is encouraging to notice that
events are changing for the better. Computers and affordable internet access are two vital
facilities required for distance education and e-learning, but with such dire statistics for
countries like Nigeria on the Africa continent, it remains to be seen how progress can be
made by Nigerian higher education vis-à-vis implementing e-learning. Another major
infrastructural challenge in Nigeria concerns its inadequate power generation.
Benefits E- education in the Nigerian Educational System
Osuji (2004) asserts that the adoption of the e-education will ensure the Nigerian
education system the following benefits:

Enhanced Access to Quality Education: e-education has the potential for
reaching out to many learners and offering education whose quality is not
compromised.

Improvement in the Education Delivery System: ICT tools aid both teachers
and students in the teaching –learning process, self-learning capabilities of ICT
education will enhance mastery of school subject by Nigerian students. Teachers
in the Nigerian school system would equally be aided.

Optimal Utilization of Existing ICT Resources: A scan of the school system in
Nigeria will reveal packets of efforts at the local, state and federal levels at
implementing some form of ICT-enabled education delivery.

Ensuring a Global Competitive Education System: There is trend towards a
global adoption of e-education as a delivery system. In the near future, an
education system that does not proceed along the part will produce graduates that
are not globally competitive.

Reduction/Elimination of Social Vices: A number of vices that plague the
Nigerian educational system such as examination malpractice, cultism are caused
by a host of factors including poor academic preparation of students. Since eeducation has the potential of elevating students’ performance, and increasing
time, it will constitute to reducing the incidents of the vices and overtime, their
elimination. Pp 11-12.
Summary and Conclusion
This study bordered on e-learning as a veritable tool to step up accessibility in the
Nigerian educational sector. Related concepts were addressed like ICT as a tool for
improving educational process, access and availability of ICT resources in Nigerian
secondary schools, e-learning
technologies and sustainable development, elearning/online learning/distance learning, challenges to e-learning in the Nigerian
higher education sector and benefits of e-education in the Nigerian educational system.
The adoption of e-learning via ICT will lead to the wedlock between technology
and education. It will take distance out of education and enhance interactivity between
the learner and the teacher. Moreover, the division between open and distance education
institution and the traditional institution would be eliminated.
Suggestions

It is a well known fact that for e-education to succeed, lots of things have to be put
in place, among which are comprehensive feasibility study by all the stakeholders
to determine the level of awareness and preparedness for the take off of e-education
in the various educational sectors of Nigeria.

There must be mass computer literacy programmes and train the trainers workshops
must be organized at federal, state and local government levels to produce IT
profession and to train the would be trainees at the various levels of our education.

The administration has tried to help the country in terms of internet development,
but a lot till needs to be done. Government should work closely with internet
services providers (ISPs) to reduce cost of internet service. This is necessary if
Nigerians are to benefit fully from the present online learning of distance education
being practiced worldwide.

Government must provide a special programme of studies through distance learning
to take care of the educational needs of those that are qualified for university
education but could not be accommodated for lack of space in the existing tertiary
institution.

To demystify information and compunction technology in Nigerian educational
system, government must include ICT in secondary school curriculum and provide
all secondary school teachers with personal laptops which they themselves can help
to fund under an arrangement.

Provision of alternative power supply in view of the present poor power supply
situation in the country.

Making the use of ICT mandatory at all levels of Nigerian educational institution
through adequate financial provision for both human and material resources.

Ensure the growth of ICT from primary to tertiary education level through the
development of relevant ICT curricula for each level of education.

ICT software that would meet our local needs should be developed.

