The Cultural Impact in Creating Virtual HRD Learning Platforms
Chih Hung Chung
University of North Texas
United States
sunboy1120@gmail.com
Jessica Li
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
United States
jli2011@illinois.edu
Allen Jeff
University of North Texas
United States
jeff.allen@unt.edu
Abstract: Virtual World helps overcome spatial limitations and allows users from
various cultures to get together in the same virtual space. For this reason, cultural impact
issues have arisen in several fields. Using the information processing and cultural
adaptive theories as a framework, the researcher conducted a comprehensive literature
review pertaining to the cultural impact on Virtual Human Resource Development
(VHRD) learning platform. The purpose of this study is to explore the culture impact of
creating a VHRD learning platform in the virtual world. This study also proposes a
conceptual model of information processing that includes the cultural impact of a VHRD.
The results of this study offer researchers and training program designers a better
understanding of the cultural impact of VHRD learning platforms.
Keywords: virtual world, cross culture, human resource development, information
processing theory
Introduction
Over the past decade, Virtual Worlds (VWs) have become increasingly popular, bringing various
applications to many fields (Zhou, Jin, Vogel, Fang, & Chen, 2011), including human resource development (HRD)
(Bennett, 2010; Condic, 2009). By providing a virtual environment with 3-D capabilities, VWs enable multiple users
to simultaneously access virtual contents, and engage in collaborative learning activities through their avatars (Dede
et al., 2002). VWs have influenced traditional educational activities and will be a new trend of e-learning in the
future (Firat, 2010).
Human Resource Development (HRD) is the facilitator of “organization learning activities arranged within
an organization to improve performance” (Gilley & Eggland, 1989) and many have taken notice of the impact of
VWs in the field of HRD (Bennett, 2010; Condic, 2009). Recently, the Journal of Advances in Developing Human
Resources published a special issue to explore the concepts of VHRD; moreover, VHRD has emerged as a new area
of inquiry in the field of HRD (McWhorter, 2011).
Virtual World helps overcome spatial limitations and allows users from various cultures to get together in
the same virtual space. Researchers of culture adaptation suggested that different cultures would likely influence
HRD applications (Jie, & Lang, 2009; Watson, Kumar, & Michaelsen, 1993). People from different cultures have
various kinds of learning styles (Holtbrügge & Mohr, 2010; Nield, 2009; Olaniran, 2009). Hence, culture should be
an important aspect to consider when designing VHRD learning platforms (Bennett, 2009).
In this paper, we will explore the cultural impact of creating a HRD learning platform in VW and answer
the following research questions: What are the cultural considerations when designing a VHRD learning platform;
and how can a VHRD learning space help learners to overcome cultural barriers?
A theoretical approach will be used by examining current literature pertaining to VWs, HRDs and crosscultural studies. The results of this study can provide researchers with a better understanding of the cultural impact
of VHRD learning platforms. Implications of VHRD research and practice will also be discussed.
Literature Review
In this section, the literature related to virtual worlds, the cultural impact, and the definition of virtual world
and culture will be discussed. Each topic will provide a relative literature review for developing an alternative model
of the VHRD learning design and development.
Definition of Culture and Virtual Human Resource Development
The issue of culture has been broadly discussed in various fields, including sociology, linguistics, the
medical field, economics, and humanities; therefore, the definition of culture is multifaceted. However, in the HRD
field, Hofstede (1998) defined culture as follows: “Culture is the collective programming of the human mind that
distinguishes the members of one human group from those of another. Culture in this sense is a system of
collectively held values.” (p. 478). Hofstede’s (1998) definition of culture helps in understanding the basic
conception of culture in HRD. Therefore, for this paper, Hofstede’s (1998) definition was adopted to study the
impact of culture in VHRDs.
Bennett (2009) stated the definition of VHRD as “a media-rich and culturally relevant web environment
that strategically improves expertise, performance, innovation, and community building through formal and informal
learning” (p. 364). For this paper, Bennett’s (2009) definition of VHRD was adopted to conduct the research about
the cultural impact of VHRDs.
