Lectures have always been central to teaching in Higher Education and continue to be both the mainstay of many modules and the focus of student expectations of a university education. They are good for transmitting information from the lecturer to a large number of students simultaneously, increasingly, however, there is criticism of the lecture which is seen as a potentially quite passive and therefore not a particularly effective learning experience for students. A traditional lecture is a long way from the sort of active learning that is generally seen as being beneficial. In recent years, increasing student numbers and new learning technologies have created a new set of pressures on, and possibilities for, the lecture.
The information below considers some of the strengths and challenges of the lecture and introduce some ways of making lectures more effective for student learning.
What should lectures offer students?
A shared experience and a sense of belonging.
Bringing a cohort of students all together in one place for lectures can be a good way of providing the sort of shared experiences that can help build a sense of belonging. Introducing more interactive elements to lectures makes those links between students stronger.
A framework / overview of the topic.
Lectures are a good way of providing an outline of an area of study as preparation for more detailed work carried out individually or in seminars or tutorials. One view is that lectures should concentrate on basic concepts and key ideas, or threshold concepts. In any case, it is important to focus on what students need to know at their stage, rather than everything the lecturer knows about a topic. Writing learning outcomes for a lecture can help to keep attention on the essentials while planning the content and may help you to choose activities to informally assess students’ learning during the lecture.
Excitement for the subject.
An enthusiastic lecturer can inspire students to want to learn about a topic - even apparently dry subjects can become exciting in the right hands.
Students are likely to be even more enthusiastic if they see the subject as something that relates to their lived experience and that they can actually get involved with themselves, so activities that engage students with current affairs, or real life questions will make a subject more relevant and interesting.
A personal interpretation or research angle.
Research active lecturers can bring an individual perspective to a topic that may be different to, or more current than, ideas explored in textbooks. Students value hearing about how the ideas they are reading about relate to lecturers' own research. This also allows opportunities for students to ask questions about the research, either during the lecture or afterwards in an online discussion on Study
Direct.
Modelling of a disciplinary approach.
As a practitioner, a lecturer is in a good position to give students an understanding of what it means to 'do' their particular discipline. To demonstrate, for example, the disciplinary approach of a physicist or anthropologist. But most practitioners or researchers in a field do not approach their own learning through lectures. Academic conferences, which are the closest thing, also include opportunities for engaged discussion, networking and peer learning so it would be helpful to include opportunities for that sort of learning in lectures by using appropriate short activities, such as asking students to compare notes or ask questions amongst themselves.

Familiarisation with language and discourse.
Listening to an expert talk about a subject offers students the opportunity to get familiar with the new vocabulary of their chosen discipline. If the lecture is just one-way, however, with little opportunity for students to test their understanding of new terms or ask questions then the new language may act as a barrier to learning rather than a gateway into a disciplinary community. Various lecture activities, such as quick tests or students writing questions can help with mastering new vocabulary as can use of Study Direct (SyD) forum discussions and glossaries. You could even show students the new words in the SyD glossary during a lecture to encourage its use.
A personal learning experience captured in notes.
Many people see note-making as the most important activity that students engage in during lectures but too often the process is quite passive with lots of writing going on but not much thinking. If you expect students to take notes, it is worth introducing a short exercise to illustrate note making rather than copying slides. Students coming to University from A-levels taught in English schools are unlikely to have been expected to make any notes and will have little concept of how to do so. You can help students to structure their notes and have more time to engage with your presentation by providing (in advance) skeleton handouts/gapped handouts. There is also advice for students on making notes in lectures on the Study Success at Sussex (S3) website .
Things to think about when planning your lecture.
Lecturers often worry about things like presentation skills, dealing with new technologies and managing difficult behaviour. With thorough planning before the lecture these things need not be a cause for concern, and knowing exactly what you are going to be doing in the lecture is likely to lessen any nerves you might be feeling.
Presentation skills are important if you are to get your message across to your audience.
Here are a few key points it is worth bearing in mind when lecturing.