Encourage ICT teachers with appropriate incentives that will make them to be
dedicated, motivated and derived maximum job satisfaction.
References
Akukwe, A. (2003). Computer studies: An introduction. Owerri: Colon concepts ltd.
Aladejana, F. (n.d). The implications of ICT and NKS for science teaching wither
Nigeria.
Institute of Education, OAU Ile-ife, Nigeria. Retrieved April 6, 2012 from
www.google.com
Arnold, D.N. (2008). Microsoft (R) Encarta 2008 DVD.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on Education: NERDC Press.
Ifinedo, P. (2007). E-learning in the Nigerian higher education sector: opportunities and
challenges. Retrieved April 7, 2012 from www.ncsu.edu/aern/TA57.2/TA57.2 pdf
Ike, G.A. (2009). The use of information and communication technology (ICT) in
teaching and learning in school. A paper presented in a two-day seminar on ICT
and effective teaching as it relates to mission schools in Anglican Diocese of
Owerri teachers’ workshop, May 14, 2009.
Moore, J.L. (2001). Internet and higher education: e-learning, online learning and
distance learning environments. Are they the same? Retrieved April 6, 2012 from
https://scholar.vt.edu/access/.../e-learning %20 scott % 20 Midkiff.pdf
Ndukwe, E. (2008). School to benefit from Nigeria’s universal service provision fund
(USPF) The Loerie Awards.
Nwangwu, P. (2012). How to transform Nigerian education system (3). Retrieved April
6, 2012 from Odili.net/./501.html
Okoli, E.C. (2007). The place of the improved information and communication
technology in the management of Nigerian university education. NAEAP
publications.
Okure, S.J. (2008). Using e-learning (of ICT) technologies: towards sustainable
development in Nigeria. In Babalola, Akpa, Hauwa & Ayeni, (eds.): Managing
education for sustainable development in developing countries. Ibadan: Nigerian
Association for Educational Administration and Planning (NAEAP).
Opara, C.C. (2003). Genesis of computer science. Nigeria: Pradses Books & Press.
Osuji, F. (2004). Ministerial initiative on e-education for the Nigerian education system.
MODEL OF STRATEGIC PLANNING IN HIGH
EDUCATION
Miroslav Kuka
Jove Talevski
Faculty of Pedagogics in Bitola, Republic of Macedonia
Ksenija Jovanović
High School for Business and Industrial Management - Kruševac, Serbia
Abstract
The model describes five strategic planning processes of strategic management: preplanning, strategic planning, finalization, implementation, measurement and evaluation.
This model can also be used for strategic planning and high school. An important feature
of planning in this case should be its market orientation. Planning involves the
preparation of decisions about what to do in the future, in fact, this means "making
tomorrow's decisions today." Control is the process that ensures that the actions are
carried out in accordance with the plan.
Keywords: Strategic planning, market orientation, control.
Introduction
Developed societies are societies that learn. We are talking about social organizations
which are based on knowledge and in which education and learning have the status of
basic instruments in the overall development of a society. Heinz concluded at the end of
the twentieth century (Heinz, 1995): “What we think or believe in, after all, has little
importance. The only valid thing is…what we do.” The notion of strategic management
is based on the definition of “strategic planning”, where although “planning” is a prelude
for strategic management, it is not itself enough unless it is followed by the preparation
and implementation of the plan, as well as the evaluation of the plan in action. In our
example, we are going to hypothetically present the model of the educational institution
X, where the implementation of the strategic plan is developed as part of the project
financed by UNESCO CEPES. This model established a level of quality in education
which all the members that have joined or are planning to join the Bologna Process
should reach.
Model of Strategic Planning and Analysis of The Environment
The model describes five processes of strategic management: pre-planning, strategic
planning, finalization, implementation, measurement and evaluation. This model can also
be used for strategic planning within the model of the educational institution X. Namely,
strategic management overcomes the development of a strategic plan that included
processes of pre-planning and strategic planning. Strategic management is the
finalization and implementation of the strategic plan, as well as the measurement and
evaluation of the results. The finalization of the plan includes the completion of the plan
and its disclosure to all employees. Implementation includes the identification of
resources for the plan, putting it into practice and managing its realization. Measurement
and evaluation consist not only of monitoring the measures of implementation, but also,
more importantly, of the assessment of how the organization changes as a result of those
measures, as well as the use of that information to update the plan – “communication is
the transfer of experiential activities through signs, whether they are symbols, signals or
their combination” (Kuka & Jovanović, 2011:9). An important feature of planning in this
case also should be its market orientation. This practically means that High school for
brokers should have the right kind of service, in the right place at the right time and
enable the customer to be aware of the existence of such a service. In strategic planning
especially important is consistent interaction of socio-social environment as an open
system. In order to effectively perform the analysis, managers should know well the
organizational structure of the environment. The three levels of environment are
observed: 1. general environment; 2. operational environment; and 3. internal
environment. Managers need to understand how each of these three levels influences the
results, in this case the model of the educational institution X, and in accordance with
that formulate strategies for the educational organization.
Internal Planning Structure of High School
The internal planning structure of the educational institution X should function on
different levels within the institution X. It will permeate everything, acting on every area
of activity and influencing every student and every employee. Just as in business, the
planning structure in education can also be divided into three levels: 1. Strategic plan
referring to the period from 5 – 20 years; 2. Business or commercial plan referring to the
period from 3 – 5 years; and 3. Hoshin or operational plan referring to the period of one
year. Planning involves the preparation of decisions about what to do in the future, in
fact, this means “making tomorrow’s decisions today” (Kuka & Jovanović, 2011:31).
Vision, Customers, Mission and Strategic Priorities
Vision defines where the organization wants to be in ten or twenty years. It gives the
answers to the following questions: What does the organization want to be? What are the
future products? What are the future markets? How to satisfy the demands of interest
groups? What is the role of top managers in defining the organization’s vision? Vision is
actually the idealized view of where the organization wants to be and how it wishes to
look in the future. Frequently asked question is: Who is our customer? It seems that the
answer is simple. Unfortunately, that is not the case. This is easy to prove with the
question: “Who is the customer of education in the fourth grade of elementary school?” –
Pupils in that grade, the fifth grade, secondary school, faculty, parents, future employers,
etc. That also applies to the question: “Who is the customer of services of the educational
institution X?” – “The customer” is not the manufacturer of the product or service. The
closest view is that the end user is the employer (customer) for which the immediate
customer, namely the student, will work. An increasing number of educational profiles in
the market supply and demand causes necessary sociological (in this case educational)
decadence that is “the expression of needs for forms not established in the content”
(Kuka & Jovanović, 2011:23). The mission needs to answer the question: “What should
the organization do to justify the reason of its existence?” Three elements are mainly
included, which are usually marked as a “thought triad”: what we do (products, services,
functions), for who we do it (customers, end users) and how we do it (processes). There
are several sources that can help us determine our mission, starting from the particular
missions of organizational parts, current demands, to our strategy or long-term plan.
Effective strategic planning is a continuous process that requires constant re-evaluation
of needs, resources and operational environment. If there is no strategic plan, the
educational institution X should make an assessment through self-assessment. A detailed
self-assessment can identify strategic priorities.
Conclusion
From many years of direct experience, certain knowledge has been systematized
which defined certain beliefs, given in a three-level gradation: 1. If you resist the change,
you will follow the path to extinction; 2. If you follow the change, you will be able to
adapt, but not to grow; and 3. If you create the change, you will be the leader everybody
else has to follow. The following example is realistic and very useful: Dinosaurs lived
millions of years ago and are now extinct, because they could not adjust to the change.
Crocodiles have adjusted to the change and they survived. There are some dinosaurs that
roam the parks of educational (and not only educational) organizations of the twenty-first
century. In order for the educational institution X or the entire educationally institutional
system not to experience the fate of dinosaurs it is necessary to “take destiny in their own
hands” and plan their own future. Rapid changes in the world have increased the fear of
the future and that is why modern societies already worry about future generations and
orient themselves to education looking for new solutions. The awareness of the need for
the reform of education must be built on this journey. The education must restore values
of open society and equal opportunities, human dignity, tolerance, equality before the
law, democracy and responsibility towards society, but also the responsibility of society
for education. The need for education is certainly not exclusively determined by
economic reasons, as it is certain that with the development of society the need for
education increases. The shift must be made from the uncontrolled greed for money to
moral values and we must return to the orientation towards the common good. There are
going to be some obstacles on that journey for sure, but the challenge is so great that it is
difficult to imagine that these obstacles could stop the movement forward, because it
primarily refers to the education of future generations.
References:
Drucker P., Long Range Planning, Management Science, April, 1959.
Karavidić S., Čukanović-Karavidić M., Ekonomika i finansijski menadžment u
obrazovanju, Fakultet organizacionih nauka, Beograd, 2008., str.135-138
Kuka M., Jovanović K., Komunikacija i menadžment, VOVA, Beograd, 2011.
www.kuka-grosmeister.com- COMMERCIAL CATALOGUE OF BOOKS, Book No. 59
Kuka M., Živković V., I Drugi, Redefinisanost Strukture Obrazovnog Sistema Republiuke
Srbije, Visoka Škola Za Obrazovanje Vaspitača, Aleksinac, 2009.
Jovanović K., Petrovski D., Vučković D., Poslovno Planiranje Visokog Obrazovanja, V
MEĐUNARODNE INTERDISCIPLINARNE STRUČNO-NAUČNE KONFERENCIJE
“VASPITNO OBRAZOVNI I SPORTSKI HORIZONTI”, Subotica, 11 - 12. 5.
Jovanović K., Petrovski D., Kolondžovski B., Pavlović D., Strategic Management
Approach To Education,
IV INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC AND EXPERT
CONFERENCE EDUCATION FOR THE FUTURE, Zenica, 24. - 25. 05. 2012.
Young A., The Management Handbook, The Practical Guide To Successful Management,
Sphere Preference, London, Sydney, 1989
THE INFLUENCE OF INFORMATION AND
COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGIES (ICTS) ON
PARENTS/ ADOLESCENTS RELATIONSHIP
Ahiauzu, Levi Uche and Odili, Samuel Otunuya
Department of Accounting Education
Federal College Of Education (Technical)
P.M.B 11, Omoku
Rivers State - Nigeria
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to examine the influence of ICTs on parents/Adolescents
relationships among staff families of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku.
The objective of this study include to find out ways in which ICTs influence
parents/adolescents relationships among academic staff families of Federal College of
Education Technical Omoku, to explore into the nature of social interactions that exist
between the parents and adolescent In the context of ICTs use, and also to examine the
ways the parents relates with their children in respect of ICTs use. This study adopted
survey design and selected a sample population of 30 participants from the staff families
of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku using purposive sampling technique.
The data obtained were analyzed with weighted mean, the results show that the
adolescents’ use of ICTs do not foster social pathology among them or hamper good
parents/adolescents relationships, though the parents are to be concerned with their
children's ICTs based activities. The influence of ICTs on parents/adolescents
relationship is a function of the level of the knowledge and use of technologies by both
them, Adolescents ICTs use does not necessarily cause relational difficulties with parents
nor lead to social pathology, nevertheless the parents should emphasize the need for new
media literacy among the adolescents in this ever changing new media environment that
characterize the knowledge-based economy.
Keywords: Parents,Adolescents, Society, Staff, Relationship
INTRODUCTION
It is expected that people will experience changes in society during their lifetime,
some of these might be rival, others subtle and difficult to grasp, whilst some changes
are very dramatic in nature, very often these changes originate in technological
development that get introduced into society. At present, society at large is amid an
explosion of information and communication technologies that are neither rival nor
subtle. This development has introduced what seems to be an almost unlimited way or
new ways in which to communicate together and disseminate information, and to use
these technologies for entertainment.
This "digital revolution", according to Walsh (2000, p-69) began with the
introduction of the computer, and eventually led to a situation where all satellite and
telecommunications
and
digitization
processes
are
controlled
by
the computer. Initially, the concept new information and communication technologies'
was used to encompass all these technologies. Since then a more simplistic concept,
Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) was introduced. It can be
speculated that this was necessitated by the convergence of media technologies
(Montgomery, 2000).
In a related sense Young (2002, P.I) states that the "convergence of
microelectronics, communication and computing technologies has given rise to new
information systems, which have the ability to manipulate information
rapidly in a number of ways and deliver it with an incredible speed at very low cost".
This manipulative attribute of the new information systems has not only given rise to new
categories of communications services but also made it possible for information to travel
at nearly the speed of light. We are, therefore in a global market of information where the
flow of information no longer respects national boundaries (Ukonu, 2006: P. 96).
The attended changes in the sphere of information and communications process
occasioned by rapidly evolving new technologies are by no means peripheral to the daily
lives of people (Klein rock, 2004: P.193). The common use of terminology such as GSM,
e-mail, Internet cafe's surfing the net, cyberspace and global village are indicative of how
entrenched ICTs have become in today's society. Ifeagwali (2005: P. 222) notes that "the
new communication technologies continue to advance rapidly and are impacting on lives
and situations of the people across the globe in an increasingly meaningful way". This
development patterns lifestyles of people significantly across all social strata; more
importantly, family interactions and relationships have come under the enormous
influence of the new media environment.
Leiand and colleagues (1999) argue that the digital technologies of
today are isolating parents more deeply from their children than even before.
ICTs have no traces behind for parents to know what their children are
engaging with, and thereby lessen the opportunity for reality checks from
parents. Some families have obtained some of these technologies for personal and have
access to Internet facilities both at home and in workplaces. In some families there are
rules about when and for how long some of the available ICTs like computer, video
game, Internet can be used, though some do not. In some cases. Internet surfing or
computer use is an individual activity, in other forms; the computer is placed in the living
room or in some other central spot, so that it becomes part of the general family
activities.
In Nigeria, many of the higher institutions of learning have adopted Computing
and Internet technologies, which are accessible to all in the campus. Some of the new
technologies like (Computers and Internet facilities) are provided by the institutions
and/or by commercial providers. Even some tie staff have these technologies at home for
private use because the pervasive penetration and diffusion of the technologies in society.
Unavoidably, some parents have become connected to the Internet because of its
importance; particularly as they realized that the information and communication services
available through the facility can allow them to be in constant contact with their children
and grand children who do not live in the immediate vicinity. On the other hand, there are
also tales of families being severally disrupted by the Internet addiction of one of the
parents or children.
The question remains: What happens when ICTs are introduced into
the home? Do they bolster or impede interactions among family members?
Do they help in keeping families together or tire them apart? Does the influence of ICTs
depend on the user and the use? To this extent, this paper examined the impact of ICTs
on parents/ adolescents relations among staff families of Federal College of Education
Technical Omoku, in the school, there are Internet and Computing facilities available for
use by the staff and the students through subscription. Also there are commercial cyber
centers in and around the campus and in the town, which have increased the availability
and accessibility of the technologies to people in the school.
The Problem
The family traditionally has been the primary socializes of children, with its
Role amplified and extended by the school, the church, mosque or temple, and the
larger community. These days, there is another powerful player on the socialization
science-new information and communications technologies.
In today's world, children spend an average of three hours daily in front of the
screen, that is, at least 50% of their time is spent more with the new media than with any
other out-of-school activity including: Homework, being with family or friends, and/or
reading (Moscovitch, 2007). Through these media interactions, children are exposed to a
staggering amount entertainment and being familiar about how to achieve success in life,
about who has power or not, about violence Internet relations and what constitutes
the good life. The new media provides children with the satisfaction of being in the
know, of going behind the scenes and of learning about the world and
about people.
An example that illustrates this very clearly is a study carried out by
Davie, et al., (2004) on adolescents' use of cell phones in which he found that teenagers'
use
the
technology
(cell
phone)
to
establish
and
maintain
relationships outside of their parents' control parents may limit their children's use of cell
phones with the amount of airtime they are willing to try but the children can interact
with whom they want and where they want, without parents over hearing their
conversations. Establishing relationships outside parental control, however, is not a
unique phenomenon that applies only to the youth, of today, what is unique about the
"net generation, according to weight, (2001, P. 37) is that ICTs increase the opportunities
for children to socialize without parental knowledge.
Additionally, there is the possibility that the ease and enthusiasm with
which children engage with ICTs may surpass their parents' enthusiasm and
capacity to adapt to this new environment (Bersonard & Berson, 2003) when
children become the more techno-literate members in a household it may
disrupt the guiding role of the parents (Stahl and Fritz, 2002). Although Roe
(2000) was more cautious in his assessment of the impact of ICTs on the
family structure, he agreed that the family dynamics in a home may change
due to the introduction of new technologies. The possibility that children's use of ICTs
impacts on their relationships with their parents' commands research on this issue.
Researchers claim that few studies have explored what these
technologies mean for children (Hinn, Leader and Bruce, 2001; Robberts,
200q; Sulranta, 2003). Besides, Prezza et al. (2004) claim that few studies
have been done on psycho-social consequences of cell phone use among
children in today's world.
Therefore, the problem this study seeks to unravel is the various ways
in which ICTs impact parents-children relationship among staff families of
Federal College of Education Technical Omoku.
Purpose of the Study
This study explored the impact of ICTs on parents/adolescents relationships of
staff families of Federal College of Education Technical Omoku Obtaining information
from the adolescents on the nature of their parents' actions and reactions with them when
they engage with any ICTs can provide insight on how ICTs influence
parents/adolescents relationships. The specific objectives include:
1. To find out ways in which ICTs influence parents/adolescents relationships
among academic staff families of Federal College of education Technical Omoku.
2. To explore into the nature of social interactions that exist between the
parents and their adolescent children in the context of ICTs use;
3. To examine the ways the parents relate with their children in respect of ICTs use.
4. To make some useful recommendations that will foster healthy
relationships between parents and their children in the context of ICTs
use.
Scope of the study
This study focused essentially on these ICTs: Cable TV, Internet, Computer
and Cell phones. Studies on the social impacts of ICTs in the family were
reviewed; this study is delimited to adolescent children of the academic staff families of
Federal College of Education Technical Omoku.
Research Questions
Based on the problem stated, the following questions are formulated to guide the
study.
1. In What ways does ICT influence parents/adolescents relationships among
academic
staff
families
of
Federal
College
of
education,
Technical Omoku?
2. What is the nature of social interactions that exist between the parents
and their adolescent children in the context of ICTs use?
3. How do parents relate with their children in respect of ICTs use?
Review of Related Literature
Much of the research in this field focuses on whether these technologies are
beneficial or harmful to the well being of its users, resulting in a binary
determinism amongst researchers (casast ai, 2001 p. 24). There are three
discernable proponents in this debate; those who have doom and gloom
perspective, those who are accentuating the positives of these technologies,
and a middle ground claiming no easy judgment can be passed on the impact
of ICTs. What follows is an overview of the arguments posed by the "Utopias" and
"dystopias" (Suoranta, 2003, p.4) as well as by those who are more cautious in their
conclusions on the influence of ICTs.
The 'Dystopias'
A contracting effect of ICTs is that whilst offering instant and multiple ways to
interact with others, the very same technology can also deny the basic need for .face to
face contact and human touch. People can set up their offices at home and conduct their
business online without having to interact with others in person. It is also possible to do
shopping and banking via the Internet, thereby lessening the opportunities to socialize
with others in a more conventional way.
In a dramatic analogy Cole and Cole (1998) compare this scenario with the
solitary confinement of a prisoner. They argue that it is a basic need for human beings to
have regular face to face contact with others, and that ICTs are preventing people from
satisfying this need. Their analogy may be an overstatement but the fact remains that the
facilities offered by ICTs have supplemented, and at times substituted, conventional ways
of relating in- person with others. Those who have a negative view of ICTs argue that
people are being isolated from one another despite the abundance of ways to interact
through ICTs, and that this is detrimental to their psychological well being (Kraut, et al,
1998).
There is also a concern that "N-geners", TapscoH's description of the
youth that are growing up in a digital world of computerized technology
(Aphek, 2003, p. 4), will substitute in-person socialization with their peers
with online activities, related to people increasing interacting with others in
the absence of physical proximity, are the findings of a study in Japan where
cell-phone communication between parents and children was explored. For
the participants, the meaning of 'being available' was equated with 'being at
home, leading the researchers of conclude that the parent-child relationship is rendered
placeless through the use of cell phones (Minoura in Suoranta,
2003). In a social commentary on adolescents of today. Bean and Moni
(2003) see the fluid space created by the Internet as disrupting a fixed sense
of place for children that can spill over to their inner world.
The strongest argument posed by the dystopia is that exposure to