The Development of Virtual Worlds (VWs)
With the continuing development of Internet technology, Virtual Worlds (VW) has rapidly become an
important issue in people’s lives (Zhang, Yu, Dang & Chen, 2010). An estimation by the Gartner Group, by the end
of 2011, 80 percent of active Internet users will have the experience of using the virtual world platforms (“Gartner
says 80 percent of active internet users…”, n.d.). The VW provides a diverse real-time social and economic
interaction platform for users. The total number of residents in Second Life is 22,674,755 as of March 28, 2011
(“Second Life Grid Survey”, n.d.). Several educational and commercial interactive activities have been developed;
for example, the Japanese automotive company, Toyota, built a virtual store in Second Life to show off their Scion
xB model (Kaplan and Haenein, 2009). Moreover, many higher educational organizations have established Second
Life University islands, such as the University of Texas at Dallas, University of North Texas, University of Florida,
& University of Southern California, etc. In 2008, Google proposed its Google Lively products, a web-based virtual
environment. However, in 2009, the service was closed. One of most important factors causing the closure was that
Google’s VW was not as flexible as Second Life. In contrast, Second Life offers a flexible setting and allows its
residents to hold the copyrights on anything created by them. In addition, Second Life allows residents to sell their
contents (Kaplan & Haenein, 2009), and utilize more flexible functions. Currently, HRD in the VW has become an
increasingly popular research topic (Bennett, 2011). However, few studies have focused on the important factors in
the learning performance in VWs; especially, the cultural impact needs to be explored and discussed (Mockaitis,
Rose, & Zettinig, 2012). Shachaf (2008) study showed that cultural diversity had a high impact on decision making,
communication, and media select; thereby, this paper adopted a theoretical approach to explore and discuss the
impact of cultural factors in VW.
The Development of VHRD
With the development of VWs, there has been an increased interest in the impact of VWs on the field of
HRD (Bennett & Bierema, 2010). While all seem to agree that VWs play an important role in the field of HRD,
opinions differ as to the present situation of VWs that have some restrictions that must be solved (Mancuso, Chlup,
& McWhorter, 2010), such as technical problems and the lack of support for the equipment. Other researchers,
however, advocate for the development of technology that could improve the effectiveness and efficiency of VWs,
insisting that VHRD can promote the learning performance (Bennett, 2010; Graham, Muyia, & Nafukho, 2010).
Therefore, McWhorter (2011) presented the concept that VHRD has emerged as a new area of inquiry in the field of
HRD. In this paper, the cultural impact in the VHRD is discussed to improve the learning environment.
The Cultural Impact on HRD
The growth of globalization has prompted many people to study abroad to gain a wide range of experiences
interacting with various people from different countries. The Internet also has the capacity to connect people from
all over the world in the virtual world. Due to the popularity of 3D online games and social networks, more and
more people are adapting to the virtual world environment (Bainbridge, 2010).
International students and employees often face culture shock; however, the Internet has eliminated the
distances between people which may help lessen culture shock by familiarizing users before travelling to other
countries (De Lera, Fernandez, & Valverde, 2010). No matter where one is located, meetings with people from
different countries can be held at any time (Dekker, Rutte, & Van den Berg, 2008). The Internet helps eliminate the
feeling of distance between different counties, but it creates a problem, creating meaningful interactions between
people because the Internet is not a reality environment which makes people feel like they are part of a machine
instead of something more tangible. Therefore, many researchers and programmers have tried to design a friendly
virtual world for users (Bruno & Muzzupappa, 2010). Although the interaction between societies in the virtual world
has been proposed by several researchers, the impact of culture adaptation in the virtual world should be examined
because the process of adapting to different cultures can help in designing more friendly interfaces and learning
environments for users (McWhorter, 2011). Venkatesh, Thong, and Xu (2012) also asserted that culture differences
were one of the most important factors influencing a user’s intention to utilize this technology. Culture shock might
work to help certain people become more creative in overcoming the differences, but a big gap between different
cultures might negatively impact personal learning performances (Bennett & Bierema, 2011). Many international
students from different cultures come to the U.S. to study (Ku & Lohr, 2003). Generally, more time is needed for
international students to adapt to a new culture; and this process of culture adaptation might negatively impact their
learning performance. Therefore, understanding the culture adaptation process in the virtual world can help design a
more environment that is friendly for diverse cultures learning performances.