 Ensure students can hear you, whilst taking care of your voice; modern microphone systems are well worth using to avoid any vocal strain and to ensure audibility in all parts of the lecture theatre. Where induction hearing loop systems are fitted, the use of the microphone will ensure maximum advantage for anyone with a suitable hearing aid. If you are using activities in your lecture you should not have to speak for too long at one time and taking an occasional sip from a bottle of water will help your voice and calm your nerves. The Staff Development Unit offer workshops on vocal skills and voice care for Sussex colleagues.
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Non-verbal communication is powerful, so it is important to think about your body language, posture, eye contact etc., but there are cultural differences in what is considered appropriate so this can be a tricky thing to get right.
 Ideally lecturers would avoid using their notes too much, but the confidence to do away with them usually only comes with experience, so in the meantime you might try printing a few key words and phrases in a large font or writing them on cards so that you can just glance at them quickly rather than appearing to read from a script.
 Try to use the space you have and move around the room as this is more dynamic and lets you get closer to your audience.
Feedback from students and colleagues can help you to develop your presentation skills and it is useful to observe colleagues lecturing or watch videos of lectures on YouTube or TED talks to get ideas about what works.
Structure is essential for a clear and effective lecture. Typically a lecture will start with a

short review of the previous session and an outline or set of learning outcomes, followed by the body of the material / argument and a conclusion summing up the main points.
Sometimes, though, a more unusual structure can work very well, for example starting with a quotation, demonstration, video or audio clip, story, or voting. You might then choose to structure your content in a range of ways: for example, chronologically, by geographical location, by topic or through problem solving. A narrative or story-like thread running through a lecture can be powerful, both in terms of the lecturer finding it easier to remember the flow and also students finding it easier to navigate their way. At the end it would also be useful to review the outcomes or outline, provide a summary of key points and suggest further work and link to the next session.
Attention and retention.
As suggested above, using a range of activities to stimulate student engagement with the lecture will help to maintain a good level of attention and improve understanding of the material. One way to capture attention is with the use of images or video clips rather than too much text on slides. Fortunately there are now many places to find good images that are not restricted by copyright and YouTube has many good quality videos on almost any topic.
Disruptive behaviour is not a common problem, but if it does occur it is important to deal with it as soon as possible. At the start of the first lecture/class some staff take a few minutes to explain what they expect in terms of promptness, turning off mobiles, talking, questions, note taking etc. This may include a negotiation of a start time at 5 minutes past the hour if students are travelling across campus from a previous session. Anecdotal evidence suggest that this significantly reduces the number of students arriving late. It also helps to explain any handouts that you will provide, your use of Study Direct and how students can ask questions. If a class is much smaller than the room capacity, consider encouraging/requiring students to move forward.
New technologies are commonly used in lectures to enhance student learning. The overhead projector is gone and a whole new set of tools has joined PowerPoint. Depending on the room you are using you are likely to find a SMARTboard or similar interactive whiteboard, the lecture capture system, and/or a ‘Ladibug’ visualiser. You might also want to use a student response system (clickers) or an alternative presentation platform such as
Prez i .
If you would like to discuss your use of learning technologies or find out about training opportunities please contact Technology Enhanced Learning team: tel@sussex.ac.uk
If the presentation you have to give is more than about 20 minutes long, it is important to break it up with some activities. A short break or change of activity will help students to consolidate the material you have delivered and will also help them to concentrate for longer.
Here are some examples of breaks and activities that you might use in lectures with some possible ways of introducing them. These notes are adapted from First Words from the
Oxford Centre for Staff and Learning Development , with some additional suggestions from
Sussex colleagues.
Your discipline, the topic and the level of the students will determine which are most relevant or practical for you and your students:

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Regaining attention - establish a clear signal beforehand: 'When I flash the room light off and on I’d like to get going again'.
Rest: 'OK, take a break for a minute -- stretch or move about, but don't leave the room'.
Read your notes: 'Take two minutes to look at your notes. Check them, fill in gaps, make sure you understand them'.