indecent material, such as excessive violence, hate speech and explicit sex,
correlate positively with anti-social behavior. This also pertains to children's
use of cell phones. The host of filtering services that are available to
safeguard children on the Internet is further proof of this concern. Postman in Aphek
(2003, p. 2) argues this to the extent where he concludes that the
traditional lines between childhood and adulthood are being blurred by
children's easy access to the 'secrets of the adult world'. It has been indicated
earlier that parents do not meet children's enthusiasm for ICTs as
entertainment and socializing tools (Berson and Berson, 2003; Casas et al, 2001;
September and Savahl, 2002). This may lead to a situation where the
socialization of children is increasingly facilitated by new technologies without parental
guidance.
In a study conducted by Stahl and Fritz (2002) only 100/0 of seven to
twelfth graders reported that their parents supervise their visit to chat room
or Websites. This view is confirmed by the previously mentioned South African study in
which
the
researchers
concluded
met
parents
influences
over
children's interaction with ICTs is "negligle" (Savahl and September, 2004
Considering the possible negative aspects of these technologies and
parent's reluctance to act as agents that will guide children in this digital
environment, it is no surprise that some researchers will have a 'doom and
gloom' attitude towards ICTs.
The 'Utopias
These researchers revel in the opportunities that ICTs offer to children.
According to the Utopias, computerized technologies satisfy children's natural curiosity
and also stimulate their creativity (8ackgham in Suoranta, 2003). They accentuate that
ICTs are opening up new horizons of information for children and are a 'library of
libraries' (8iocca, 2000, p. 24). Other researchers have seen the Internet as a "mega
publishing house" (Aphek, 2003, p. 5) because of the opportunities that children have to
voice their opinions through the many websites on the Internet.
The sense of empowerment and autonomy offered by the ICTs to children can be
explained by examining what the different technologies have to offer to the youth.
Owing a cell phone permits children to acquire adult status (Prezza et al;
2004) because teenagers are less dependent on their parents to interact with
their peers.
With computers and the Internet technologies, the sense of autonomy
that adolescents experiences, results from having access to information that is often not
regulated by parents, and from acquiring computer related skills
(Kline and Botterili, 2001, Izenberg and Lieberman, 1998). This is evident in a
study on young Canadians in a wired world (Environics, 2001), which found that 47% of
these tens claim that they have learned to use the internet by experimenting on their own.
Thus, mastering information and communication technologies can be conducive to
adolescent's sense of achievement and autonomy.
Tyier (2002) contends that Internet use does not foster pathology but is merely a
new way of doing the same activities in which children used to
engage. It is argued that outline relationships can help people to overcome
their initial anxieties to engage in face to face meeting (Tyier, 2002) and may offer social
support for teens with problematic relationship (Wblak, Mitchell & Finkehor, 2003).
Addressing the concern that online communications can lead to sensory and social
deprivation (Cole and Cole, 1998), some researchers found that it would be unusual for
relationships, which were established online, to remain electronic in nature (Tyier,
2002).This implies that people still engage in face to face interaction with one another,
and online communication is used to strengthen offline relationships and ICTs are merely
offering additional ways to maintain these relationships (Gross et al, 2002 & Krout et al,
2002).
Those who are optimistic about the benefits of ICTs argue that moral
panics about the effects of these technologies are merely blocking the
enhancement of the benefits offered by technology (Walton and Jansen, 2003).
The 'Middle ground
A middle ground in these two opposing ends of the debate on the influence of
ICTs points to a balanced approach towards these technologies that denies an 'either/or
judgment on the possible effects of lCTs on the user.'
Weinrock (2004) discusses the pros and cons of new technologies at
great length. According to his analysis, the development that brought many
benefit for its users, have at the same time opened the backdoor for the
darker side to enter. Montgomery (2000) also claims that the digital culture of today
holds both promises and perils for the youth. It is instructive to note
that any discussion on the possible effects of these technologies should be
accompanied by qualification of the context and modality of use as well as a
description of the user's characteristics.
The point of departure is the acknowledgment that technology in itself
carries no meaning (De Ber, 1998) but that the user constructs the
significance thereof. Research conducted by Wolak and Colleagues (2003) into
adolescent's online relationship illustrate this clearly. They found that teens (both
gender) who experienced serious conflict with their parents and had high levels of
personal problems, such as peer victimization and delinquency, were prone to form close
online relationships. In contradiction to the 19% of the teens who did not experience
serious personal problems engaged in such relationship via ICTs. It was also reported that
he less vulnerable participants had a sound social support network offline, and discussed
their online relationships with those people rendering them less vulnerable for
exploitation.
In assessing whether adolescent's engagement with ICTs is harmful or
beneficial in respect of, parent-child relationships, it is necessary that the
social context and development stage of the user be taken into (Gross et ai,
2002). Gross et al (2003) found that adolescent's online communications were to a large
degree only an extension of their off-line relationships; the internet is but another tool in
their communication.
The conclusion drawn from these two studies is that it cannot be assumed that
everyone who engages in online relationships will automatically establish a close online
relationship through digital communications (Gross et al, 2002; Wolak. et al, 2003). If
close relationships develop, it may be harmful for the more vulnerable segment of wars
that for others it may have the opposite effect. The youth that engage in online
relationships is extremely diverse and that makes it almost impossible to generalize
research results (Wolak et al, 2003)
Tyier (2002) supports this evaluation of digital technologies. According
to his research findings, people change technology to satisfy their
psychological needs rather than technologies shaping these needs, and that
the social impact of these technologies depends on the social context in which they are
utilized. This resonates with a study Selnyn, Gorrad and Furong (2003) who found that
adult's use of ICTs is patterned according to long term, pre-existing socio-economic
factors. The conclusion is that those are more affluent and explored to lCTs in their work
will be more adaptive to the digital landscape in their personal lives.
The difficulty that researchers have in unraveling the impact of ICTs is
summarized in the two longitudinal studies by Kraut and colleagues in 1998
and 2002. If using the Internet for online communications was found to be
associated with symptoms of depression and social withdrawal, it becomes
difficult to explain why the research yielded contradictory results. From these studies and
others
that
were
found
to
report
contradictory
results
of
the
possible impact of lCTs it can be conceded that there is no simple main effect that lCTs
have on the average person (McKenna & Bargh in Tyier, 2002).This should caution
researchers from a hasty generalization of their findings.
Turkle (1996) captured the ambiguous nature of the influence of ICTs
when she describes the Internet as a Rorschach test where it is the user that
determines the meaning of the technology. It has been indicated in the
literature that with vulnerable youth, for example those who experience
problematic relationships with their parents, the use of these technologies
might be harmful. This means that it is not necessarily the technology in itself that can be
problematic,
but
rather
the
social
context
that
determines
its
impact.
In exploring the impact of ICTs on parent-adolescent relationships the
existing context of their relationship will be an important contributor. The
impact will also be affected by the 'how' and 'what' of teenagers' engagement
with ICTs.
Methodology
The research design adopted in this study was exploratory. Exploratory study is
deemed appropriate when the research is conducted in a relatively
unknown field. The literature review indicated that there is a paucity of
information on this study in Nigeria, An exploratory research design does not aim to
provide detailed and replicable data, but is a preliminary investigation of the topic at
hand (Bobbie & Mouton, 2001) The population of this study consisted of all the
adolescent children of the academic staff of the college that are living with their parents,
whose age range is between the ages of 12 and 14 years with a mean age of 13 years.
Out of the population, 30 adolescents from the staff families were selected
using purposive sampling method. This is in line with established research
practice where the researcher is looking for participants with particular
characteristics, in this case the age group who share a common interest (Kelly, 1999)
which is lCTs use. The meaning of the technology It has been
indicated in the literature that with vulnerable youth, for example those who
experience problematic relationships with their parents, the use of these
technologies might be harmful. This means that it is not necessarily the
technology in itself that can be problematic, but rather the social context that
determines its impact.
In exploring the impact of ICTs on parent-adolescent relationships the existing
context of their relationship will be an important contributor. The impact will also be
affected by the 'how' and 'what' of teenagers' engagement with ICTs.
This study is located in the Federal College of Education, (Technical) Omoku,.
Data for the study were obtained through structured questionnaire designed with four
point Likert rating scale with a criterion mean of 2.5 together with interpersonal
interviews and the outcomes were analyzed using frequency percentages and weighted
mean.
Results
Table 1 Response to the impact of ICTs on parents-adolescents relationship
S
ITEM
S
A
D
S
T
/N
A
D
OTAL
1
ICT use at home has facilitated
8
1
2
1
5
the socialization parental guidance
5
0
3
6
2
Adolescents ICT broaden their
3
4
8
2
9
spheres of social interactions and 6
5
1
relationships both at home and outside
3
ICT use at home lessens your
4
9
3
8
5
parents’ opportunities to socialize with
6
7
you in a more conventional way
4
Parent-adolescent relationship is
8
6
1
1
4
rendered placeless through the use of
4
9
7
cell phones.
5
Adolescent ICT use at home
1
1
2
1
6
lessens the opportunities for reality- 2
8
2
0
2
checks from parents
6
Parent’s involvement in their
8
1
3
9
5
children ICT use at home is
2
0
0
M
EANS
1
.88
3
.0
1
.89
1
.05
2
.04
1
.9
0
1
2
unsatisfactory
7
Adolescents’ use of ICTs should
always be regulated by their parents
8
When adolscent’s ICT use is
unregulated by their parents, it could
pose serious relational problems
between them and their parents at home
9
When children become the more
techno-literate members at home it
disrupts the guiding role of the parents
1
Your ICT use at home offers
opportunities
for
constructive
interaction between parents and you
1
ICT use at home is isolates you
from your parents
1
If adolescent’s ICT use is
unregulated by their parents at home
social pathology is inevitable
2
1
5
4
1
0
3
4
4
3
1
2
4
3
6
6
5
3
1
6
8
9
0
3
1
1
1
5
0
5
9
6
2
2
5
2
-
7
2
3
2
.2
9
7
1
1
1
.7
3
2
1
.9
3
.03
5
7
9
1
.89
6
0
2
.00
Source: Analysis of field survey
The Table results show that the adolescents' use of ICTs does not foster social
pathology among them nor hamper good parents-children relationships, though the
parents are to be concerned with their children's ICT s based activities. It may be true that
children are adapting more easily to phenomenon of digital technologies than parents
(Montgomery, 2000, Wright, 2001) but it is not that straight forward to conclude that
children are prone to reject their parent's authority over them because of the parent's lack
of techno-literacy.
Without repeating the debate amongst researchers on this, it seems as if the
participants and their parents are in agreement, that ICTs pose no real harm to its user.
Relating this to their relationship, than foster a mutually positive outside to one another.
It can be speculated that when parents become convinced that real dangers lurk in ICTs;
this will become a strain on the relationship, especially when the teenager is not
convinced about these dangers.
Conclusion and Recommendations
It is abundantly clear that the new technologies are part of the warp and woof of
our everyday lives. In some homes, TV goes on with the first cup of tea and for many;
the flickering light of the screen is the last thing they see before they turn in for the night.
Factor in computer. Video game systems, CD players and Tape recorders are part of the
private domains of many homes. Many parents no doubt are becoming increasingly
connected to the Internet as they realize that e-mail allows them to be in constant contact
with their children and grandchildren who do not live in the immediate vicinity. On the
other hand, there were cases in the area under study of families that were severely
disrupted by the internet addiction of one of the parents or children. It was observed that
many of the families have rules regarding ICTs use, especially at home, however, in
some families, watching of TV or computer use is an individual activity.
Well on thing is certain: the media are so pervasive and so influential- in terms of
how family time is used, in terms of their socializing power, which parents need to help
their children become discriminating media users. Children may be very familiar with
media contents; that does not necessarily imply any critical awareness of what the
content means. Teaching one's children to be savvy media consumers is much a part of
parenting these days as teaching them other basic skills.
While this may hold true for cable TV, matters become different when we enter
the digital universe. Here, the youth are more at ease and knowledgeable than the
majority of their parents, however, it does not mean that the parents should mind what
their children do on-line. Exploring some of the riches of new media can also be shared
activity between parents and children. Lest we forget, interactive equals interaction
implies connection and connection is what keeps a family strong.
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ENTREPRENEURSHIP BUSINESS EDUCATION CAPABILITIES IN
EMERGING POVERTY ALLEVIATION PROGRAMME IN NIGERIA
Pac Ordu and Naboth-Odums, A
School of Business Education
Federal College of Education (Technical)
Omoku, Rivers State, Nigeria
Abstract
The paper discussed to unveil the economic potentials in business education programme with
emphasis on educational and employability capabilities. Inspite of the high unemployment
rate of graduates, some scholars have encouraged effective implementation of business
education curriculum objectives. The paper made extensive use of these scholarly opinions
that derive their basis from national education policy, NCCE business education objective
and the SIWES curriculum. The paper concluded that business education programme
curriculum has the capability of enhancing graduate self-employment to reduce incidences of
graduate unemployment in the country. The paper saw the importance of professionally
qualified business educators to teach and administer their programme for effective growth
and development. It was recommended among others that the challenge of quality business
education teachers need to be pursued with zeal to eliminate the presence of interlopers.
Keywords: Entrepreneurship, employability, objectives, business educators, interlopers.
Introduction
Employment is the key to every persons endeavours. The nature of employment may
vary but the underscoring point is the search for a stable source of income. In some cases,
education has been noted by some persons to be an area that is worthy of investment to
guarantee their future economic contribution to the society. The conventional problem of
unemployment has placed on man the additional pressure to search for productive educational
area such as can be found in business education programme. This is because business
education programme, according to Ogbonny (2010) is that aspect of the educational
programme that provide knowledge, skill, understanding and attitude needed to perform in a
business environment. The understanding that the investment in business education is
capable of giving the student that desired capabilities he require to be able to effectively fend
for himself has contributed to higher number of students in the programme than any other in
vocational education generic programme. If properly implemented, the objective of business
education programme is capable of inculcating in learners the ability to float small scale
businesses on graduation. This will, in no small measure, make them employers and wealth
creators in the economy which is the focus of government in Nigerian today.
Knowledge capabilities in business education programme
Poverty alleviation capability is the possession of knowledge and skill competencies
that holds the ace to enhancing an individual’s power of economic sustainability. These
capabilities are found to be inculcated in the context of business education curriculum where
the focus is, on one hand, to help learners develop mindset for self-employment. The idea
behind the introduction of entrepreneurship education in higher institutions is to realize the
dream of private sector economy. This was recognized by the national education policy
(2004) which in section 41 stated inter-alia:
Technical and vocational education is used as a comprehensive term referring to those
aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of
technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes,
understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and
social life, p. 29.
Underscoring the importance of the above, the policy went ahead to state the
followings in the same section:
Technical and vocational education is further understood to be:
a.
an integral part of general education;
b.
a means of preparing for occupational fields and for effective
participation in the world of work;
c.
d.
an aspect of lifelong learning and a preparation for responsible
citizenship;
an instrument for promoting environmentally sound sustainable (sic)
development;
e.
a method of alleviating poverty.
Category of courses in business education
Entrepreneurship business education curriculum content is positioned to deliver
certain employability skill contents to participating students. As an ingetgral part of general
education preparation, contents contain two broad categories of courses – the general
education category and the departmental category. The general education category are
courses meant to educate the students on the conventional education principles and
perspectives. These courses are found to be commonly applicable to most students in all
tertiary institutions as grass-root courses which they must offer to give them the foundations
of education. In addition to these courses are those departmental ones that have also been
grouped into two broad categories – skill courses and operational courses. The skilled
courses are offered from their first semester to their graduating semester.
These are provided with contents to develop skills, knowledge competencies and
attitudes in the student to enable him acquire the needed vocational capabilities in his
occupational field. It is the ability of the student to acquire these vocational capabilities that
places him in an employability skills playing arena. With these, the student goes out with the
cognitive and psycho motive competencies to practice in his occupational field. The
objective of operational courses is to enable the student to understand the concept of
ensuring success in any human environment. This brings him to understanding the role of
human factors in the relationship between his business outfit and the society.
Corroborative intervention
Corroborating the stance of national policy on education in regards to the role of
business education, the National Commission for Colleges of Education NCCE (2008) stated
the objective of business education as:
a.
to produce well qualified and competent Nigeria Certificate in Education
(NCE) graduates in business subjects who will be able to teach business
subjects in our secondary schools and other related educational institutions.
b.
to produce NCE business teachers who will be able to inculcate the vocational
aspect of business education into the society.
c.
to produce NCE business teachers who will be involved in the much desired
revolution of vocational development right from the primary and secondary
schools.
d.
to equip students with necessary competencies so as to qualify them for a post
NCE degree programme in business education.
e.
to equip graduates with the right skills that will enable them to engage in a life
of work in the office as well as for self-employment.
Teaching perspective of business education programme
From the above, the NCCE has looked at the NCE graduates from four perspectives.
On one hand, is the teaching perspective for graduates designed to be competent to teach and
inculcate the necessary knowledge at the junior secondary school levels. The objective is
focused at the production of quality teachers. Stressing on the need for quality in the
production of teachers, the policy stated that no nation can be greater than the quality of her
teachers. This means that the NCE teachers must be given quality education to enable them
deliver the same quality of resources in their effort to teach learners. Invariably, it further
implies that the teachers of these NCE focused students must also be highly qualified in their
various occupational fields to justify the dream of the policy.
Challenges of poor quality teachers in business education programme
In his attempt to give directions on the quality of teachers, Bdliya (2010) opined that
teachers of any tertiary institution programme must be university graduates with post
graduate qualifications in their disciplines together with professional qualifications. He
further informed that a significant proportion of teachers in Nigeria are untrained or not
qualified resulting in substandard institutions of teacher education. He emphasized that the
nature of challenges confronting teacher education in Nigeria may be dubbed the problem of
numbers and the problem of relevance. These problems bear relevance to the state of affairs
in business education teacher production where Nwosu (2009) lamented that it is only in
business education programme that you can find the highest number of unclassified degree
certificate holders claiming to be teachers of the programme. These holders of unclassified
degree certificates parade themselves as business educators, and have in some cases, as a
result of their numbers and the instrumentality of their institutions, subdue and intimidate
professionally qualified business educators. In his view, Osuala (2004) opined that those
who do not possess the needed university degree certificates and are teaching in business
education programme are known as grasshoppers and interlopers.
In his contributions to the challenges of quality and numbers controlling business
education programme, Odumuyiwa (2011) warned that the Association of Business
Educators of Nigeria (ABEN) frown at a situation where non-professionally qualified people
sit to decide the fate of business education programme in Nigeria. Stressing further he said
that nobody can give to another person that which he does not have. By this warning, he
means that a non-business educator who sits to teach, or administer business education
programme would, rather than giving what is professional to the learners, give that which he
has, which automatically would be at variance with the objectives of business education. In
his opinion, Ekpenyong in Ekpenyong (2010) has this analogy to create about the role of
teachers:
It is possible to teach classics in such a way as to make it a soulless mechanical
grind.It is possible to teach handicraft so as to make it a vehicle for liberal education. The
difference lies in how the subject is taught, p. 6.
Educational prospects of business education students
From the second part of the objective of business education as seen from the
perspective of NCCE, the programme is to enable students develop competencies to enable
them pursue degree programme in business education. Under this consideration, the
objective opened a leeway for these NCE students to pursue academic careers in a way that
they would acquire post graduate qualifications to enable them teach in business education
departments of higher institutions. The presence of qualified lecturers will encourage the
development and growth of business education programme thereby closing the bridge
through which grasshoppers and interlopers use to gain entry into the programme.
Self employment prospects of business education students
The third perspective of NCCE business education objective holds the ace for those
students who would graduate with the right knowledge, skill competencies and attitudes
capable of enabling them to engage in a life of work in the office. Uzor and Ike (2010)
explained that in the office environment today, those who possess relevant business skills
have better gainful employment opportunities than those who lack such skills. From this
explanation, he opined that skill is the ability possessed by the individual to do something
well, which he gained through training and experience. He therefore concluded that a skill