Cross-Cultural Adaptation
Over the past few decades, cross-cultural adaptation has been discussed in a number of studies (Brettel &
Spilker-Attig, 2010; Pflug, 2011). Kim (1988) defined cultural adaptation as, “the process of change over time that
takes place within individuals who have completed their primary socialization process in one culture and then come
into continuous, prolonged first-hand contact with a new and unfamiliar culture.” In addition, Kim (1988) proposed
the cross-adaption theory as a cooperative joint effort between the unfamiliar and a receiving environment. Figure 1
presents details about the cross-cultural adaptation theory. This theory points to the environment and other major
factors that influence people as they adapt to different cultures. Moreover, these procedures are cyclical and interact
with other factors. Furthermore, when new events or changes occur, people or organizations will adapt to new
situations by changing their behaviors, and this process is suitable for adapting to new cultures as well. The study
conducted by Haslberger (2005) presented a new conception of the cross-adaptation theory that offered scales to
consider, such as novelty, discretion, self-efficacy, and social networks, for the improvement of cross-cultural
adaptation theory. These scales describe how cultural differences influence people’s behaviors in different cultural
environments. However, he also indicated the cross-cultural adaptation process that people use to be able to function
effectively in a different culture is complex. With this complex process, people try to change their behaviors to adapt
to different cultures.
Adaption
Growth over time
Stress
A
B
Figure 1. A: Stress-Adaption-Growth Dynamic. Adapted from Kim, Y. Y. & Ruben, B.D. (1988). Intercultural
transformation: A systems theory. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication
(pp.299-321). Newbury Park, CA: Sage. B: A communication model of the structure of cross-culture adaptation.
Adapted from Kim, Y. Y. & Ruben, B.D. (1988). Intercultural transformation: A systems theory. In Y. Y. Kim & W.
B. Gudykunst (Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp.299-321). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Information Processing Theory
The information processing theory describes the process of environmental events that influence people to
encode information to be learned, to memorize the knowledge, to store new knowledge in their long-term memory,
and to obtain and apply the new knowledge (Ozcelik & Yildirim, 2005). Figure 2 shows a brief flowchart
describing the information process theory in action. In the distance learning field, information processing theory has
been broadly applied to interpret and describe trainees’ learning experiences and processes. Zhang and Zhang (2010)
proposed a new information processing model for e-learning. This model included multimedia and cognitive tools in
e-learning, and describes how to positively influence the information learning process. However, this model paid
more attention to the Web 2.0 platform instead of the virtual world learning environment. Consequently, this paper
adopted the information processing theory to develop a modified model to describe the learning behavior in the
virtual world environment.
Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Working
(Short-Term
Memory)
Retrieval
Encoding
Long-Term
Memory
Figure 2. Information Processing Theory
Output
The Conceptual Model
In the literature review, a conceptual model was proposed to explain the cultural impact in VHRD.
Compared with the traditional models, our conceptual model increases the cultural impact and interaction between
learners and instructor. Each learner and instructor has their own cultural way of thinking and physical capital.
These cultural characteristics serve as a filter that influences a person how to understand and obtain information
from others. Therefore, cultural characteristics can influence a person’s learning performance. Moreover, the process
is very complex and needs to be understood and explored more fully so that we can improve the learning
performance in the VHRD.