Share your notes: 'Share notes with the person next to you to compare what you have both written about. You may spot things you could add to your notes'. Be
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 sensitive to anyone who may be dyslexic.
Write down one or two questions: 'I'd like you to write down one or two questions you have at this point in the lecture. Get the question exactly right so that it addresses what you are really interested in or confused about'.
Ask your questions: 'Take the questions you have written down and ask them of the people all around you until you have satisfactory answers'.
Tackle a problem: 'Tackle this problem I am displaying on the screen'.
Read some material: 'Read the case / text / poem / account ... on the handout'. Be
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 sensitive to anyone who may be dyslexic.
Answer a question: ‘On the screen is a multiple choice question. Take a moment to decide which answer you think is best. Raise your hand if you think answer a; and answer b; and answer c?’ or ‘Everyone stand up. If you think the answer is ‘a’, sit down; if you think the answer is ‘b’, sit down; if you are still standing, you are right!’
Discuss a question: 'In pairs, discuss the following question'.
Take a short test: ‘In your handout, you will see a quick test which will help you to
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 assess your understanding. Take 4 minutes to answer the questions, then swap your answers with your neighbour and mark each other’s answers from the sheet I’ll show on the screen.’
 Apply this concept: 'In threes, analyse this case / problem / text using the concepts
I have just outlined'.
 Reflection: 'Take three minutes to think about what we have dealt with so far. Stay quiet so as not to interfere with others' reflection'.
 Planning: 'Take two minutes to plan out what further work you need to do on this topic -- what you need to read, try out, get practice on . . .'
 Forming an overview.
Towards the end of the class: 'What do you think were the two or three (whatever is the appropriate number) key points made in this class?
Write them down and compare notes with your neighbour. I’ll ask for some ideas in a moment.’
 Think of examples: ‘Now we have seen the theory, what example can you think of
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 to illustrate it? Discuss your idea with your neighbour and be prepared to share the example which you think best fits the theory’.
Brainstorm : ‘Shout out all the factors that you think might be important in…. I’ll jot down keywords now and we’ll discuss them in a moment.’
Video clip: ‘The video clip you are about to see contains several examples to illustrate the theories we have just discussed. Be sure to note down the examples so we can compare them after wards’.
Podcast: ‘The clip you are about to hear contains an example of recent research which uses the concept we have just looked at. Jot down any thoughts you have on how this could be expanded to a different area’. Quality Podcasts are readily available, see for example http://www.nature.com/nature/podcast/index.html for weekly excerpts from top stories in Nature.
Research Critique: ‘The data I am showing on the screen was obtained using the method outlined in your handout. In threes discuss how effective you think the research design has been.’
Estimates: ‘On your own, estimate (the proportion of the population with cars; the accuracy of these instruments; the cost of social services; the number of known beetle species etc). Share your estimate with t hree other people sitting near you.’

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Comparing: 'Now I've outlined these two theories, what are the most important similarities and differences between them? Make notes on this for a couple of minutes'.
Prediction (part way through a derivation of proof): 'What is the next stage? Note down what you think it will be'.
Setting a question (more advanced): 'What would be a good question which would test your understanding of what I've said so far?'
Engagement with the debate (1) : 'I've presented one theory or model. Suggest one way in which it could be tested empirically'.
Engagement with the debate (2) : 'I've presented one theory or model. Offer one critique or counter example.'
Vote: Either use an electronic voting response system or a card flash or show of hands to get students to vote on their preferred choices to a question.
Annotate an image: Give students a copy of an image/diagram and get them to annotate it in pairs so that they engage with the material before you cover it. Get feedback from pairs and run analysis as a discussion.
Sandwich it: Give a lecture style format for 15-20 minutes, sandwich in a 15-20 minute activity for the class in groups and then wrap up with a 15 minute lecture slot.
Speed Dating: Use the fun but time limited, concise communication style of speed dating to get students interacting with each other to share a question or idea.