can be said to be one’s personal competencies in the performance of specific tasks acquired
after a period of training or experience. This means that the competencies acquired by the
business education student is effectively used to carry out his duties in the office as employee
in which ever business organisation he is employed. His contribution through effective use
of skills enhances productivity and helps others to carry out their works effectively too.
Ekpenyong (2010), in his view explained that business education programme
curriculum is intended to provide learners with both intellectual and occupational skills. To
him, these skills are intended to make graduates of business education function effectively
not only as employees but also as self-reliant persons and therefore stand out as wealth
creators of the society. Discussing further, he explained that since business education is one
of the subunits of technical and vocational education, the followings represent the goals of
business education:
a.
to develop individuals who will be properly equipped with the prerequisite
knowledge and skills for productive work life;
b.
to develop individuals who will be capable of meeting the modern business
and technological challenges;
c.
to develop a pool of competent and reliable technical manpower, capable of
being mobilized in times of national economic emergencies;
d.
to develop in the youth the right attitudes and skills towards work;
e.
equipping the youth with the requisite knowledge and skills for paid or selfemployment;
f.
to prepare the youth for meeting community, state and national economic
aspirations;
g.
to enable the youth to choose and perfect on those areas of business education
for which they have interests and aptitudes;
h.
to equip the learners to develop skills for making rational economic decisions;
i.
to enable the learners to relate their expertise to the needs of their
communities;
j.
to prepare business and industrial managers who will be capable of meeting
technological and managerial complexities of modern industry;
k.
to provide the vocational and technical knowledge in various areas of
business. P.4.
Productivity in entrepreneurship business education
A close study of the educational policy of Nigeria shows that the policy demands of
business education graduates to acquire the type of education that would enable him to have a
holistic and generic view of general education. In addition to this, it requires the graduates to
have skills and technological knowledge to enable him fit into the mainstream of our
economic activities. This means that productivity of a nation is of primary importance in the
objective design of business education programme through its focus to meet the needs of
individual learners. An attempt to meet the needs of individual learners is an attempt to meet
the needs of the industry and the society.
But Ekpenyong (2010) explained that the traditional method of instructions in
business education created a gap between schooling and the world of work. This missing
resources in the place of instructions are responsible for the inability of business education
graduates from venturing into self-reliant employment but instead, prefer to join the endless
queue of unemployed graduates. This gap was first recognized by National Board for
Technical Education (NBTE) when it included in her Polytechnic products curriculum the
Students Industrial Works Experience Scheme (SIWES). This was followed by the inclusion
of SIWES in the minimum standard of NCE programme. As business education programme
is a beneficiary of this scheme, her students are expected to acquire practical knowledge of
business operation within the three months of participation in the schemes. At the SIWES
work stations, industrial supervisors who understand the concept of the programme ensure
that student-employees are properly put through the entrepreneurial operations to close the
missing gap resulting from theoretical lessons of the student while at school. The role of
industrial supervisors are of paramount importance in the entrepreneurial development of
business education students. If the students are well groomed, they return back to school
fully aware of the practical aspects of what they had been thought in class before proceeding
on Students’ Industrial Works Experience Scheme (SIWES). On the other hand, it students
are poorly handled, they return empty and worse than their state of preparedness before they
proceeded on SIWES.
Business educators’ entrepreneurial roles in teaching
Professionally qualified business educators teach business subjects with a view to
linking contents to entrepreneurship setting. Virtually all the departmental courses in
business education programme are entrepreneurial in nature and are designed to teach
students the operations of business organizations. This means that courses in business
education curriculum have entrepreneurial impacts to play if properly handled by the teacher.
This brings the author to boldly insist that it is only where a professionally qualified business
educator teaches students that he can take the joy to expand entrepreneurial context of the
curriculum content for the advantage of students. This has been the concern of NCCE
objective when it states among others that the programme hopes to equip graduates with the
right skills that will enable them to engage in a life of work in the office as well as for selfemployment.
Business educators, in their attempts to teach students, put learners through the
process of what Okoli (2010) explained that in business education, people have more
opportunities to exercise creative freedom, higher self esteem and greater sense of control
over their own lives. This has to be so because entrepreneurship business education serves as
an instrument for students through which they are powered to control their future. For a
student to establish the mindset for the control of his future, he needs adequate
entrepreneurial knowledge of basic objectives which networks from class assignments,
lessons, discussions, tests, examinations, reading habits, etc. If business educators are
focused, this will eventually draw the attention of students to focus at the type of things they
need to do to succeed in life such as activities that are productive to them as students rather
than those activities that are unproductive. The nature of assignments from the educator to
learners are those that have the capacity of helping students to discover hidden facts which
invariably are transferred to business opportunity identification and his desire to exploit their
service capabilities.
Regarding the current level of unemployment in the country, NCE entrepreneurship
business education has the potentials to reduce poverty through involvement of business
education graduates in small scale business operations. This is necessary today in the country
where, according to Okolocha and Ile (2008) entrepreneurship education is most relevant in
economies with high incidence of unemployment. These authors went further to explain that
this is so because business education programme has in its subunits, areas as accounting,
finance, marketing, office management, legal and the economic environments in which a new
business venture operates.
Occupational career preparation in business education programme
In business education programme exists lots of occupational clusters from which the
horizon of students are targeted at exploiting which area to select from. Business education
programme provides students with information about careers in various business occupations
as future wealth creators. The provision of occupational competencies and education helps
students obtain counsel on areas of his interest in the various clusters. If students are well
informed about the occupations in their programme, they stand the chance of adjusting their
mindsets to a particular area of business occupation desired for the future. In this regards,
counseling students on their choice of business come to play where the business educator acts
as a counselor to ensure that students wisely select areas of interests rather than working on
influence from peer group members. Counseling business education student for effective
realization of vision 20:2020, Ordu (2012) questioned the rationale behind non-professional
business educator serving as counselors to business education students. He argued that these
counseling staff of institutions are graduates of guidance counseling and did not in any way
undergo courses to make them knowledgeable in other academic programme peculiarities. In
this circumstance, he questioned how such a person could give the knowledge he does not
have to students who are in need of their own peculiar occupational knowledge. He therefore
concluded that business educators are better counselors for their programme than any other
person.
Conclusion
Based on the discussions, the following conclusions are drawn:
Granted that the state of graduate unemployment rate is high in Nigeria, business
education programme can position the future of her graduates. This is evidenced from the
provisions made for business education programme as stated by national policy on education
and the Nation Commission for Colleges of Education. To capture these provisions, there is
need for non-qualified teachers of business education programme to key-in their absolute
loyalty in the profession by upgrading their certifications. This will enhance quality of
teachers which will translate to quality delivery of curriculum contents and quality products.
This will also enable the programme to position herself and effectively control teaching and
learning aimed at producing students that are equipped to effect some economic
contributions. With the introduction of entrepreneurship education in the programme,
coupled with the existing contents that are self-employment oriented, the future is bright for
business education graduates.
Recommendations
Having observed that business education programme has the curriculum contents that
is focused at equipping graduates with capabilities to survive as wealth creator, the paper
recommends as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
To maintain quality, business education programme should fish out non-professional
teachers;
these non-professional teachers should be encouraged by their institutions to proceed
on courses in business education to integrate them into the programme mainstream;
Allocation of teaching course to lecturers should be geared towards areas of teacher’s
interest to encourage development;
Business educators should be encouraged to attend conferences to gain from the
exchange of new knowledge and innovations that is the focus of conferences;
Graduating students should be encouraged to produce business plans in areas of their
business interest.
References
Bdliya, P. (2010). Teacher Education and National Productivity. A lead paper presentation
at the convocation ceremony of the Federal College of Education (Tech) Omoku,
Rivers State, 23rd April.
Ekpenyong, L. E. (2010). Business Education and Entrepreneurship in Nigeria: The
Missing Link. A lead paper presentation at the annual conference of association of
business educators of Nigeria (ABEN) at Federal College of Education, Osiele,
Abeokuta, 12th-15, October.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education, (4th Ed), Abuja:
Federal Ministry of Education.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004). National policy on education, (4th Ed), Abuja:
Federal Ministry of Education.
Nwosu, B. N. (2009) Nwosu, Job creation through business education and the challenges of
national economic empowerment and development strategy (NEEDS). Business
Education Book of Readings, 1 (7): 18-27.
Odumuyiwa, J. S. (2011). The place of business education programme in the emerging
challenges in national development pursuit. An address of welcome presented at the
23rd Annual and 2nd International Conference of Association of Business Educators of
Nigeria, Lagos, 11-15, October.
Okoli, B. E. (2010). Towards development of entrepreneurship education in business
education. Journal of Business and Vocational Education, 1 (1): 60-66.
Okolocha, C. C. & Ile, C. M. (2008). The role of business education in promoting
entrepreneurial skills in women. Business Education Journal, 6 (2): 221-233
Ordu, P. (2012). Introduction to Vocational Education. Omoku: Jef Computers Services.
Osuala, E. C. (1998). Foundations of Vocational Education. Onitsha: Cape Publishers
International Ltd.
Osuala, E. C. (2004). Principles and methods of business and computer education.
Enugu: Cheston Agency Ltd.
Uzor, O. and Ike, B. O. (2010). Business education and employability skills in the e-era.
Journal of Business and Vocational Education, 1 (1): 54-59.
INNOVATIVE METHODS AND STRATEGIES FOR
EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING
M.N Modebelu and A.N. Duvie
Department of Agricultural Education
Micheal Okpara University of Agriculture,
Umudike, Abia State of Nigeria
Abstract
Teaching is an enabling job, a noble activity and a profession that involves a lot of activities
to facilitate the process. Learning, which is a positive permanent change in behaviour occurs
through an effective teaching process. Effective teaching and learning centre on the teacher
who is both the fulcrum on which education revolves and the key that unlocks this door of
education. Teachers in the third world nations should be fully equipped for this duty. The
paper examines the innovative teaching methods for effective teaching and learning.
Specifically the paper discusses: concept of effective teaching and learning, impediment to
effective teaching and learning, enhancement factors, innovative teaching methods and
conclusion. Recommendations include empowering teachers through quality workshops on
application of the four innovative teaching methods viz: information transition and reception,
cognitive strategies development methods, attitude development methods and cognitive and
motor skills development methods.
Keywords : Innovation, teaching methods, teaching strategies, teaching techniques, teaching
trends and innovative teaching method.
INTRODUCTION
Education has long been accepted as a veritable instrument for effecting positive
change in behavior of citizens as well as raising intellectuals for national sustainable
development. Federal Republic of Nigeria-FRN (2004) emphasizes the goals of education in
Nigeria to include inculcation of the right type of values, attitudes, communication skills as
well as life-long skills. These goals are attainable through effective classroom interaction.
This interaction occurs between the teacher and the learner through the process of teaching
and learning. Teaching, which is the primary function of a teacher, entails giving instruction,
imparting knowledge, facts, skills, attitudes, interests and aptitude. It is the teacher that
imparts on the learner through the process of teaching. Modebelu (2007) sees teaching as an
activity, consisting of a body of actions and programmes planned and directed towards
inducing learning through conscious and deliberate efforts of a teacher to learner. A teacher
in this situation is expected to be a professional, who should consciously and deliberately
utilize his or her wealth of experience, training skills, competencies right attitudes, interests,
content master with the help of instructional materials, methods and skills to facilate the less
experienced individuals learners. The product of teaching is learning.
Learning as a concept has varied definitions due to various theories of learning that
defines it in different perspectives. Anyachebelu (2005) defines learning as change in
behaviour that is permanent which excludes change due to illness, fatigue, maturation and use
of intoxicants. Learning therefore is a manifestation of evidence of receiving good teaching.
It is the positive permanent change in behavior due to experience and practice gained that
enables the learner face later situations differently. Since learning entails the holistic process
of development of life-long skills etc. it then becomes exigent for educators, administrators,
managers and planners to identify factors that hinders effective teaching and learning as well
as factors that could enhance teaching and learning.
The problem of this paper is that performances of students in external examinations
such as national examination council (NECO), senior secondary certificate examination
(SSCE) and other degree examinations in the three education levels in Nigeria appear
inadequate. Consequently the goals of education seem not to be achieved hence there
abounds half-baked graduates output of these three education levels, unemployable as well as
non self reliance.
The paper examines the following: Effective teaching and learning, teaching methods,
teaching technique, teaching strategy, trends in teaching method, innovative teaching
method/applicability, conclusions and recommendations. The main function of a teacher is
teaching which entails helping to organize learning experiences, managing and promoting
learning. Teachers are entrusted with the responsibility of guaranteeing learning programmes
and are held responsible if students learning do not occur adequately.
EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Obi (2003) describes effective teaching as a process related to the teachers actively
conscious of the individuality of each of the child, including his needs, strengths, weaknesses,
growth patterns and background of experiences. This implies that effective teaching is the
process by which an effective teacher creates an atmosphere for a wholesome teaching and
learning. Anyachebelu (2005) defines effective teaching as a situation whereby the teacher is
vast in attainment, knowledge and skills as well as possession of certain pre-requisites and
acceptable practices within the codes of ethics of teaching profession Anyachebelu also
asserts that effective teaching must be an embodiment of conceptual skills associated with
knowledge and relevant to the teaching. Effective teaching is therefore the process of
achieving the objective of teaching as well as goals of education through an effective
teaching.
COMPONENTS OF EFFECTIVE TEACHING
Obi (2003) identifies five components of effective teaching to include:
a.
knowledge of the subject matter
b.
ability to help students with their works
c.
Presenting subject matter appropriately.
d.
Motivating students to excel and
e.
Firmness/fairness in preparing marking guides and grading of examination.
Elements of effective teaching according to Kanno (1997) comprises of purposeful
teaching, planned-teaching, content-mastery teaching ,conceptual-skills display,
instructionally-aided teaching, teaching skills adapted teaching, creativity-skill teaching
interest sustaining teaching and goal attainment teaching. Bello (1981) also identifies the
following as necessary elements of teachers’ effectiveness: Creativity, Curiosity, Confidence,
Endurance, Perseverance, Tolerance, Objectivity, Honesty, Industry, Diligence, Friendliness,
Modeling, Rapport with colleagues, and Responsiveness. There cannot be effective teaching
without teacher effectiveness. Teacher’s effectiveness demands for teacher's improved
relationship with their work in terms of job satisfaction, productivity for efficient and
effective achievement of the schools objectives and educational goals.
Qualities of expected of an effective teacher include:
a.
b.
c.
Having a clear voice
Speaking at a moderate rate
Using of strong voice
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
Varying of tone of voice
Using languages/terminologies easily understood
Using of conventional delivery pattern
Using facial expression and gestures
Boldness and friendliness
Close observation/supervision of the students
Being a a model
Being dynamic, enthusiastic, creative and innovative
Seeking knowledge for up-dating (Anyachebelu 2005)
TEACHING METHODS
In as much as there are various factors that could influence positively teaching and
learning, the paper sees teaching methods as very didactic. Mkpa (2009) sees teaching
method as the totality of all the means, strategies, techniques and ways a teacher employs to
maximize and facilitate classroom interaction. It is also a means of conveyance of facts,
decaoding messages that eventually result in the realization of the stated educational
objectives. Teaching method is therefore a way of doing teaching business, the procedure,
orderliness, in planning and execution of teaching proper with an appropriate integration of
instructional materials to achieve the objectives at the classroom level. Some of the teaching
methods available for effective teaching and learning include:
1.
Lecture method
2.
Activity method
3.
Project method
4.
Discussion method
5.
Discovery method
6.
demonstration method
7.
Role playing method
8.
experimentation method
9.
Individual method
10.
Peer teaching method
11.
Team Teaching method
12.
Play-way method
13.
Excursion method/Field Trip (Kanno, 1997)
These methods have been in existence and in practice while the problems of poor
student’s performance, half baked graduate production and non-attainment of education goals
continue to abound. There is an urgent need for a better practice and utilization of the above
mentioned methods for qualitative student' learning facilitation.
ENHANCEMENT FACTORS
Innovation is the ability to introduce something new. The existing teaching methods
require some level of innovativeness to make teaching and learning an interesting and
worthwhile activity. Teaching methods are supposed to serve as arousers and sustainers of
learners’ interest throughout the lesson. Concept of teaching technique, teaching strategy and
teaching approach are supposed to supplement teaching methods and add to their
effectiveness. They are also to elucidate the trends in the teaching methods and basis for
choice of innovation methods.
TEACHING TECHNIQUES:
This is an entire body of procedures and methods of science, art, skill and craft in the
procedures and methods used in achieving the goals of instruction at the school and out of the
school to bring about change in behaviour in the desired direction. Gage (2006) describes
teaching techniques as a set of unique activities that a teacher adds and utilizes to implement
a particular method for effectiveness. This implies that a lecture method may employ one or a
combination of upto five techniques to make innovation. Brown (1972) recommends a
combination of four of teaching techniques or method to make an innovative lecture teaching
method. The teacher may choose the classical techniques, the thesis technique, the problem
centered technique or the sequential technique.
TEACHING STRATEGY
This is the science and art of using teaching as a tool in achieving the purpose of the
teaching-learning process in and outside the classroom setting. The forms of teaching strategy
are based on the subject-content to be taught. This is illustrated with Chinese conclusion on
teaching and strategy, saying
I hear
I forget
I see
I remember
I do
I understand
The above illustration agrees with Mkpa (2009) observing that people generally
remember.
10% of what they read
20% of what they hear
30% of what they see
50% of what they hear and see
70% of what they say
90% of what they say as they do a thing
The point being made is that innovativeness in teaching methods requires strategies
plus effective use ‘and integration of instructional materials. This unequivocally helps the
teacher impartation of adequate knowledge that brings about desirable changes in behaviour
in the learner(s) in the process of teaching and learning situation.
TEACHING APPROACH
This approach is generally a theoretical view on how instruction should be carried out
based on a particular principle of learning. Mastery learning approach is therefore based on a
variety of educational principles among which are;
(i)
Individual differences in learners to accomplish learning tasks at different rates
(ii)
When a learner has not learnt that the teacher has not taught.
(iii) Given equal opportunities, that every learner is a potential achiever, i.e. capable of
accomplishing the learning tasks.
In support of the above, Mansaray (1987) emphasizes that teaching approach is more
general than that of method in the sense that it incorporates a number of methods.
Trends in Teaching Methods: Research reports and observation reveal two major or
categories of teaching methods. The most popular and commonly used are described as the
(a)
Traditional Method (Teacher Centered Method (TCM) or Teacher- Talk Chalk
(TTC) and
(b)
Innovative Teaching Method (ITM) or Learner- Centered Method- (LCM) or
Pupil- Activity- oriented Learning Method (PALM).
TEACHER- CENTERED METHOD (TCM)
The teacher is the focus in this model of classroom teaching. The teacher is at the
centre of all the classroom activities. He does the talking, writes on the chalks or white board,
demonstrates, and performs the experiments (such as demonstration of fountain experiment in
chemistry). He draws, labels and identifies specimens. The teacher also does all the
explanations in the name of teaching. The learner remains passive listener and a member of
the teaching-learning process. Mkpa (2009) observes that even the subject matter, teaching
methods, as well as the instructional materials are designed in favour of the teacher ie
teacher-centered method (TCM). The issue is that this approach has been in use and seems to
have failed the system. The approach rarely involves the learner in the development of high
cognitive levels of learning analysis, synthesis and evaluation of issues. It does not readily
equip the learners with the desired psychomotor and affective skills for the learner to fully
appreciate his environment, adapt, benefit and contribute meaningfully to his or her nation.
Mkpa (2009) remarks “that is not to say that one cannot learn anything from the pages of
newspapers, watching television programmes, but there is more interpretation going on than a
mere transfer of information from one brain to another”. There is a call for de-emphasis on
this traditional method of teaching captioned teacher-centered-methods based on the
following five reasons viz:
The approach does not
(i)
encourage necessary interactions in the teaching and learning situation;
(ii)