The Interaction between Learners and Instructors
The process of interaction between learners and instructors are continuingly changing. In this process,
cultural characteristics would influence a learner in how to receive information and store the information as
knowledge. This is because learners and instructors have their own cultural backgrounds. For this reason, the
instructors utilize different teaching or training skills based on their own cultures. In this scenario, learners might
obtain unreliable information due to misinterpretation brought on by different cultural-based teaching styles. In
addition, the interaction between the learners also has a cultural impact in influencing the process of how a learner
understands and accepts the shared information. According to the cultural adaptive theory, people’ cultural
characteristics are constantly adapting to other different cultures. On the other hand, instructors are influenced by
learners from different cultures. Moreover, the learners are also influenced by each other. Therefore, this process of
interaction between instructor and learner is continually changing.
Individual Information Processing
In the individual information processing procedure, the cultural impact also plays an important role in
influencing a person’s information processing. When a person receives information, the cultural impact could
influence the result of sensor memory. However, through time, the cultural impact allows for information to be
stored in the long-term memory. Finally, the storing process the cultural impact allows for influences the sensor
memory again. The process is like a lifecycle; thus, this demonstrates that cultural impacts influence the information
processing procedure.
Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Working
(Short-Term
Memory)
Retrieval
Encoding
Cultural
Impact
Output
Long-Term
Memory
Learner
Figure 4. The conceptual model of cultural impact in VHRD
Instructor
Discussion
With the model presented by this study, we propose the consideration of cultural impacts in the VHRD. In
this section, we discuss the characteristics of model, the distribution of information processing in VHRD, and the
implications and limitations of the conceptual model.
Characteristics of the Model
Information in virtual world environment is presented in non-linearity and hypermedia forms. In the VHRD,
individuals obtain information without many restrictions. Through interaction via the VHRD, people can deliver and
gather information from others more quickly. Moreover, individuals gain needed and unnecessary mass information
at the same time. However, this situation could result in positive or negative influences for people’s working or
learning performances. For example, individuals could enjoy the flexibility of time in VHRD to obtain more
information. In contrast, mass information causes individuals to spend more time filtering through needless
information which decreases the performance of the information process. Regarding the cultural impact, the
information space becomes more complex because the cultural impact influences how individuals obtain and
understand the received information.
The Distribution of Information Processing in VHRD
The interaction between individuals is one of the most important factors in VHRD; in addition, it helps
learning activities continually progress. The environment of VHRD increases the interactions between individuals
and reduces the limitations of time and distance. The interactions eliminate the big gap in learning goals and
spreads information widely and quickly. Compared to the face-to-face interactive approach, VHRD provides an
effective and efficient learning process for learners. However, learners face a wide array of different cultures and
need to adapt them quickly. The tools in VHRD also have different impacts on different cultures. Therefore, not
only does the interaction between individuals have a cultural impact, but also the tools have cultural components as
well. The cultural impact plays one of the critical key roles in influencing people’s learning performance in VHRD.
Information Processing Construction and the Cultural Impact
The VHRD environment allows the learner to continually exchange information with other individuals.
Both internal and external information processing systems have a cycle of information distribution. With the
information circulation, individuals accumulate cultural information and learning knowledge. Despite the fact that
the cultural impact has some negative aspects at the beginning, the accumulation of cultural information and
learning knowledge help individuals effectively and efficiently obtain valuable information in VHRD.
Implications and Limitations of the Conceptual Model
The study tried to utilize the conceptual model to explain the cultural impact in VHRD, and emphasized the
information process along with the cultural impact in VHRD. In addition, the model points out the complexities of
the interaction between internal and external information processing systems. The conceptual model adopts a
systemic viewpoint to describe the cultural impact in the VHRD. For future studies, this conceptual model provides
information processing along with the cultural impact. As a result, future research could explore how to improve
people’s cultural adaptation to increase the learning performance in the VHRD. In addition, how to design and
develop an effective VHRD that includes the cultural impact will be a research problem. Regarding the practical
aspect; this model helps people understand the cultural impact process in the VHRD; therefore, training program
designers can provide suitable training programs in the virtual world environment. The information process that
includes the cultural impact in the VHRD in this conceptual model is still a hypothesis. This model needs to be
tested in the future.