Acting: In this case from sciences, students are asked to act or role play the part of a wire/current/particle in physics or different atoms in chemistry to illustrate what happens when…
Demonstration: Give a demonstration asking for a couple of student volunteers to help you. For example, in medicine, using balloons and tubing to demonstrate lung function with different conditions. Or in Law, create a real dramatic incident in the lecture theatre using a colleague or PhD student. Then use the student reactions to highlight issues with eye witness accounts.
Most academics see the value of providing handouts to accompany lectures and a survey of the literature by Donald Bligh ( What's the use of lectures?
2000: page 154) indicated that 'on balance, it pays to give handouts', but there is often confusion and disagreement about what sort of handout should be provided and when. Increasingly when we talk about 'handouts' we do not mean a pile of paper copies handed out in a lecture, but resources delivered electronically. This page outlines various purposes of handouts in an attempt to answer some of the questions about when and how handouts should be provided, what should be in them and what impact they have on student learning.
The purposes of handouts.
Handouts are a useful supplement to face-to-face sessions and can support further learning in non-contact hours. They can offer important scaffolding for learning by providing an outline, summary of main points, conclusions, questions posed by the material, questions frequently asked by students (FAQs) and links to other lectures.
In the lecture, well-focused handouts can save students spending all their time copying and let them concentrate on understanding the material. This can avoid transcription errors and provide clear versions of diagrams or complicated slides, definitions and accurate spellings of new terminology. International students and those with disabilities or learning difficulties for whom extensive note-taking is hard, find such handouts particularly useful.
Scaffolding handouts can also help to clarify expectations during the lecture, including

information on what students should learn/be able to do as a result of the lecture (learning outcomes) and details of tasks or questions to be tackled during the session. They can encourage focused note-making by leaving specific spaces for students to add notes which make sense of the material in their own words, or make connections to other learning.
After the lecture, handouts can provide specific references or point to sources of additional information. In a handout, you can give references for the sources used in the lecture, detail the most important readings, highlight which extracts are most relevant and include useful web addresses or point students to sections of the Study Direct site.
Handouts can also be used to set tasks or pose questions for work after the lecture and/or in a related seminar. They are also likely to be a significant revision resource for students so it can be particularly helpful to include questions for use as checklist during revision.
Different styles of handout
The range of functions that handouts can serve suggests that different formats may be appropriate. These are just a few examples of types of handouts that may help you to decide what form might be best for each of your lectures. Although many people use PowerPoint to produce handouts you may find that a word.doc will offer more options.
Skeleton handouts provide a bare outline of the lecture structure with some key statements and main references and can be produced on one side of A4. This can be a useful aid to student note-making and helps students to follow the structure of the lecture.
Gapped handouts provide a more complete account of the lecture, but to keep students active, miss out carefully chosen sections. Examples which work well include axes of graphs, key stages in mathematical proofs, dates or labels on diagrams. Notes achieved this way can be personalised by individual students but they also give them time to listen and think rather than copying all the time. Students (especially those with dyslexia or for whom
English is not their first language) can find gapped handouts challenging if you continue speaking and just expect them to spot the gaps, complete them and keep listening so it is better to use the gaps as an opportunity to pause and allow the students to concentrate.
Key information handouts could just include key information such as complex diagrams, maps, formulae, quotations and references. These handouts ensure key information is not missed or copied incorrectly and help with note-taking whilst allowing the lecturer more flexibility in the flow of the lecture.
When and how to provide handouts
Handouts should be made available in advance so that students can use them to prepare for the lecture and then annotate them during the session. Uploading handouts as files to the relevant section of the course Study Direct site is probably the most efficient way to publish them as they will be easily found and available later for revision.
You will want your handouts to be accessible to all your students and JISC have created some online resources that offer guidance on Writing Accessible Electronic Documents with
Microsoft Word which will help you to ensure that your materials can be read by all your students. Alternatively, pdf files can be very accessible and there is guidance on the Adobe website on creating accessible materials in that format.
Students creating handouts

When students are giving presentations they may be required or advised to provide handouts for their audience or as part of an assessment process. To support them in this, you can find student-focused guidance on handouts, notes and visual aids in the presentations section of the Study Success at Sussex (S3) website.