allow the learners participate actively in the classroom activities;
(iii) promote development of desirable skills, attitudes and values in the learners.
(iv)
encourage the learner to use their initiatives and develop self-confidence but
encourages rote learning.
Learners
Teaching methods and skills
Teacher
Contents
Instruction aids
Figure 1: Teacher- Centered- Method (TCM)
Learner Centered- Method (LCM)
The ills of TCM have called for a shift to LCM. This is completely a converse focus
in the teaching-learning process. Learners occupy prominent position and become the
fulcrum upon which teaching and learning revolves.
Teachers
Teaching methods and skills
Learner
Instructioal aids
Contents
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Figure 2 Learner –Centred- Methods (LCM)
LCM is currently being emphasised because of its ability to
encourage active participation of the learners in the teaching and learning process.
encourage active participation and interaction among learners, the teacher and other
components of the teaching and learning process
encourage and promote the development of skills.
encourage the learner to develop and use their own initiatives
discourage rote learning and passivity in the classroom on the part of the learner
Innovative Teaching Methods
The innovative existing teaching methods demand that no one teaching method is
adequate for effective teaching and learning of a concept or subject-matter. A cluster of
teaching methods could serve as a teaching method to ensure effective teaching and leaning.
Based on this, teaching methods already in use are grouped into four. These are seen as four
improved as well asinnovative methods of teaching and learning. They are as fllow :
(a)
The information Transmission and Rececption Methods (ITRM)
(b)
The Congnitive Strategies Development Methods (CSDM)
(c)
The Attitudes Development Methods (ADM)
(d)
The Cognitive and Motor Skills Development Methods (CMSDM)
Information Teansmission And Reception Method (ITRM)
This method involves the use of lecture, recitation, assignment and text-book to elicit
and transmit information and knowledge.
Lecture method: This is the major teaching method that is adopted by (ITRM). It is
the oldest method of teaching, originally traced to the middle ages of highly prized Jewish
teachers which they used in imparting learning. The Jewish learners through this method
memorized everything the teacher said by heart, to repeat, reproduce and regurgitate them
almost verbatim at time of need. Lecture method is purely the act of giving a long talk to a
group of people on a subject matter within a specific time. It is very popular in secondary
school and tertiary institutions. It is a typical of teacher-centered method. It may entail
reading the note. Kanno (1997) sees the method as a process by which teachers send
information to students, projecting one-way channel of communication model. Costin (2002)
reports that this method becomes innovative when the following conditions are applicable;
when
a.
Basic purpose of instruction is to disseminate information and receive same.
b.
The materials are needed to be memorized and remembered for a short time.
c.
The material must be organized and presented in a specific way for a particular group
of learners.
d.
It is necessary to provide an introduction to an area or directions for learning activities
to be achieved through other teaching methods.
The teaching intends to train, develop and employ intensive listening skills in training
learners in the skill of accuracy and speed especially in the skill of writing fast with accuracy.
Lecture method should not be used when the
1.
objectives are other than information skill acquisition.
2.
higher cognitive objective are desired
3.
participation of learners is very essential.
4.
the materials to be taught is abstract complex or detailed.
5.
long term retention is sought.
6.
student ability is average or below average.
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES DEVELOPMENT METHOD (CSDM)
This method does not only help the learner to collect information but also assists
him/her develop some cognitive strategies in learning concepts, facts etcetera. Examples are
learning of concept formation, interpretation of data, applying rules like in quizzes, form
relationships and connections. The method support the idea that knowledge lies at the beck
and call of the learner and thus should be awaken to grab it. Under this method of teaching
and learning are discussion and activity methods.
i.
Discussion method: This employs more of class interaction and expression of
opinion as its major strategy of instructional delivery. Each learner is given ample
opportunities to contribute to the topic focused upon. The classroom has a democratic
atmosphere, which elicits effective participation from the students. The teacher acts as
moderator of the discussion. All forms of questioning techniques are employed to
elicit responses from students. Learners are actively involved, they see classroom and
learning tasks as challenging, conductive, stimulating and interesting. Target group
for the discussion should range from 3-12. Aim is to come up with a solution.
ii.
Activity Method: This suggests the capacity of being active and readiness to do
activities by the learners in the classroom situation. Activity makes teaching and
learning real. This agrees with Chinese teaching strategy for effective learning – when
I see and do, I learn better and remember better.
iii.
Project Method: Project method is a systematic planned undertaking of a set of tasks
by the learners in which a given period of time is allocated and learners are taught
with special reference to the project or sites. This encourages independent learning,
creativity and originality. It is used to supplement formal classroom teachings. This
method is very apt in achieving self-reliance and life-long skills. It is an agreement
with the educational idea of one of the great educationist of America – John Dewey,
who believes that education should fit the child rightly into his/her present society
rather than preparing the learner for the future which is unknown. Bello (1981) is of
the opinion that a well planned and carefully executed project will greatly develop
learners by bringing him into actual contact with the lives and activities of their
neighborhood. It provides new process skills for problem-solving.
ATTITUDE DEVELOPMENT METHODS (ADA)
This category of teaching method assists learners to learn and develop social
behaviors that are related to interpersonal behaviors, school work and achievement. Methods
under this method are inquiry, role play, dramatization or play-way, modeling and laboratory
methods.
i.
Inquiry method: This is the method that stimulates learners’ interest in seeking
information about ideas and concepts by asking questions. It drills learners and
enables learners search for knowledge in a systematic and logic way. It promotes
independent reasoning and self-reliance while the teacher guides, directs and redirects without providing the solutions. He only leads the learners to the answers. It is
time consuming and expensive but helps learners develop skills of observation,
exploration and questioning. It promotes active participation, team work cooperation
and tolerance among learner.
ii.
Role Playing: This is specially a form of acting. Learners are allowed to pick roles in
a human life situation such as family (father, mother and children) and its functions or
family problems as the case maybe. The method is good at attitude development,
mastery of decision-making skills and improvement of communication skills. There
iii.
iv.
v.
may not be pre-preparation or no rehearsals. Roles should not be forced on
participants. It is a behaviour modification therapy.
Dramatization. Here learners render vividly plays or act characters in a play. This
requires pre-preparation of scripts or distribution of roles. It is common in use in
literature in English or theatre acts etc.
Modeling: This require a three dimensional representation of the real object or
miniature of what is required. Examples are human skeleton model, heart, circulatory
system etc. The learner acquires the necessary attitude by imitating the model as role
model.
Laboratory method: This method emphasizes observation, exploration and
experimentation. This is mostly in use in science teaching. Some of these steps are
involved: identification of a problem, confrontation with puzzling situations,
observation, formulating of hypotheses, verification, experimentation, organization,
explanation, reflection, inference and conclusion.
Cognitive and Motor Skills Development Method (CMSDM)
This method is concerned with the development of the learners thinking faculty and
decision-making abilities. The teacher’s role is to guide the learners’ progress by means of
commands and cues. This method is adopted from Skinner, Gagne and Ausbel educational
ideas. It requires that learning materials, facts, concepts, problems are presented to the learner
in steps, systematically in a gradual process – Five teaching methods under this are:
demonstration, guided discovery, concept-mapping, games, discussion and questioning skills.
i.
Demonstration: This involves displays, exhibitions and use of examples during
practical instructional practices. This method emphasizes practical, tangibles, concrete
illustrations during lessons. Two senses are involved, sense of hearing and seeing. It
guarantees about 50percent learning ( Mkpa, 2009) .
ii.
Guided Discovery: This involves helping learners to discover certain facts or
answers to a given problem. Learners most often depend on their teachers to provide
all answers they need.
iii.
Concept Mapping: This is a useful way of representing concepts in a map and their
relationship in two dimensional structures for the learner to see and connect
relationships. It is a very powerful lesson summarizing strategy.
iv.
Game: This is social activities that are played by two or more people in a competitive
sport like sprint in order to exhibit some positive knowledge, attitudes, values and
skills that can led to a winner. This demand for proper planning by the teacher for
effectiveness. This makes teaching and learning very natural, real, permanent and
easy to recall. It also creates environment for healthy competition.
CONCLUSION
Effective use of teaching methods in improving teaching and learning in Nigeria
school system has been examined. The paper made attempt to high-light basic concepts
associated with teaching methods such as teaching, learning, teaching strategy, teaching
techniques, teaching approach and teaching methods. Two major trends of teaching methods
were highlighted. Already in use teaching methods were grouped and categorized into four
innovative teachings methods viz:
Information, transmission and reception method
Cognitive strategies development method
Altitudes development method and
Cognitive and Motor Skills Development
It is of the view of the author, that effective implementation of the methods will
immensely align with teaching and learning to modern trends and effectiveness.
RECOMMENDATIONS
These innovative teaching methods should be reflected in teacher education
curriculum. This will help to ensure that new graduate teachers will be fully equipped for
effective teaching and learning.
Seminars, conferences and workshops should be organized for the practicing or
serving teachers and lecturers as a way of up-dating their stalls/ knowledge and in the
application of these methods to enhance quality teaching and learning for self-reliance.
REFERENCES
Anyachebelu, E. (2005). Educational psychology Effective for Improving Teaching and
Learning.Lagos: Paprus Publishers.
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EVALUATION OF SCHOOL HEALTH SERVICES IN NOMADIC
PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN SOUTHWESTERN NIGERIA
A. Ibhafidon A. and A.U. Ejifugha
Department of Physical and Health Education
Alvan Ikoku Federal College of Education, Owerri-Nigeria.
Abstract
Schools health services are procedures which are established to appraise the health
status of pupils and school personnel, counsel pupils, parents and others concerning appraisal
findings, carry out follow-up services, provide emergency care of injuries and sudden illness,
help prevent and control communicable diseases and encourage the correction of remedial
defects. Previous studies have shown low levels of positive health attitude and practices,
resulting in a high prevalence of malaria, tooth decay. Gastrointestinal and skin diseases.
Therefore, this study evaluated school health services in nomadic primary schools in
Southwestern Nigeria in order to identify areas needing improvement. The study employed
descriptive survey research design. Total enumeration procedure was used to include all the
1,005 nomadic primary school teachers in Southwestern Nigeria. The instrument used for the
study were observation checklist, Focus Group Discussion Guide, and questionnaire which was
validated through the use of test-retest method with a reliability coefficient of 2.88. Five
hypotheses were postulated and tested at 0.05 alpha level using Binomial test. Based on the
result four hypotheses were accepted while one was not accepted as shown by the observed
binomial proportion of respondents’ responses to the statements on all the variable. The results
showed that the following activities were not significantly carried out in Nomadic primary
schools in Southwestern Nigeria: health appraisal (0.2895;<0.05); follow-up services (0.407;
P<0.05); emergency care and first aid (0.3602; P<0.05). However, communicable diseases
were significantly controlled in the school (0.6218; p<0.05). It was concluded that school
health services was not given necessary attention in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern
Nigeria. Hence, it was recommended that for a functional school health services, the
stakeholders (Federal, State, Local Governments and the nomadic communities) should
endeavour to put in place health appraisal, health guidance and counseling follow-up services
and emergency care and first aid in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Keywords: Evaluation, Nomadic, School health services, primary schools, Southwestern
Nigeria.
Introduction
School health services are those services provided in schools by health
educator, nurses, physicians, dentist and other health related workers like guidance
counselors and social workers to health appraise, promote and protect the health of pupils and
that of the personnel.
Johnson (1991) observed that school health services are procedures
established to: appraise the health status of pupils and school personnel, counsel pupils,
parents and others concerning appraisal findings, carryout follow-up services, provide
emergency care for injury or sudden illness, help prevent and control communicable diseases
and encourage the correction of remedial defects.
School health services are designed to determine the physical and emotional
status of pupils, to prevent diseases and to secure the cooperation of parents and pupils, for
correcting defects and maintenance of health (Mshelia, 1999), in contributing to the concept
of school health services, Akinbile (1998) stated that school health services contribute to
those school activities directly concerned with the present health status of the school child.
Nwana (1988) regretted that what is referred to as school health services in Nigeria may be
described as a farce while Kane (1997) noted that although special clinics were established
for the welfare of pre-school children, the same cannot be said of the health of school
children. Negligence of the school health services can be attributed to the unfounded
assumption by Nigerians that once a Nigerian child attains school age be becomes immune to
diseases.
In Nigeria, Abiodum (1996) conducted a survey of 500 pupils aged between
five and fifteen years in a small rural community and seventy five percent (75%) were found
to suffer from mental morbidity, disturbances of emotional and conduct disorder constituted
sixty seven percent (67%) of the total morbidity rate detected which made him to emphasize
the need for a more functional school health services.
The most basic functional aspect of school health services is the health
appraisal of pupils. According to Freeman (1999), health appraisal involves the continuous
and close observation of the school child and the teacher, while Turner, Bandall and Smith
(1990) viewed health appraisal of pupils’ health as a means that ensures, professional advice
to pupils and their families on personal health as well as advice to the school on the
adaptation of the school programme to the needs of pupils. Health appraisal should include
dental inspection, screening tests for vision, hearing and speech, medical examination, health
history and teacher’s observations.
According to Tahir (1997), the population of Nomads in Nigeria is 9.3 million
and that, out of the estimated population of 9.3 million nomadic people in Nigeria, 3.1
million are children of school age. In the view of Mshelia (1999), these nomadic children of
school age do not enjoy good health for a long period of time because of the prevalence of
numerous communicable disease, they suffer from multiple infestations and infections.
Consequently, the morbidity rate is high among them and the major causes according to him
are communicable diseases resulting from poor environmental conditions. Malnutrition,
injuries and lack of general health supervision were also implicated in the high morbidity
rate. Mshelia (1999) further stated that if school health programmes in nomadic primary
schools were vigorously pursued, the incidence of high morbidity rate among school pupils
would have been minimized to the barest minimum.
From the foregoing, the present study is designed to evaluate the school health
programme in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Statement of the Problem
The health of primary school pupils is a matter of universal concern as
children are the most precious assets any nation can have as their well-being reflects the
future of the nation. The school age is a period in which the child undergoes rapid physical
and mental development and this calls for a functional school health programme if the overall
development of the child is to be achieved.
Experts have revealed that nomadic primary school pupils at various times
have suffered from communicable diseases, infections, injuries leading to death as a result of
tetanus infection, dental caries, rashes, ill equipped first aid boxes for emergency care,
reported cases of epidemics resulting from poor environmental conditions. Nomadic school
pupils have not shown a high level of positive healthful practices and attitudes, which school
health service is aimed to achieve.
Mshelia (1999) asserted that the life expectancy of nomadic children is low
due to high death rates, as they do not enjoy good health for a long period of time because of
the prevalence of numerous communicable diseases. But if school health programmes in
nomadic primary schools are adequately provided for and vigorously pursued, absenteeism in
schools as well as high morbidity rates among pupils of nomadic primary schools would be
minimized if not completely eradicated. However, from the foregoing, this study is set to
evaluate the school health services in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Hypotheses
The following hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
1.
Health appraisal is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary
schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
2.
Health guidance and counseling is not significantly available for pupils in
nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
3.
Follow-up services are not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary
schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
4.
Emergency care and first aid is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic
primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
5.
Control of communicable diseases is not significantly carried out in nomadic
primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Significance of the Study
Since the establishment of the National Commission for Nomadic Education,
available records show that the school health services component of the organization
programme of activities has not been evaluated. It is envisaged therefore, that the outcome of
this study will bring to light areas in the school health services in nomadic primary schools in
Southwestern Nigeria that need intervention from the stakeholders (Federal, State, Local
Government and Nomadic Communities) to improve on areas where there are lapses for a
better school health services.
The outcome of the study would also serve as a source of reference material to
people who may be interested in similar areas of study in future.
Methodology
The descriptive survey research design was used for this study. The use of this
method was considered appropriate because of its merits, which suits a study of this nature.
This study is designed to find out the current status of school health services in nomadic
primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. The researcher is not manipulating any available
but simple studying the existing occurrences and the population is also spread across many
locations (states) hence, the choice of descriptive survey research design.
A total sample of 1005 representing 100% of the total population of nomadic
primary school teachers in Southwestern Nigeria was used for this study. Purposive sampling
technique was used to get samples of parents and pupils. Purposive sampling according to
Owie (1997) is the best since the subjects have been selected by laid down rules and
regulations for a particular purpose. This is the case with the subjects in the study.
The researcher adopted total enumeration procedure to include all 1005
nomadic primary school teachers.
The instruments for this study were structured questionnaire, focus group
discussion guide and observation checklist. The structured questionnaire was designed
according to the hypotheses that were tested in this study. The questionnaire was in two
sections, section A and B. Section A was on demographic data of the respondents while
section B sought information on the variables selected for the study. The questionnaire was in
close-ended form in line with the modified Likert scale technique of summated ratings. The
responses were on a four point rating of Strongly Agreed (SA) Agreed (A), Disagreed (D),
and Strongly Disagreed (SD). The four point modified Likert scale has been shown to be
reliable and valid. This is because it enables the respondents to indicate the extent of
agreement and disagreement.
For the qualitative aspect of this research, focus group discussion guide and
observation checklist were used. The instruments (questionnaire, focus group discussion
guide and observation guide) were validated by experts in the Department of Human Kinetics
and Health Education, and Institute of Education, University of Ibadan for content, construct
and face validity.
The corrected version of the questionnaire was administered to twenty
nomadic primary school teachers in Edo State using test-retest method. The data collected
were correlated to determine the reliability of the instrument using Pearson Product Moment
Correlation (PPMC) in order to bring out the degree of relationship of the scores obtained.
The reliability of the instrument was found to be 0.88.
The researcher and six trained research assistants who are the state
coordinators of Nomadic Education Programme in Southwestern Nigeria that is, Ekiti, Lagos,
Ogun, Ondo, Osun and Oyo States administered and collected the questionnaire.
For the focus group discussion, the researcher and research assistant who is a
Fulani helped to gather necessary data from the parents and pupils of the nomadic primary
schools in South Western Nigeria.
The completed questionnaire were collated, coded and analyzed using both
descriptive an inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics of frequency counts and percentages
were used to analyze section A of the questionnaire, which deals with the demographic
characteristics of the respondents. The inferential statistics of Binomial test was used to test
the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The data collected during the focus group
discussion, and the observation made were used to corroborate the results obtained.
Data Analysis and Discussion of Findings
Hypothesis 1: Health appraisal is not significantly available for pupils in
nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Table 1: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondents who agreed or
disagreed with items on health appraisal.
Summary
Agreed
Disagreed Test
Observed 2-tailed Comment
Items
prop.
prop.
prob.
Health
312
693
0.5000 0.3105
0.0000 Negatively
Appraisal
(31.0%) (69.0%)
Significant
Items
Table 1 showed that 312(31.0%) of the respondents agreed that health
appraisal was available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria, while
694(69.0%) of the respondents disagreed that health appraisal was available for pupils in
nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Through the observation carried out in
nomadic schools it was discovered that out of the 205 nomadic schools in Southwestern
Nigeria, 55(26.8%) provided health appraisal for pupils while 150(73.2%) did not provide
health appraisal for pupils.
Table 1 above also presented responses to health appraisal items computed
with binomial test. The results show that observed proportion of 0.3105 for those who agreed
with items on availability of health appraisal for nomadic primary school pupils is
significantly lower than those who disagreed with the items on health appraisal availability at
the 5% level (P=0.0000<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis, which stated that health appraisal is
not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria is
accepted and the researcher concluded that health appraisal was not significantly available for
pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
The focus group discussion revealed that pupils were not tested for vision,
hearing, height and weight and no dental inspection was carried out among the pupils as well.