Conclusion
Cultural impact is one of the most important factors influencing learning performance. Particularly in the
VHRD, the cultural impact in the information processing becomes more complex. This study provided a conceptual
model to describe and discuss the cultural impact in the VHRD. After a review of the literature, the cultural impact
issue in VHRD is still at the beginning stage. Based on the information processing theory and the cultural adaptation
theory, the conceptual model of information processing that includes the cultural impact has been proposed by this
study. Future work based on this study will continue to improve and test the conceptual model.
References
Bainbridge, W. S. (2010). Virtual worlds as cultural models. ACM Transactions on Intelligent Systems and
Technology, 1(1), 1–21. doi:10.1145/1858948.1858951.
Bell, M. W. (2008). Toward a definition of “virtual worlds”. Journal of Virtual Worlds Research, 1(1), 1-5.
Bennett, E. E. (2009). Virtual HRD: The intersection of knowledge management, culture, and intranets. Advances in
Developing Human Resources. 11(3), 362 – 374
Bennett, E. E. (2010). The coming paradigm shift: Synthesis and future directions for virtual HRD. Advances in
Developing Human Resources. 12. 728-741.
Bennett, E. E., & Bierema, L. L. (2010). The ecology of virtual human resource development. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 632-647. doi:10.1177/1523422310394789
Bennett, E. E., & Bierema, L. L. (2011). The ecology of virtual human resource development. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 632–647. doi:10.1177/1523422310394789
Bruno, F., & Muzzupappa, M. (2010). Product interface design: A participatory approach based on virtual reality.
International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 68(5), 254–269. doi:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2009.12.004
Brettel, M., & Spilker-Attig, A. (2010). Online advertising effectiveness: A cross-cultural comparison. Journal of
Research in Interactive Marketing, 4(3), 176-196. doi:10.1108/17505931011070569
Condic, K. S. (2009). Using second life as a training tool in an academic library. Reference Librarian, 50(4), 333345. doi:10.1080/02763870903096419
Dede, C., Ketelhut, D. J., & Ruess, K. (2002). Motivation, usability, and learning outcomes in a prototype museumbased multi-user virtual environment. In P. Bell, R. Stevens, & T. Satwicz (Eds.), Keeping learning complex: The
proceedings of the Fifth International Conference of the Learning Sciences. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Accessed
August 6, 2009, available at, http://muve.gse.harvard.edu/rivercityproject/documents/AELppr.pdf.
Dekker, D. M., Rutte, C. G., & Van den Berg, P. T. (2008). Cultural differences in the perception of critical
interaction behaviors in global virtual teams. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 32(5), 441–452.
doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2008.06.003
De Lera, E., Fernandez, C. & Valverde, L. (2010). The emotional gap in virtual online environments. In Z. Abas et
al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Global Learn Asia Pacific 2010, 67-70. AACE.
Fırat, M. (2010). Learning in 3D virtual worlds and current situation in Turkey. Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences, 9, 249-254. doi: 10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.145
Gartner says 80 percent of active internet users will have a "Second Life" in the Virtual World by the end of 2011.
(n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2011, from http://www.gartner.com/it/page.jsp?id=503861
Gilley, J. W. & Eggland, S. A., (1989). Principles of human resource development, Addison-Wesley, NY.