Also Maduagwu (1995) found out that health appraisal of students’ health was
not adequately carried out in secondary schools in Anambra State. It was only six percent
(6%) of the respondents that indicated that health appraisal was carried out in their schools.
The result of this finding is in line with the findings of Nwana (1988) who stated that health
appraisal services were not provided in the majority of primary schools she investigated and
where it was available, classroom teachers did it.
Williams and Jellife (1982) opposed the idea of modeling school services in
poor countries after European and North American practices with prime emphasis on routine
medical examinations, which with limited staff and inadequate facilities at referral centers,
usually degenerate into an endless and almost pointless routine of inspection with no
possibility of correcting the large number of abnormalities discovered.
Hypothesis 2: Health guidance and counselling is not significantly available for
pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Table 2: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondents who agreed or
disagreed with items on health guidance and counseling.
Summary
Agreed
Disagreed Test
Observed 2-tailed Comment
Items
prop.
prop.
prob.
Health
291
714
0.5000 0.2895
0.0000 Negatively
Guidance and
(29.0%) (71.0%)
Significant
Counseling items
Table 2 showed that 291(29.0%) of the respondents agreed that health
guidance and counseling were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in
Southwestern Nigeria, while 714(71.0%) of the respondents disagreed that health guidance
and counseling were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern
Nigeria. Through the observation carried out in nomadic schools, it was discovered that out
of the 205 nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria. 47(22.9%) provided health guidance
and counseling for pupils while 158(77.1%) did not provide health guidance and counseling
for pupils.
Table 2 above also presented responses to health guidance and counseling
items computed with binomial test. The result show that observed binomial proportion of
0.2895 for those who agreed with the items on availability of health guidance and counseling
is significantly lower than those who disagreed with the items on health guidance and
counseling availability at the 5% level (P=0.0000<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis which
stated that health guidance and counseling is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic
primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria is accepted and the researcher concluded that health
guidance and counseling is not significantly available for pupils in Nomadic primary schools
in Southwestern in Nigeria.
The above findings are in line with the findings of Wilson (1993) who stated
that in many Nigerian primary schools health guidance and counseling is absent. Speaking
further, he stated that guidance and counseling is the procedure by which nurses, teachers,
physicians and guidance counselor interpret to pupils and parents, the nature and significance
of a health problem and aid them in formulating a plan of action which will lead to the
solution of the problem.
The above findings are in contrast with the findings of Maduagwu (1995) who
found out that guidance and counseling services were adequately carried out among pupils in
the schools he investigated in Anambra State.
Through the focus group discussion it was revealed by the pupils that, they
were not being counseled concerning their health.
Hypothesis 3: Follow-up services are not significantly available for pupils in
nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Table 3: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondents who agreed or
disagreed with items on follow-up services.
Summary
Agreed
Disagreed Test
Observed 2-tailed Comment
Items
prop.
prop.
prob.
Follow-up
409
596
0.5000 0.407
.0000
Negatively
Services items
(40.7%) (59.3%)
significant
Table 3 revealed that 409(40.7%) of the respondents agreed that follow-up
services were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria, while
596(59.3%) of the respondents disagreed that follow-up services were available for pupils in
nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria. Through the observation carried out in nomadic
schools, it was discovered that out of the 205 nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria,
92(44.9%) provided follow-up services for pupils while 113(55.1%) did not provide followup services for pupils.
Table 3 above also presents responses to follow-up services items computed with
binomial test. The result showed that an observed proportion of 0.407 for those who agreed
with items on availability of follow-up services in significantly lower than those who
disagreed with the items on follow-up services availability at the 5% level (P=0.000<0.05).
Therefore, the hypothesis which stated that, follow-up services are not significantly available
for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria is accepted and the researcher
concluded that follow-up services were unavailable in nomadic primary schools in
Southwestern Nigeria.
The result is in contract with the findings of Maduagwu (1995) in a research he
conducted in Anambra State Secondary Schools, which revealed that follow-up services were
adequately carried out among the pupils.
Also Arunsi (1997) in a study conducted in Lagos Primary Schools found out that
nurses and teachers held meetings to discuss the health of pupils and that meetings sometimes
included the parents of pupils. The schools health nurses visited very sick pupils at home and
the teachers were informed when the pupils had recovered enough to resume school. A good
flow of information existed between the school, the clinic and the pupil’s home. The nurses
and teachers met with parents on the health of their children.
The focus group discussion carried out in nomadic communities revealed that there
were no follow-up services in nomadic schools. Majority of the parents also revealed that
there were no follow-up services in nomadic primary schools.
Brooks and Brooks (1999) identified follow-up services as one of the activities carried
out in the interest of those children for whom the school has a record of physical
abnormalities, according to them, follow-up services are not being given the necessary
attention in schools.
Hypothesis 4: Emergency care and first aid is not significantly available for
pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Table 4: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondent who agreed or
disagreed with items on emergency care and first aid.
Summary
Agreed
Disagreed Test
Observed 2-tailed Comment
Items
prop.
prop.
prob.
Emergency
362
643
0.5000 0.3602
0.0000 Negatively
care and First
(36.0%) (64.0%)
Significant
Aid items
Table 4 above showed that 362(36.0%) of the respondents agreed that
emergency care and first aid were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in
Southwestern Nigeria, while 643(64.0%) of the respondents disagreed that emergency care
and first aid were available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Through the observation carried out in nomadic schools it was discovered that out of the 205
nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria, 77(37.6%) provided emergency care and first aid
for pupils while 128(62.4%) did not provide emergency care and first aid for pupils.
Table 4 above also presented responses to emergency care and first aid items
computed with the binomial test. The results showed that an observed proportion of 0.3602
for those who agreed with items on availability of emergency care and first aid is
significantly lower that those who disagreed with the items on emergency care and first aid
availability at the 5% level (P=0.0000<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis, which stated that
emergency care and first aid is not significantly available for pupils in nomadic schools in
Southwestern, is accepted and the researcher concluded that emergency care and first aid was
not significantly available for pupils in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
The above findings are in contrast with the findings of Maduagwu (1995) who
found out that emergency services were adequately provided in the school he investigated.
Falawiyo (1988) and Nwana (1988) stated that first aid is the commonest emergency care
provided in the schools. However, in nomadic schools this is not the situation, first aid and
emergency services were not available because of the fact that, there were no well equipped
first aid boxes and persons trained in the use of first aid were not available in the schools.
Cases of serious injuries were immediately referred to the hospital for treatment.
The result of these findings is in contrast with the findings of Arunsi (1997) in
a research she conducted in Lagos State primary schools. She said that pupils affirmed that
emergency care and first aid services were provided for pupils while the parents indicated
that the health personnel gave prompt treatment in emergency situations.
The findings are in line with the observation carried out in the nomadic
schools, which revealed that although first aid boxes were available in some of the schools,
these boxes were not well stocked and besides, person(s) trained to carry out first aid in case
of injuries was (were) not available in the schools.
Hypothesis 5: Control of communicable diseases is not significantly carried out
in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Table 5: Binomial test table showing the proportion of respondents who agreed or
disagreed with communicable diseases control items.
Summary
Agreed
Disagreed Test
Observed 2-tailed Comment
Items
prop.
prop.
prob.
Communicable
625
380
0.5000 0.6218
0.0000 Positively
diseases control (62.0%) (38.0%)
Significant
items
Table 5 showed that 625(62.0%) of the respondents agreed that communicable
diseases were controlled in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria, while
380(38.0%) of the respondents disagreed that communicable diseases were controlled in
nomadic primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria.
Through the observation carried out in nomadic schools, it was discovered that
out of the 205 nomadic schools in Southwestern Nigeria, 132(64.4%) had experienced control
of communicable diseases while 73(35.6%) had not experienced control of communicable
diseases.
Table 5 above also presents responses to communicable disease control items
computed with binomial test. The results showed that an observed proportion of 0.6218 for
those who agreed with items on communicable diseases control in nomadic primary schools
in Southwestern Nigeria is significantly higher than those who disagreed with the items on
communicable disease control at the 5% level (P=0.0000<0.05). Therefore, the hypothesis
which stated that, control of communicable disease is not significantly carried out in nomadic
primary schools in Southwestern Nigeria is not accepted and the researcher concluded that
communicable diseases were significantly controlled in nomadic primary schools in
Southwestern Nigeria. Crosson (1995) in a study he conducted in some selected public
schools found out that communicable diseases outbreak in the schools investigated were
controlled by the Local Health Department. The application of appropriate hygiene,
sanitation and environmental control procedure are essential for controlling the spread of
communicable diseases.
Foutes (1996) also stated that a high incidence of scabies infection among
school children in a research he conducted was adequately controlled. While Arunsi (1997) in
a research she conducted in Lagos primary schools found out that nurses took measures to
prevent the spread of communicable diseases among pupils and their parents in the school
clinics. The nurses also co-operated with teachers on immunization programmes for the
pupils in times of outbreak of diseases. Infected pupils and staff were isolated, and the school
environment was fumigated when an epidemic had been brought under control. The efforts to
control communicable diseases in nomadic schools are predicated on the recognition of the
fact that the school environment was very conducive to the transfer of disease among the
children and staff.
Also school age children possessed low levels of immunity therefore,
conscious efforts were made to protect them from communicable diseases. In contrast are the
findings of Maduagwu (1995) in a research conducted in Anambra State secondary schools
were communicable diseases where not adequately controlled. Focus group discussion with
the parents revealed that, in the community, outbreak of communicable diseases were usually
reported to the local health centres and most times such cases were taken care of.
Recommendations
Based on the findings of this research work, there is the need for urgent
attention to be given to school health services in nomadic primary schools in Southwestern
Nigeria. These recommendations will have little effect without the strong support of planners,
policy makers, administrators at the national, state, local government and community levels.
1.
The Government should ensure that before a child is enrolled in a school, medical
examination of such a child is carried out and even while in school, periodic and
routine medical examination should be done on the pupils. Such examinations should
include visual screening, hearing and auditory acuity screening and dental inspection.
Through this, early detection of medical problems could be achieved which will lead
to early correction or treatment of such defect.
2.
Health guidance and counseling should be given priority in nomadic schools by the
government. To this end, the government should employ qualified health teachers,
nurses and guidance counselors who will be able to interpret to pupils and parents the
nature of a health problem, and also aid them in finding solutions to such problems.
3.
The Federal, State, Local Government and the community should collaborate among
themselves and provide well stocked first aid boxes for nomadic schools to enhance
emergency care of injuries before taking the victim to the hospital if need be.
4.
The issue of communicable disease control in nomadic schools and the communities
should not be taken with levity by the government, the communities and the schools
considering the kind of environment in which the nomads live, cases of outbreak of
diseases should be promptly reported to the appropriate quarters for immediate action.
Parents and teachers should make sure that pupils suspected of having communicable
diseases are isolated from the class or taken to the hospital for treatment. The teacher
should make sure that until the child is declared fit medically; he or she should not be
allowed to return to the class. This is to prevent possible infection of others.
Conclusion
Based on the research findings, it was concluded that nomadic primary schools
in Southwestern Nigeria have no functional school health services. This is so because out of
the five variables tested only control of communicable diseases was significantly indicated.
Health appraisal, health guidance and counseling, follow-up services, emergency care and
first aid were significantly unavailable in the schools.
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Evaluation and the Health Profession 3,4:473-476.
CHALLENGES OF ECO-SUSTAINABILITY CAMPAIGN AND
ENVIRONMENTALISM IN NIGERIA: THE WAY FORWARD.
Nche George Christian
Department of Philosophy and Religion
Ebonyi State University
Abakaliki, Ebonyi State,
Nigeria.
Abstract
The effects of Climate change alongside its attendant environmental issues have become glaring and
devastating in Nigeria. Is it to talk about the incidence of flood that have cataclysmically wrecked several states
in the Country, the massive loss of lives and property, or the increased York of poverty and destitution that have
befallen thousands of people as a result of climate change? Good enough, there has been eco-sustainability
campaigns and environmentalism in the country. These campaigns aim at stabilizing the earth’s eco systems
while encouraging environmental sustainability. Beyond this challenge already posed by the phenomenon of
climate change, this Paper seeks to discuss the external challenges militating against efficient eco-sustainability
campaigns in the Country. The rueful lack of fund, facilities, adequate environmental Training and the menace
of corruption, high insecurity, poverty and poorly regulated population growth, have been found to be these
challenges. The Paper however, recommends concerted efforts from both the government and other
stakeholders, in order to successfully combat climate change and its effects in the Country.
KEYWORDS: Eco-sustainability, Climate change, Campaign, Environmentalism, Eco-system, United Nations
Introduction
Over the years, the phenomenon of climate change and other attendant environmental
issues have been at the front burner of global discourse. The global goal has been to heal and
replenish the earth. This is because the earth has suffered generational neglect and injustice.
The earth has for so long, been subjected to “slavery” and her natural resources and
endowments exploited in utter disdain and condescension. The increase in land use,
deforestation and burning of fossil fuels are some of the anthropogenic activities that have
destroyed and pillaged the earth’s atmosphere and environment. Consequently, the grave
effect of climate change is currently felt in several parts of the world. Ecological disasters
like extreme weather conditions, floods and loss of biodiversity which have resulted in
increased rate of poverty, famine, draught, etc; are now commonly heard of, in several
Countries. In Nigeria, for instance, the incidence of flood seem to be occurring on daily basis
as there has been reported cases in Ibadan, Cross River, Lagos, Akwa-Ibom, Enugu, Abia,
Anambra, Plateau States etc.
According to Scientists, these ecological disasters are just a tip of the ice bag, when
compared to the magnitude of danger, climate change holds for man, if it continues
unchecked. Climate change is “an over-riding environmental threat that impacts most other
aspects of environmental sustainability including forests, water and oceans”.
(www.climateark.org). And it has been estimated that at least a 80% reduction in greenhouse
gas (Carbon dioxide, Nitrous oxide, Methane etc) emission is to be achieved as soon as
possible and not later than 2050, to achieve adequate ecological sustainability. Hence, there
have been several Eco-sustainability campaigns both at the International and National levels
with the sole aim of saving the earth’s climate. While the global Eco-sustainability campaigns
are spearheaded by the United Nations on the platform of United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and other similar agencies/organizations; these
campaigns are carried out by both Nationally based and United Nation affiliated
organizations at the National Levels.
In Nigeria, Eco-sustainability campaigns have been in existence and their methods are
impressively eclectic. However, these campaigns are beset with some problems or challenges
in the Country. Therefore, a critical look at these campaigns and these challenges is the main
thrust of this Paper.
ECO-SUSTAINABILITY CAMPAIGN ANDENVIRONMENTALISM:
Eco-sustainability: The word “sustainability” has its etymological origin in the
Latin “sustinere” which is a combination of two words – “tenere” (to hold) and “sus” (up),
literally meaning “to hold up”. Eco-sustainability (or ecological sustainability) refers to the
ability to hold up, maintain, conserve and enhance ecological features of the earth. It is
currently applied to the consistent sustenance and development of the earths ecosystems in
relation to every aspect of human life, like health, economy, sports, commerce, etc. ecosustainability campaign, then refer to all the environmentally friendly thoughts, decisions,
actions and every other activity targeted or aimed at creating awareness on the welfare of the
natural environment.
Environmentalism: Environmentalism on the other hand, refers to the human
consciousness and concern for the natural environment which is expressed in
environmentally friendly thoughts and actions.
GLOBAL ECO-SUSTAINABILITY CAMPAIGNS
The Global Campaigns for the conservation and sustainability of the earth’s
ecological systems is relatively old. The conservation of the natural environment has for so
long been a global concern, hence, as far back as 1948, the International Union for
Conservation of Nature (IUCN) was founded as the world’s first global environmental
Organization. And its fundamental objectives have been to tackle climate change, achieve
sustainable energy, improve human well-being and build a green economy. This organization
currently has more than 1,200 member organizations, including over 200 governments and
over 900 non-governmental organizations. (www.iucn.org). Again, in September 1961, the
World Wide Fund for Nature (formally known as World Wildlife Fund) (WWF) was founded
in Morges, Switzerland. The fundamental mission of this organization is to stop the
degradation of the planet’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in
harmony with nature through conserving the world’s biological diversity. And since 1961, the
organization has invested nearly US $10 billion in more than 13,000 conservation Projects in
over 150 Countries. (www.panda.org)
It is however, pertinent to note at this junction that, in global Eco-sustainability
campaigns, the United Nations is the key player. The Organization has over the years, held
several Environmental summits and created platforms for other global Eco-sustainability
campaigns. For instance, the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment which
lasted from June 5- 16, 1972, was held in Stockholm, Sweden. This is popularly known as
Stockholm Conference and was the UN’s first major conference on international
environmental issues, and marked a turning point in development of international
environmental politics (www.en.wikipedia.org). Also, in 1978, the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) held a conference in Tbilisi,
Georgia, which emphasized the need for Environmental Education across the world. One of
the Declarations of the Tbilisi Conference was “To provide every person with opportunities
to acquire the knowledge, values, attitudes, commitment and skills needed to protect and
improve the environment” (UNESCO 1978). Again, in collaboration with the United Nations
Environment Programmes (UNEP), the World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
organized the first and the second World Climate Conferences on 12-23 February 1979 and
on 29 October to 7 November 1990 respectively in Geneva. The first Conference led to the
establishment of the World Climate Programme (WCP), World Climate Research Programme
(WCRP) and Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in 1988, whereas, the
second conference was somewhat more political and a step towards a global climate treaty.
This particular conference led to the establishment of the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), “of which the Kyoto Protocol is a part, and to
the establishment of the Global Climate Observing System (GCOS)”.
(www.en.wikipedia.org).
Furthermore, on the phenomenon of climate change, the United Nations
Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) has taken the lead in organizing
several subsequent International Conferences on Climate Change. For instance, while the
issues raised in respect to the Kyoto Protocol in the 1997 climate change Conference as
organized by the United Nations Framework conservation on Climate Change (UNFCCC),
were being deliberated upon, the Copenhagen Summit (Cop15 – Conference of Parties) was
convened in 2009, in Denmark. This was followed by the Cancun conference (Cop-16 in
Mexico) and the most recent Durban Climate Change Conference (Cop 17) held within the
months of November and December 2011, in South Africa. These later Conferences were,
among other reasons, organized for the main purpose of evolving a mutually accepted legally
binding agreement on the carbon dioxide emission reduction. On the other hand, the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) which is an offshoot of the Stockholm Conference
of 1972, is waxing stronger in its Eco-sustainability Campaigns. As United Nation’s
Programme, ‘it activities covers a wide range of issues regarding the atmosphere, marine and
terrestrial
ecosystems,
environmental
governance
and
green
economy”
(www.en.wikipedia.org). Hence, it has recorded significant world ecological achievements
like “the historical 1987 agreement to protect the Ozone layer-the Montreal Protocol., the
solar loan Program in India, the marshlands Project in Middle East” (www.en.wikipedia.org),
and so on. Also, with the initiative and aid of the United Nation’s Environmental Programme
(UNEP) several environmental projects have been initiated in several other countries across
the globe. Some of these projects include “the Kawasaki City Environmentally Harmonious
project in Japan, the middelgrunden Wind Turbine Co-operative in Denmark, the Sustainable
Agriculture projects carried out by Centre for Applied Research and Environmental System
(CARES) in U.S.A, Sustainable Projects (the Eco-village) in Ireland and so on.
(www.ecosustainable.com.au/projects.htm)
Furthermore, the United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development was
recently held and concluded on 22 June 2012 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. This is popularly
known as the Rio + 20 Summit and was organized under the ambit of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP). The theme of the conference was “The Future we Want”
and it attracted more than 190 Nations who deliberated and accepted the concept of “Green
Economy in the context of sustainable development and poverty eradication”(Sheffield and
Nierenberg 2012). Also, as part of the global Eco-sustainability Campaign, some dates have
been designated to creating awareness on environmental issues. These dates include World
Wetlands Day (February 2), World Sparrow Day (March 20), World Water Day (March 22),
Earth day (April 22), World Biodiversity Day (May 22), World Environmental Day (June 5),
World Oceans Day (June 8), Zero Emissions Day (September 21),World Planting Day
(October 22) and so on. (www.en.wikipedia.org).
In summary, these Conferences and more, go a long way to buttress the fact that the
conservation and sustainability of the natural environment is indeed a global concern.
However, this global goal, which is to replenish and conserve the earth’s Eco-systems, cannot
be actualized without the collective efforts of all the countries that make up the globe.
Therefore, it is on this premise, that the campaigns for Eco-sustainability in Nigeria shall be
discussed.
ECO-SUSTAINABILITY CAMPAIGNS AND
IN NIGERIA
ENVIRONMENTALISM
The environmental issues in Nigeria seem to be enormous and interconnected. Some
of these environmental issues include air pollution, water pollution, deforestation, soil
degradation, indiscriminate dumping of refuge, poor drainage and sewage system, bush
burning, oil spills, gas flaring and so on. And at the receiving end, are the people who suffer a
lot of ecological disasters like breathing problem, desert encroachment, loss of biodiversities,
poor agricultural productivity, floods and attendant loss of lives, property and mass
displacement diseases, increased poverty and destitutions etc. as a result of the above
environmental injustice and neglect in the country. This has made the nature of ecosustainability campaigns in Nigeria, somewhat aggressive and confrontational.
Hence,
there are many environmental right organizations in the Country. Some of these
environmental organizations include; Gender and the Environmental Initiatives (GEI), Waste
Management Society of Nigeria (WMSN), Movement for the Survival of the Ogoni People
(MOSOP), Pan African Vision for the Environment, Environmental Right Action (ERA) etc.
Particularly, the Environmental Right Action (ERA) is a Nigerian non-governmental
organization founded in 11th January 1993, by Nnimmo Bassey along side other three
persons. The members of the organization are also called Friends of the Environment/Earth
(FOE) and are dedicated to the defence of human ecosystems in the context of human rights
as well as, “the promotion of environmentally responsible governmental, commercial,
community and individual practice in Nigeria, through the empowerment of local people’
(www.essentialaction.org). The Niger Delta experiences in relation to ecological damages
like oil spills and gas flaring by Oil Companies (Shell and others) in the region, is the
organization’s port of call.
Also, as part of the campaign for ecological sustainability in Nigeria, the
Nigerian Environmental Study/Action Team (NEST) has taken as a duty, the task of
sensitizing and empowering Nigerians on issues of environment and sustainable
development. (www.nestinteractive.org). Similarly, Nigerian Youths have founded the
Nigerian Youth Environmental network (NYEN), whose mission is to create positive
environmental awareness among Nigerians, and fellow Youths in particular.
(www.orgs.tigweb.org). The Ecofest Nigeria, on its own part, has been impressive in its
eco-sustainability campaigns. The Ecofest Nigeria is a Green initiative of Arther Mackenzie
dedicated to promoting environmental consciousness and awareness. Its mission is “to
reconnect humanity to the environment by addressing one of the greatest challenges facing
humanity-climate change”. (www.ecofest-ng.com). It is currently organizing “Ecofest
Nigeria 2012,” which is an Environmental Impact Assessment Conference. Additionally, it is
carrying out an ecological project, which is called “Planting for Peace: 155 million Tree
Campaign” which is expected to be completed within a period of five years. Furthermore, in
2006, there was a national coalition of over one hundred (100) diverse Civil Society
Organizations from across Nigeria, to form the Climate Change Network Nigeria (CCNN).
This coalition is “an imperative measure to evolve a national CSO-led integrated
stakeholder’s involvement in climate solution campaign for effective mitigation, adaption and
national response to the deadly impacts/vulnerability of climate change”. (www.unep.org).
The Climate Change Network Nigeria (CCNN) works in partnership with the special Climate
Unit of the Federal Ministry of Environment of Nigeria. The Organization has developed a
Seven-point Action Plan which include:
i. Promoting Grassroots Awareness through Community Outreach on Climate Change
(COCC)
ii. Facilitating Research, Exhibition and documentaries (RED)
iii. Promoting Advocacy and Communication (A&C)
iv.
Training and Capacity Building (TCB)
v. Renewable Energy promotion (REP)
vi.
Combating Deforestation and Desertification and Flooding (CODD+F) and
vii.
Implementing Climate Solution Campaign Programs (CSCP)
The discourse on the Eco-sustainability Campaigns in Nigeria, would be incomplete
without the Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF). This Organization, since inception,
embraced three major thematic interventions to achieve its main objectives of Environmental
Education in Nigeria. They include a Nationwide Schools Conservation Programme;
Community Based Education at the Organization’s Project Sites and Promotion of
Environmental Learning through Publications, Education materials and environmentally
related events and campaigns. ( www.ncfnigeria.org) The Nigerian Conservation Foundation
(NCF), through its Nationwide school Conservation Programmes, has recorded some success
in creating awareness on the need for environmental sustainability, among young Nigerians.
This is done through the establishment of Conservation clubs in both primary, high schools
and tertiary institutions. Hence, as at December 2009, NCF Conservation Club Programme
had a network of 1,743 clubs with 34,077 members. These Clubs carryout various activities
like planting of trees and organization of campaigns, lecture and walks. Also as part of the
Campaign for ecological sustainability the NCF has established an Electronic Library called
the Nature’s Roost, for the purpose of linking Nigerian Conservation Club members to the
global community especially as it relates to the environment.
Interesting, the campaign for ecological sustainability in Nigeria is not a duty restricted to
non-governmental organizations; some state governments in the Country, have taken as a
serious business, the campaign for sustainable environment. A good example, is the Lagos
state. The Lagos state government is waxing stronger in it’s campaign for a “green Lagos”
under the leadership of Governor Babatunde Fashola who gave the theme of the year 2012
campaign as “Plant Trees for a Better Climate” (Udodinma 2012:46). In an occasion,
Governor Fashola reportedly said thus;
In the realization of the importance of Trees to sustainable
environment, our tree planting campaign continues to wax stronger
having planted over
3 million trees across the State since 2008. The air round
Lagos is now Faster and cleaner (Adesina 2012:18)
This is exactly what Nigeria and the world at large need: a clean air, a greener
environment, and a restoration of the lost glory of nature which was aesthetically expressed
in the quality of air man breathed, forest, lands and waters. This is the goal of
Environmentalism and Eco-sustainability campaigns in Nigeria. However, these campaigns
for the conservation and sustainability of the natural environment in Nigeria is faced with
some external challenges which shall be discussed under the next sub-heading.
CHALLENGES OF ECO-SUSTAINABILITY
ENVIRONMENTALISM IN NIGERIA
CAMPAIGNS
AND
Besides, the challenges already posed by the phenomenon of climate change, there are
other external challenges facing eco-sustainability campaigns in Nigeria. These challenges
include:
Lack of Fund and Facilities
This is one of the major obstacles to efficient eco-sustainability campaigns in Nigeria.
Ecological campaigns involve a lot of methods like Awareness creation, execution of
Ecological projects, environmental researches and so on. Each of these methods of campaign
requires fund to be effectively carried out. Therefore, in a situation where there is insufficient
fund to embark on these campaigns, Ecological sustainability as a goal, would be elusive.
This is true of Nigerian situation. The idea of eco-sustainability seems not to have captured
adequate attention in the Country and as such very little is often left for it. Hence, while
speaking at the 9th February 2011 World Wetland Day (WWD) celebration organized by the
Nigerian Conservation Foundation (NCF) in Ogun State, Mr. Ademola Lawal, the Omo
Forest Environmental Education Officer, described low finance as one of the greatest
challenges facing the club. (www.ncfnigeria.org). Again, the lack of adequate facilities like
laboratories for Environmental researches Buses for awareness creation, etc. which aids
campaigns, is another major challenge to eco-sustainability campaigns in Nigeria.
Lack of Adequate Environmental Training
In 1977, the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural organization
(UNESCO) in a declaration at the Tbilisi Conference, emphasized the need for
Environmental Education for every individual across the globe. It also recommended the
inclusion of Environmental Education in school curricula. However, the challenge has been
how to efficiently carryout this environmental Education. In Nigeria for instance, the question
has always been; how many teachers embark on this Environmental Education and how many
are adequately trained on environmental issues? Even beyond the school curricula and among
the Environmentalists as well as those who embark on Eco-sustainability campaigns; how
many are adequately vest with the fundamental knowledge in the science of Ecology and
Environment? This is indeed a challenge which affects the quality of Environmental
awareness creation in the Country.
Corruption and Mal-administration
Embezzlement and misappropriation of public fund in Nigeria, has always been a
great obstacle to growth and development in all aspect of the Country’s life. Particularly, the
menace of corruption has been a challenge to a successful and efficient eco-sustainability
campaign in Nigeria. The gross mismanagement and misappropriation of N199.329 billion
Ecological Fund by the Federal Ministry of Finance is a case in point. (Nwankwo and
Oluwole 2012). Even the way some serious environmental issues like gas flaring, oil spill etc
are being handled by the Federal government, is highly discouraging. For instance, several
communities in Niger Delta Region have been wrecked by accumulated oil spills from aged
and poorly maintained oil infrastructures owned by Shell Oil Company. In relation to Bodo
Oil Spill, the United Nation Environmental Programme (UNEP) has confirmed that “Nigerian
Regulatory Agencies are at the mercy of Oil Companies when it comes to conducting site
inspections” (The Nation 2012:4) Similarly, the Environmental Rights Action (ERA)
reportedly accused the Federal Government of abandoning the United Nations Environmental
Programme (UNEP) assessment report on Ogoniland pollution for over a year, which
demanded a $1 billion total oil clean-up of the region” (Amusan 2012:3). This lackadaisical
attitude of the Federal Government towards the environment is indeed discouraging and a
challenge.
High Insecurity
It is no more news to be told that life and property are rarely safe in Nigeria. Every
one, including the rich and the poor, is threatened by the astronomic rise of insecurity in the
Country. This is occasioned by the incidence of armed robbery, kidnapping for ransom, and
all-dreaded Boko Haram insurgence. This challenge of insecurity has been a great obstacle to
several developmental projects and activities in the Country. It has affected eco-sustainability
campaigns and environmentalism in several ways. For instance, due to the level of insecurity
in the country, some parts especially the north, have been declared danger zones. As a result,
some of these places are hardly chosen for ecological projects like Seminars, Workshops or
even Tourist destinations. On 26th July 2012, for instance, the Nigerian Conservation
Foundation (NCF), Taraba state Project Coordinator, Mr. Ashimi Tirimisiyu was reportedly
killed by gunmen at Jalingo, Taraba State. And this was barely two months after the
Foundation lost her executive director, Professor Emmanuel Obot in the unfortunate Dana
Air Crash. Also, the Boko Haram insurgence and its characteristic bomb explosions have
peculiarly exacerbated the phenomenon of climate change. This is true because, for each
bomb explosion, some tons of Sulphur dioxide, ash and dust are released into the atmosphere,
which contribute to climate change.
Population Growth
Population growth in Nigeria is also a challenge to efficient eco-sustainability
campaigns in the Country. The Country’s population currently stands at 167 million and it
has been projected that in 2050, it shall increase to 303.6 million (Population Reference
Bureau 2002) due to the current rate of growth. The implication is that some socio-economic
problems like poverty, conflict etc, shall intensify, due to the struggle that shall ensue for
limited resources. Okpala (1990) has rightly observed that irregular “population growth
causes soil erosion, nutrient exhaustion, rapid deforestation and other problems which render
the land unusable for Agriculture”. No wonder, President Goodluck Jonathan, on 27th June
2012, reportedly lamented the overwhelming rate of population growth and went on to back
Birth Control Measures. More interestingly, however, the current rate of population growth in
Nigeria has affected campaigns for ecological sustainability through the resultant pressure on
the environment. It also increases the number of Ecological Footprints and as such as
challenge. Ecological Footprints refer to the “real areas of the earth’s surface dedicated to
every individual’s consumption of food and wood products, building, roads, garbage dumps
etc.” (Okonkwo 2005).s
Poverty
The rate of poverty in Nigeria is overwhelming. It is no more news to be told that
majority of Nigerians live below a dollar per day. More enigmatic, is that the consequences
of this menace of poverty affects every aspect of the peoples life, including the environment.
For instance, a larger number of rural dwellers are as well as some urban dwellers depend on
fire woods for cooking. These fire woods are gotten from fallen trees and branches, and as
such, fuels deforestation. Also, poverty has been the major cause of rural-urban immigration
in Nigeria which increases the population density of urban areas in cities like Lagos, Abuja,
Abia, Enugu and other cities in the Country. Interestingly, an outstanding characteristic of
these over-populated Cities, is illegal structures and buildings, which are put up for either
commercial purposes or residential purposes. More interestingly, is that majority of these
structures are wrongly situated on water canals which has resulted in poor drainage systems.
Consequently, flood has wrecked several parts of these cities in recent times. This has, in
extension, affected eco-sustainability campaign in the Country.
The Way Forward
Indeed these challenges listed above have affected eco-sustainability campaigns and
environmentalism in several ways, in Nigeria. Specifically, however they have affected both
the quantity and quality of ecological awareness and Environmental Education in the
Country. And Sutton (1998) has rightly asserted that “a society that is not ecologically
sustainable is being driven recklessly”. Hence, the following have been recommended as a
Way Forward:
A. Parental Participation: The war against climate change is a war for all, not for a
few. Therefore, parents should take as a duty, the task of inculcating environmentally
friendly values in their children at home. This will go a long way in preserving the
natural environment as well as enhancing campaign for eco-sustainability.
B. Philanthropic Assistance/Partnership: Apart from the age-long assistance
and partnership with the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and other
internationally based governmental and non-governmental organizations, more
organizations, companies and wealthy individuals both in Nigeria and abroad should
financially assist and sponsor ecological projects in the country for the sustainance of
the natural environment.
C. Government’s Commitment: Government should place more value on the
environment by allocating more fund and making sure these funds are adequately
used in serving the environment. It should also probe the managers of previous
Ecological Funds and prosecute offenders if the need arises. On the other hand, the
Government should evolve a suitable Birth or Population Control Measures in the
Country at least for the sake of the environment.
i. Also, Government should stop the procrastination of Action on Gas flaring. The
Country looses a great fortune annually to gas flaring which on the other hand,
contributes to climate change. Therefore, the Government should embark on this
Associated Gas Re-injection to save both the planet and the country’s economy.
ii. More importantly, the Government should rise to it’s fundamental duty of protecting
lives and property by squarely addressing the menaces of Boko Haram, Kidnapping
for ransom and other related security challenges in the Country. The creation of
accessible quality education for all; as well as adequate job opportunities for Nigerian
youths can help in this direction.
Conclusion
In summary, the effects of global climate change in Nigeria has become conspicuous
with the deluge that has become a daily occurrence in several states in the Country. This
affects all; therefore, every hand must be on desk in the fight for a Sustainable Environment
in the Country.
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FARMERS’ EDUCATION AND FARM PRODUCTIVITY IN BANGLADESH
Abu Zafar Mahmudul Haq
School of Business
City University, Banani, Dhaka 1213, Bangladesh
Abstract
The impact of farmers’ education is examined with a view to evaluate the actual
situation of farmers’ education in Bangladesh. The sample of the study consists of one
thousand farmers. Multiple regression model was used. The result presented in this paper
show that the returns to education from primary school is positive and statistically significant
in Bangladesh. The benefit of college education and above degrees to the sample farms is not
found in its effect on rice productivity. Some determinants of primary school, college and
above degrees are also examined.
Key words: Bangladesh, education, farmers, rice productivity.
Introduction
Education is human right and an indispensable element for economic and social
progress. Understanding this significance of education, the realization of educational
expansion has been increasing world wide (Hansen 2001). However, sometimes this is not
adequately appreciated by most policymakers and planners in the less developed countries
like Bangladesh. In Bangladesh, about half the child population in rural areas does not
receive any formal education, and the proportion of university graduates or postgraduates is
no more than one percent (Ishida et al. 2000). It implies that the education arena is not so
developed in this country. The existing education system in the country is not work based.
This is more acute in her agriculture although it is the primary source of subsistence and
income for the vast majority of the population. Education for scientific method of agriculture
is still felt necessity in this country (Begum 1998). Appropriate use of inputs is not well
registered here by the farmers due to illiteracy or low level of education (ibid). It is unclear
about the effects of education of farmers on their agricultural activities. With this regard, the
present study is conducted.
Yang (1997) in rural China studies found significant impact on highest education of
farmers on their production. In Mexico, Taylor (2000) conducted his study in the
municipality areas for the same purpose. Jollife (1998) observed the situation of education in
Ghana. It is proven in Russia that education is necessary for her (Katz 1999). Almost all
studies agreed on the importance of education. Many studies were conducted from different
perceptions. Chowdhury et al. (2002) examined school enrollment of males and females in
the rural areas while Begum et al. (1996) observed some rural institutions’ role for the
education of farmers. These studies are notable but at the same time it is necessary to keep
attention whether the existing education system is keeping influence significantly or not.
Rahman (1999) examined the effect of technology on income. The definition of income was
not elaborate of that study. For example, it ignored the income from homestead area which is
also an important source of rural household income. So the impact of education on income is
unclear from the study. This unclear situation was overcome by the study of Haq et al.
(2004). Despite it, Haq at al. (2004) could not identify the effects of primary school
education, higher school education, college education and education of graduate levels. Most
of the farmers of Bangladesh are illiterate or primary school passed. Any serious studies of
the impact of education of farmers on rice productivity by taking into consider on their levels
of education is scant in Bangladesh. The current paper, based on farmers in the central area of
Bangladesh, has two major objectives: 1) to assess the benefits of farmers’ education on the
productivity of rice and 2) to identify some determinants of education of farmers.
Methodology
Sampling Design
The research area was Gazipur district which is an average agricultural productivity
area. The selection of the study sites and sample respondents were done purposively. There
were some salient features in the selection procedure. First one, the selected district includes
some important infrastructures such as BARI, BIRRI and BSMRAU etc. Second one, total
numbers of selected villages were ten by taking two villages from five upazilas (subdistricts).
Of the two villages in each upazila, one village is selected comparatively nearer to the upazila
headquarters and the other one is selected comparatively away from the upazila headquarters.
The selected comparatively nearer villages were namely, Samantapur (Sadar), Bagnahati
(Sreepur), Dushya Narayanpur (Kapasia), Katalia (Kaliakoir) and Poinlanpur (Kaliganj). The
selected villages which were comparatively away from the upazila headquarters, namely,
Bara Bhabanipur (Sadar), Saitalia (Sreepur), Noyanagar (Kapasia), Poshim Chandpur
(Kaliakoir) and Bhatgati (Kaliganj). Third one, the total households were more than one
hundred in the selected villages (BBS, 1993). It was then decided to collect one hundred
samples from each village. The total numbers of investigated farmers were one thousand (2
villages x 5 upazilas x 100 farmers) and multistage random sampling technique was followed.
Primary data was collected using survey method and personal interviews were conducted
through pre-tested questionnaires with a view to collect data. The survey was administered
with the help of staffs of the BARI in 2002. Fourth one, each upazila has some
characteristics: Sadar upazila is completely urban type; Sreepur, Kapasia and Kaliganj
upazilas are rural type and headquarters of these upazilas are the only urban areas while
Kaliakoir upazila headquarter is the only urban area and Safipur is the other urban area of this
upazila (BBS, 1993). This study can be comprehensive compared to many research works
due to the above salient features which will explore the actual situation of farmers’ education
in Bangladesh from the grassroots levels.
Conceptual Framework
Many of the previous researches used the productivity index representing the amount
of production per unit of farm land, that is, the value added of production, which is found by
deducting production costs from gross income. By using that index, it is possible to convert
the specific quantities of products into given amounts of money to be added up; therefore it
represents a considerable analytical benefit. The method of settling the type of variables from
which the index is determined, expected to be discussed.
As is commonly used in analyzing production function, chemical fertilizer, farm
buildings, irrigation facilities, family and hired labours should be considered as important
investment functions (Evenson et al, 2001). Haq et al.(2003) considered crop income per unit
of land as dependent variable and chemical fertilizer cost per unit of land, irrigation cost per
unit of land, experience of farmers, farm area, number of times extension contact as
independent variables. Therefore, it summarized the model, Ln crop income= f (ln chemical
fertilizer, ln irrigation, ln experience, ln farm area, ln labour, extension contact dummy1,
extension contact dummy2). Haq et al. (2004) interpreted total income as dependent variable,
while age of farmers, years of schooling of farmers, family size, number of educated family
members, number of earners of a farm family, rural institutions dummy, number of times
extension contact, proportionate effect of flood to crop land, distance between crop land to
market, homestead area, size of farm, irrigation cost, village dummy were taken as
independent variables. The income function was solved by applying ordinary least squares.
The above concepts provide to run an empirical model which is found in the ensuing section.
Empirical Model
The model applied here is the input-output model. The heart of the input-output model
is the concept of the production function [Y=f (Capital, Labour)] which helps us in
understanding the role of important variables like capital and labour in determining the crop
productivity. But only two factors have no reflection on the productivity of a major crop like
rice. Therefore, based on related past studies and logical analysis some important explanatory
variables which are considered in this study namely age of the farm household head (Ag),
number of family members (Fm) in the household, number of family earners in the household
(Fea), number of times extension contact received by the farmer for the sample crop season
(Et), proportionate effect (%) of flood to crop land (Fec), distance from farm land to market
in miles (Mr), actual size of cultivated land in acre (Fs) , per acre total cost of chemical