Graham, C. M., Muyia, H. M. A., & Nafukho, F. M. (2010). Harnessing and optimal utilization of human capital in
virtual workplace environments. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 648-664.
doi:10.1177/1523422310394791
Haslberger, A. (2005). Facets and dimensions of cross-cultural adaptation: Refining the tools. Personnel Review,
34(1), 85-109. doi: 10.1108/00483480510571897
Hofstede, G. (1998). Attitudes, values and organizational culture: Disentangling the concepts. Organization Studies,
19(3), 477-493. doi:10.1177/017084069801900305
Holtbrügge, D., & Mohr, A. T. (2010). Cultural determinants of learning style preferences. Academy of Management
Learning & Education, 9(4), 622-637.
Jie, S., & Lang, B. (2009). Cross-cultural training and its impact on expatriate performance in Australian MNEs.
Human Resource Development International, 12(4), 371-386. doi:10.1080/13678860903135763
Kaplan, A. M. & Haenlein, M. (2009). The fairyland of second life: Virtual social worlds and how to use them.
Business Horizons, 52, 536-572. doi: 10.1016/j.bushor.2009.07.002
Kim, Y. Y. & Ruben, B.D. (1988). Intercultural transformation: A systems theory. In Y. Y. Kim & W. B. Gudykunst
(Eds.), Theories in intercultural communication (pp.299-321). Newbury Park, CA: Sage
Ku, H. Y. & Lohr, L. L. (2003). A case study of Chinese student’s attitudes toward their first online learning
experience. Educational Technology Research and Development, 51(3), 95-102. doi: 10.1007/BF02504557
Mancuso, D. S., Chlup, D. T., & McWhorter, R. R. (2010). A study of adult learning in a virtual world. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 681-699. doi:10.1177/1523422310395368
McWhorter, R. R. (2011). Exploring the emergence of virtual human resource development. Advances in
Developing Human Resources, 12(6), 623–631. doi:10.1177/1523422310395367
Mockaitis, a. I., Rose, E. L., & Zettinig, P. (2012). The power of individual cultural values in global virtual teams.
International Journal of Cross Cultural Management, 12(2), 193–210. doi:10.1177/1470595812439868
Nield, K. (2009). The problems of applying labels of learning style to national cultures. International Journal of
Learning, 16(7), 425-434.
Olaniran, B. A. (2009). Culture, learning styles, and web 2.0. Interactive Learning Environments, 17(4), 261-271.
doi:10.1080/10494820903195124
Ozcelik, E. & Yildirim, S. (2005). Factors influencing the use of cognitive tools in web-based learning environments
a case study. The Quarterly Review of Distance Education, 6(4), 295-308.
Pflug, J. (2011). Contextuality and computer-mediated communication: A cross cultural comparison. Computers in
Human Behavior, 27(1), 131-137. doi:10.1016/j.chb.2009.10.008
Second Life Grid Survey - Region Database. (n.d.). Retrieved March 29, 2011, from http://www.gridsurvey.com/
Shachaf, P. (2008). Cultural diversity and information and communication technology impacts on global virtual
teams: An exploratory study. Information & Management, 45(2), 131–142. doi:10.1016/j.im.2007.12.003
Venkatesh, V., Thong, J. Y. L., & Xu, X. (2012). Consumer acceptance and use of information technology:
Extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology. MIS Quarterly, 36(1), 157–178.
Watson, W. E., Kumar, K., & Michaelsen, L. K. (1993). Cultural diversity's impact on interaction process and
performance: Comparing homogeneous and diverse task groups. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), 590-602.
Zhang, Y., Yu, X., Dang, Y. & Chen, H. (2010). An integrated framework for avatar data collection from the virtual
world. Intelligent Systems, IEEE, 25(6), 17-23.
Zhang, J. H. & Zhang, J. P. (2010). An information processing model of e-learning from the ecological viewpoint.
2010 Second International Workshop on Education Technology and Computer Science.
doi:10.1109/ETCS.2010.341.
Zhou, Z., Jin, X. L.,Vogel, D. R. Fanf, Y. & Chen, X. (2011). Individual motivations and demographic differences
in social virtual world users: An exploratory investigation in Second life. International Journal of Information
Management. 31. 261-271. doi: 10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2010.07.007