fertilizer (Ch), per acre total labour cost (Lab), per acre total money spent for irrigation (Irr),
primary school dummy (Prdummy) =primary school 1; otherwise 0, college dummy
(Coldummy) = college and above 1; otherwise 0, and village dummy (Vdummy) = 1 if near
village; otherwise = 0.
The yield of rice (maund/acre; 1 maund=37.3 kg) is the dependent variable in the
present paper as it is the major food crop in the country. It includes boro rice because it is
hardly affected by the natural disaster compared to other rice crops and it was cultivated by
all sample farms.
Most of the farmers of Bangladesh are either illiterate or unskilled. Thus farm
operators may increase their production with the knowledge derived from education (Haq et
al, 2004). Relevant importance of other selected variables can be found in related literatures
(Haq et al, 2004; Evenson et al, 2001; Begum 1998).
Data have been analyzed by regression analyses. OLS method may have
heteroskedasticity problem in case of cross section data (Damodar 1995). To determine
whether or not heteroskedasticity exists, the White Heteroskedasticity test was used on
regression model and F-test was then used to check for heteroskedasticity. In cases in which
heteroskedasticity was found, a log transformation is used (ibid). Finally, the productivity
expressed in terms of physical quantity is as follows: Log of Rice yield = f (Ag, Fm,
Prdummy, Coldummy, Fea, Et, Log Fs, Fec, Mr, Ch, Irr, Lab, Vdummy). It has been used
binary logit model in order to examine the determinants of farmers’ education.
Results and Discussion
The estimated values of coefficients and related statistics of the multiple regression
coefficients are presented in Table-1. The adjusted R2 values agree with similar studies which
are understandable because of the numerous factors affecting the yield of rice. The F-values
are significant at 1% level of significance which implies that the specifications of the models
were reasonably accurate (Begum 1998). The results of the functional analysis suggest that
except for few variables, all the variables had a positive effect on rice yield in the sample
farms.
Table-1: Regression Results
Vari
Definitions
ables
C
Intercept
Ag
Age of farmers
(Log)Ri
ce yield
3.480**
0.076
0.002**
Fm
Number of family members
Prd
Primary school 1, otherwise 0
ummy
0.001
0.015**
0.008
0.096**
*
Col
dummy
Fea
0.031
-0.053
0.047
0.067**
College and above 1, otherwise 0
Number of family earners
*
Et
0.019
0.102**
Number of times extension contacted
*
0.023
og)
0.414***
0.032
Fec
Proportionate effect of flood to crop land
0.001***
0.000
Mr
Distance between market and nearest farm land in
miles
0.022**
0.010
Ch
Cost of chemical fertilizer (Taka/acre)
0.000**
*
2.82E05
Irr
Irrigation cost(Taka/acre)
0.000**
*
1.54E05
Lab
Labour cost(Taka/acre)
-5.86E05***
1.23E05
Vdu
Near villages 1, otherwise 0
mmy
0.217***
0.029
Adjusted R square 0.513
F – ststistics 79.080***
Fs(l
Size of farm in acre
Notes: ***, ** & * 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance. Italics denote standard error.
1 acre=.404hectare. 1$=Tk.60 in 2002
Table 1 represents the regression results of education impact on rice yield. Primary
education has positive value and its impact on rice productivity is significant. The Coldummy
has no impacthowever the value is insignificant. The coefficient for Prdummy is particularly
great (0.096), compared to the Coldummy (-0.053).The results of Haq et al, (2004) suggests
that in Bangladesh, the higher number of education years seem more effective with a view to
increase farm income. Compared with the results of Haq et al, (2004), the present analysis
suggests that in Bangladesh, primary school education of farmers seem effective in order to
rise per unit of rice productivity in Bangladesh. It is plausible because the farmers who have
only primary school degree, may spend enough time for farm production. Accordingly, it is
possible to ascertain in this context that education with only primary schooling contributed to
improve the agricultural production per unit of farmland.
Small farms are ideal for higher productivity. Flood has no significant impact. Ag and
Mr have negative but statistically significant effects. Fm and Fea are positive and statistically
significant. Chemical fertilizer and irrigation costs contributed positively and significantly.
Lab implies an excessive use of labour for rice yield. Vdummy has negative and statistically
significant impact that means it has no importance for rice yield.
Relationship of the Selected Characteristics of the Farmers’ with their selected
Educational levels:
Table -2 shows that agricultural income (Agi) is very important for higher education
such as the degree of college and any other above degrees. Therefore, the degree of primary
school is not important to pursue higher degrees. It is seen that size of farms, distance
between market and farm land have positive impacts in order to acquire college degree and
above. The variable Ag is inversely related to the college degree and above. The impacts of
other variables on Coldummy are either in positive or negative but their impacts are weak
since their coefficients are insignificant.
Table -3 shows that the size of small farms, comparatively young farmers and
comparatively remote villages have impacts on primary school education. The variable Ch
has no impact on primary school education. Variables such as Et, Mr, Irr and Agi have no
clear cut relationship with the Prdummy since their values are insignificants.
Logistic Regression Table-2:
Determinants of farmers’education of college and above
Predictor
Constant
Ag
Prdummy
Et
Fs
Mr
Ch
Irr
Vdumi
Agi
Coef
-0.671967
-0.0285123
-0.860271
-0.0616004
0.121498
0.0419804
-0.0000782
-0.0000869
-0.148870
0.0000031
SE Coef
0.591220
0.0104449
0.240797
0.198187
0.205945
0.0656160
0.0002224
0.0001318
0.237492
0.0000010
Z
-1.14
-2.73
-3.57
-0.31
0.59
0.64
-0.35
-0.66
-0.63
3.23
P
0.256
0.006
0.000
0.756
0.555
0.522
0.725
0.509
0.531
0.001
Odds
Ratio
0.97
0.42
0.94
1.13
1.04
1.00
1.00
0.86
1.00
95% CI
Lower Upper
0.95
0.26
0.64
0.75
0.92
1.00
1.00
0.54
1.00
0.99
0.68
1.39
1.69
1.19
1.00
1.00
1.37
1.00
Log-Likelihood = -292.579,
P-Value = 0.000
Logistic Regression Table-3:
Determinants of farmers’Primary school education
Predictor
Constant
Ag
Et
Fs
Mr
Ch
Ir
Coef
2.10833
-0.0220838
-0.0611287
-0.569189
0.0563071
-0.0003079
0.0000394
SE Coef
0.350347
0.0058977
0.109951
0.157813
0.0513487
0.0001349
0.0000740
Z
6.02
-3.74
-0.56
-3.61
1.10
-2.28
0.53
P
0.000
0.000
0.578
0.000
0.273
0.022
0.595
Odds
Ratio
95% CI
Lower Upper
0.98
0.94
0.57
1.06
1.00
1.00
0.97
0.76
0.42
0.96
1.00
1.00
0.99
1.17
0.77
1.17
1.00
1.00
Vdumi
Agi
-0.838278
-0.0000001
0.138815
0.0000008
-6.04
-0.14
0.000
0.886
0.43
1.00
0.33
1.00
0.57
1.00
Log-Likelihood = -628.378
P-Value = 0.000
Notes:
-Meanings of variables on table-2&3 are same as table-1 except Agi variable
which means
total agricultural incomes of farmers for one year prior to survey
period.
-Primary school education :Class I-class V; High school education:class VIX;
College
education:ClassXI-Class
XII;After
class
XII,
Graduate
courses
begin.
Conclusion:
The results presented here show that the returns to education from primary school as
found is positive and statistically significant. It supplements the human capital literature
because it makes clear that the primary school education of farmers is rewarded. As a final
comment, since the government has given top priority for the development of education in
Bangladesh (Daily Star 2011), hence some further education such as extension services and
infrastructure development are necessary to accelerate for farming population. These are not
best but at least in the few among many. Considering the result of this study, as well as other
relevant studies, policy makers should take necessary steps.
References:
1.Begum,R.1998. An Economic Study of Wheat Production and
Marketing in Bangladesh. Diss.Ehime U.
2.Begum, S A,T Ahmed and M A Chowdhury.1996. Literacy
Movement in Bangladesh and Role of Community Institutions:
Exploring
Comilla
Experiences.
The
Journal
of
RuralDevelopment.26.2:33-52.
3.BBS.1993.
Statistical
Pocket
Book
of
Bangladesh.
Ministry of Planning.
4.Chowdhury,A M R.,S R Nath and R K Chowdhury .2002.
Enrollment at Primary Level: gender difference disappears in
Bangladesh.
International
Journal
of
Educational
Development.22.2:191-203.
5.Damodar N G. 1995.Basic Econometrics. Third Edition.
McGraw-Hill,Inc.
6.Daily Star.2011.Thoughts on Education Day. September
17.
7.--.2011.Literacy and Manpower Development.September 17.
8.Evenson, R and G Mwabu.2001. The Effect of Agricultural
Extension on Farm Yields in Kenya. African Development Review.
13.1:1-23.
9.Hansen,M
N.2001.
Education
and
Economic
RewardsVariations by Social Class Origin and Income Measures.
European Sociological Review.17.3:209-231.
10.Haq,A Z M., A Ishida and K Taniguchi.2003. Outcomes
and
Issues
of
Agricultural
Extension
Services
in
Bangladesh.Journal of Agricultural Extension Research.8.:2.
11.Haq, A Z M., K Taniguchi and A Ishida. 2004. The
Impact of Farmers’ Education on Income in Bangladesh. Journal
of
the
Japanese
Society
of
Agricultural
Technology
Management.11.:1.
12.Ishida,A and M D S Hassan.2000.Why do Migrant Workers
Intend to Extend their Stay in Host Countries?38.5:101-115.
13.Jolliffe,D.1998.Skills,Schooling and Household Income
in Ghana. World Bank Economic Review. 12.1:81-104.
14.Katz,K.1999. Were there no returns to education in the
USSR? Estimates from Soviet-period household data.
LabourEconomics.6.3:417-434.
15.Rahman,S.1999. Impact of Technological Change on
Income Distribution and Poverty in Bangladesh Agriculture: An
Empirical
Analysis.
Journal
of
InternationalDevelopment.11.7:935-955.
16.Taylor, J E and A Yunez-Naude.2000. The Returns from
Schooling in a Diversified Rural Economy. American Journal of
Agricultural Economics.82.2:287-297.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AS A CONTROL STRATEGY FOR
PROMOTING QUALITY EDUCATION IN NIGERIA
Azubuike P. Idu
School of Primary Education, Federal College of Education (Technical), Omoku-Nigeria
Abstract
Classroom management has been viewed as a control strategy for effective instructional and
curricular activities towards ensuring quality and relevant education at all levels.
Consequently, there is need to ensure a good and sound classroom environment for effective
delivery of the teaching and learning process. The paper underscored the need for
revitalizing classroom management and therefore calls on the teacher skills in ensuring
effective discharge of instructional responsibilities. An overview of classroom management in
the school were highlighted. Finally, the paper highlights key principle or factors of
improving the learning environment so as to bring about the desired qualitative education in
Nigeria.
Keywords: Classroom, Management, Education,Teaching, Learning
Introduction
For effective teaching and learning to take place, it is important to recognize and
arrange the classroom environment, to suit the learners who can only learn when conditions
that encourage learning are provided. There is need to understand what will be involved in
the environment. Idowu , 2012) observed that a number of environmental factors influence
the child such as home, social, school and so school experience exert dynamic effects on
children’s learning behavior. Given the above situation, it beholds on the teacher to
effectively control and manage the classroom in a way that order, peace necessary for
effective learning will be put in place. In most Nigerian schools, there are inadequate
classroom, therefore it calls for proper management and control of the available class to
promote and ensure effective teaching/learning process.
The achievement and success of classroom teaching and learning interaction depend
to a large extent on the teacher’s skill and abilities in classroom management. If the teachers
lack abilities in management of the classroom, control and order that will enhance
teaching/learning process will be inhibited. The goals or objectives of quality education
cannot be achieved in the school system without effective classroom management. The
teacher specifically is the instructional leader of the classroom and as such is essentially the
important pivot of classroom management. He is responsible for ensuring effective
management of the classroom so as to achieve sound climate or environment for effective
teaching/learning. Consequently, the need for effective classroom management as a control
strategy for promoting quality education cannot be over-stated. It is believed that classroom
management is an essential ingredient in the school system without which, it will be difficult
to ensure peace and stability in the classroom management should be seen and use as a
resources that could be meaningfully utilized to sharpen the quality of the output in teaching
and learning. Further, it could be used as a factor in the process of quality education
implementation.
The paper attempts to examine the processes and skills required for effective
classroom management. It further explained the concept and practical application of
classroom management as control measure in enhancing teaching/learning process. The paper
highlights the conceptual definitions, purposes and process of classroom management and
discipline. Attempts at asserting the need for effective classroom management as a necessary
instrument for ensuring efficient, productive control and discipline in the classroom for
enhanced and efficient delivery of the teaching and learning situation for the attainment of
qualitative education was made.
Classroom management: An overview
Classroom management has defined as the process concerned with been defined as the
processes concerned with indentifying, maintaining, motivating, stimulating, controlling and
unifying human and material resources in the classroom for maximum success in teaching
and learning situation (Adesina et al, 1995) Duke (2002) described classroom management,
as the provisions and procedures necessary to create and maintain a situation in which
learning and teaching can take place. And for teaching/learning to take place, there should be
order in the classroom. Order as described by Cohen, Intille and Robino (2002) is a situation
where there is a clear set of expectations for all classroom members, where people anticipate
expectations and where there is high degree of conformity to the expectations.
Furthermore, classroom management has been viewed as the process that involved the
careful harmonization of those elements which help to create good teaching-learning
atmosphere which include the physical conditions with the classroom ventilation, equipment,
general appearance, the seating of pupils, the collections of books and materials etc.
According to Idu (2003) Classroom Management is the process by which a teacher gets his
pupils/students to co-operate in directing actions towards achieving the proper atmosphere in
the classroom for learning.
The above definitions is proof that classroom management is the effective utilization
of human and material resources as well as the curriculum within the classroom setting for
the successful teaching and learning process and the attainment of the school objectives and
promotion of quality education in the nation.
Reasons for Classroom Management
Ali (2007) asserts that the central aim of effective classroom management is to
promote a classroom environment or state conducive for purposeful teaching and learning
situation. Classroom management as a control strategy for effective learning is very
important in that it will serve the following useful purposes in the attainment of set goals of
the class, school and the educational system in general.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Develop the student’s sense of respect for laws and order towards constitute authority.
Check offenses committed by the students and punch them accordingly and appropriately.
Maintaining peace, order in the classroom environment.
Creating an atmosphere of discipline in the classroom for the learners to feel free and move
freely.
e) Developing in the students the attitude of self-control and co-operation as a valuable
personnel asset in meeting as well as fulfilling the duties of everyday life.
f) Establishing and maintaining conditions necessary for effective teaching and learning.
g) Generating the learner’s interest, attention and active participation in the lesson by using
appropriate instructional materials and methods for qualitative lesson delivery.
Dubey and Ndogi (1985) noted that in creating the right atmosphere for learning there
will be need to make efficient use of resource put in the classroom in order to produce
students with academic achievement that are as high as desirable and so, attain the overall
objective of the school. Dubey et al (1985) proposed this chart as a model for classroom
management.
Classroom environment
Equipments
Teachers
Pupils
classroom
Pupils
Academi
Input Output
c
Achieve
All these components are what
make up the school environment and to achieve a desirable result in ment
Metho
the school, the environment must be controlled through proper
classroom management. The teacher must adjust his management role dology
and behavior according to the characteristics of the class. When there
is good classroom management, there is a positive approach to class
activities. It must be though emphasized that there is classroom without small problems no
matter how well managed. However, where good class management is lacking, there is chaos
and teaching and learning are disrupted.
The Process and Skills of Classroom Management
Classroom management process is concerned with the teacher who is the instructional
personnel and control manager’s abilities and skills to effectively manage the physical setting
of classroom, time, class control, students interest, their well being as well as maintaining
discipline and order for effective teaching and learning. Therefore, classroom management
remains the key factor in the attainment of set goals of the learning process and ensuring a
quality educational system.
The following areas of classroom management are among the most essentials areas
that need to be put in place to ensure a smooth learning environment
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Physical classroom atmosphere
Chalkboard arrangement
Classroom arrangement
Time management in the classroom activities
Handling instructional materials
Communication for effective control,
Sustaining of learners in the class.
Physical classroom atmosphere/arrangement: The physical arrangement of every
classroom is most important point of concern in classroom management. This is because the
physical setting of classroom has been viewed as an important and determining factor for
motivating learner’s to learn or deterring them from learning. Harward (1973), Farrant (1991)
& Adesina et al (1995) are all of the view that, if the classroom setting is orderly, beautiful
and comfortable in terms of lighting, organization, temperature conditions, learners will be
happy, eager and willing to learn. However, a poorly arranged classroom which is sited near a
noisy area or street factory or market place and which does not have the right classroom
facilities such as lighting, adequate chairs, right temperature etc can lead to lack of interest,
boredom, fatigue, indiscipline and negative learning attitudes on the part of the learners.
Therefore, it is necessary and important the classroom teacher understand that the physical
environment of the class, and the school constitute a strong factor for effective classroom
management and motivators for effective learning. Harvard (1973)
Chalkboard Arrangement
This is an integral part of efficient classroom management. The chalkboard is very
essential part of the classroom that enables the teacher utilize the learner’s sense of sight and
their sense of hearing in the teaching/learning process. The use of two or more sense instead
of one, makes learning sticks and more permanent. To bring about good chalkboard
arrangement, the following should be considered.
i.
ii.
iii.
All work on the chalkboard should be in the style of handwriting readable and
understandable to all the learners in the class.
Sketches/diagrams should be made quickly to illustrate the important points in the
teaching process.
Work should be arranged neatly on the chalkboard for easier learning.
It is important to note that bad chalkboard arrangement has bad effects on the
learners, but with proper management and arrangement, learners will enjoy the learning and
achieve its goals.
Classroom Arrangement
Classroom arrangement is an important factor in the process of teachers classroom
management and control. Teachers should possess the necessary skill in the class
arrangement for effective utilization of classroom space that will facilitate efficient teaching
and learning. However, good classroom arrangement depends on the type of furniture
available in the school. In most cases the individual students desks or long benches,
chalkboard and teacher desk are provided in schools classrooms. These should be well
arranged in rows.
Time Management in the Classroom Activities
For effective classroom management and control, time management skill must be
imbibed. Time management like any other skill can be learned. The degree of efficiency and
success in teaching and learning in the classroom depends on the adequacy of the planning
and use of time as a resource. If the time available is well managed there will be enough time
for all the teacher to bring about efficiency and effectiveness in the school programme. It is
important to note that the teacher should have a weekly and daily time charts showing details
of what he intends to achieve every week or every day.
Sustaining of Learners’ Interest in the Class
Teaching is deliberate and plan activity. Therefore, the teacher must spend some time
thinking about what to teach, who to teach and how to teach. The teacher must carefully
select learning content, medium of instruction and how to evaluate what is taught in order to
sustain the learners’ interest. This will ensure and thereby create conducive classroom
climate. In sustaining the learner’s interest, the teachers should use a variety of methods and
techniques of teaching.
Handling Instructional Materials
As part of their teaching strategy, many teachers find it necessary to provide
supplementary material or notes for the students in addition to the information in the
textbooks. When notes or diagrams are written or drawn on the board during the lesson, a lot
of teaching time is wasted. If the school administration will allow it, notes and diagrams
should be duplicated on a machine and each students get a copy. In most classrooms there are
bulletin boards and host of empty wall spaces for charts, diagrams, notes and other forms of
visual materials. A teacher should try to make use of such facilities as frequently as possible,
otherwise he will be neglecting important dimensions in the management of learning.
Communication for Effective Classroom Management
Adesina (1995), considers communication as an important instrument for effective
classroom management and control for the attainment for the school goals. He argues that
without effective communication skills the teacher would not be able to carry the learners in
the process of classroom management and instructional performance. In communication
process, the teacher knows what to communicate, how to communicate when to communicate
and the medium, means or channels learning/teaching process, there must be successful
communication. Good communication in the classroom helps to make lesson clear and easy
for students to learn. Generally, good communication make teacher’s work in classroom
management process easier as well as creates an environment of the school conducive for
learning.
Keys in improving the learning environment
The teacher’s major responsibility is that of teaching and helping the student to learn
by varying his behavior to be the one who explains, listens, demonstrate etc. he also create
the necessary atmosphere that enables learning and development of a good student-teacher
relationship. The following will enable the teacher improve the learning environment. The
teacher:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Explains to the student
Listens to the students
Demonstrations to the learners using the necessary materials to clarfy
Examines the students using different materials
Rewards good behavior as a correction
Advises
Punished for misbehavior as a correction
Counsels the learners each time they have a problem
Guides the learners.
Conclusion
Effective classroom can be used as a control strategy in promoting quality education
in Nigeria. All the components in the school environment should be harmonized in order to
bring about the desired results. It therefore calls on the teacher who is the instructional leader
of the classroom to acquire the necessary skills needed for effecting discharge of professional
responsibilities. The teacher also need to ensure that he puts in all the procedure of classroom
management as well as avoid all obstacles to effective classroom control for the attainment of
quality child educational growth and development in particular and education in general.
References
Adesing, et al (1995) Foundation of Education, Ibadan: Macmillan Publishers, Nig. Ltd.
Ali, M.O (2007) Classroom Management in H.M Bello, and A.B Abukakar (ed.s) Issues in
Educational
Management. A study material for Nigeria teachers Kaduna
Cohen, E.G Intilli, J.A.K & Robbino, S.H (2002) Task and Authority. A Socialogy view of
Classroom
Management. In D.L Duke (Revised Ed) Classroom Management
Chicago: University of Michigan
Press.
Dubey, D.L & Ndoji, J.O (1995) Teaching in the Primary School. A Course for Active
Learning. Lagos:
Longman (Nigeria)Limited.
Duke, D.L (2002) Classroom Management. Chicago University of Michigan Press.
Farrant, J.S (1991) Principles and Practices of Education, Benin Longman Nigeria
Harvand, E. (1973) International Association for Educational Achievement. UNESCO Report
Idowu, A.I (2002) The Learning environment of the Nigerian child. In R.U.N Okonkwo &
R.O Okoye (Eds)
The Learning environment of the nigerian Child (pp.1-15). Awka:
Education Publisher.
Idu, A.P (2003) Classroom Management and Organization Owerri: Eastern Polytechnic
Publishers Ltd.