Study Guide - Chapter 22
Section 1
Geocentric theory
Isaac Newton
People and Terms:
Scientific Revolution
Robert Boyle
Heliocentric theory
Scientific method
Copernicus
Kepler
Galileo
Geocentric Theory – the earth centered view of the universe in which scholars believed that the earth was an
immovable object located at the center of the universe
Scientific Revolution – a major change in European thought starting in the mid-1500s in which the study of the natural
world began to be characterized by careful observation and the questioning of accept beliefs. It came as a result of the
Renaissance and the Age of European Exploration
Heliocentric Theory – the idea that the earth and the other planets revolve around the sun
Copernicus – discovered and stated that the Earth and the planets revolved around the sun
Galileo – determined that Jupiter had moons and that falling planets accelerated at a fixed rate
Isaac Newton – English scientist who explained the law of gravity
Robert Boyle – 1st to use the scientific method in chemistry and formulated a low that described the properties of gases
under pressure
Scientific Method – a logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas
Kepler – proved that math laws govern all the motions of the planets, he stated that planets move around the sun in an
elliptical pattern and not a circular pattern
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How did the Renaissance and the Age of European Exploration help pave the way for the Scientific
Revolution?
The Renaissance inspired a spirit of curiosity; scholars began to question ideas that had been accepted for
hundreds of years; the printing press spread new ideas quickly. The curiosity and questioning led to scientific
questioning and the Church stopped being the only authority as people became interested in both the physical
as well as the spiritual world.
The Age of European Exploration inspired navigators to create new tools and instruments to enable them to
travel further and faster. They wanted to know more about the earth and questioned old beliefs. The long
voyages led to research in astronomy and mathematics. As scientists looked more closely at the world around
them, they made discoveries that did not match ancient beliefs.
Section 2
Enlightenment
Voltaire
Leviathan
People and Terms:
Social contract
Montesquieu
Thomas Hobbes
Rousseau
John Locke
Wollstonecraft
philosophes
Beccaria
Enlightenment – a new intellectual movement in the 1700s that stressed reason and thought and the power of
individuals to solve problems, the application of the scientific method to an understanding of life
Social Contract – the argument by which people define an organized society or government which was believed by
Hobbes
Thomas Hobbes – favored an absolute monarch because people need to give up freedoms in order to have an orderly
government. He believed that people are basically greedy and selfish and that the society can’t exist without the social
contract
Philosophes – one of a group of social thinkers in France during the Enlightenment who believed in progress for society
Voltaire – criticized the church and French government, believed in tolerance, reason, freedom of religions and freedom
of speech
Montesquieu – he proposed a separation of powers to keep any individual or group from gaining total control of the
government as the best way to protect liberty
Rousseau – wrote the Social Contract, he believed that each person has to sacrifice some personal freedoms or desires
for the good of society as a whole and the only good government is one which is formed by the general will of the
people (majority)
Wollstonecraft – she believed in equal educations for girls so women could fully participate in public life. Education
would give women the tools they need to participate in public life
Beccaria – criticized abused of justice, believed that laws exist to preserve social order, argued for speedy trials and no
capital punishment or torture
Leviathan – written by Hobbes to express his idea of how society need strict control to impose order and force
obedience
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Explain the differences between Locke and Hobbes in terms of their views on human nature and the role of
the government.
Locke believed that rights belonged to people at birth: Life, liberty and property. He believed that the
government was to protect the people natural rights. If the government doesn’t do that then the people should
overthrow it. He favored a democracy where the power of the government comes form the consent of the
governed or the majority.
Hobbes believed that people are basically greedy and selfish and the society can’t exist without control. He
believed that there needed to be a social contract where people would give up their freedoms in exchange for
an orderly society. He favored an absolute monarchy because society needs strict control to impose order and
force obedience.
Choose three of the philosophers we studied (other than Hobbes and Locke) and discuss the ideas of each.
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Voltaire criticized the church and French government, believed in tolerance, reason, freedom of religion and
freedom of speech.
Montesquieu believed that they best way to protect liberty is separate a government into three branches as a
separation of powers so that each branch serves as a check to the other branches as a system of checks and
balances
Rousseau believed that each person has to sacrifice some personal freedoms or desires for the good of society
as a whole; the only good government is one which is formed by the general will of the people.
Beccaria believed that laws exist to preserve social order. He argued for speedy trials and punishments, which
fit the crime, not capital punishment or torture.
Wollstonecraft believed in equal education for boys and girls so women could fully participate in public life. She
felt that only education would give women the tools that they need to participate in public life.
Section 3
Salon
Baroque
Neoclassical
Enlightened despot
Mozart, Haydn,
Beethoven
People and Terms:
Henry Fielding
Frederick the Great
Joseph II
Diderot’s
Encyclopedia
Catherine the Great
Salon – social gatherings of intellectuals and artists, like those held in the homes of wealthy women in Paris and other
European cities during the Enlightenment
Baroque – a style of art which dominated European art of the 1600s and early 1700s characterized by a grand ornate
design which cold be seen in elaborate palaces such as Versailles and in numerous painting
Neoclassical – a new style of art where artists and architects worked in a simple and elegant style that barrowed ideas
and themes from classical Greece and Rome in the late 1700s
Enlightened despot – monarchs who embraced the new ideas and made reforms that reflected the Enlightenment spirit
Diderot’s Encyclopedia – he created the encyclopedia which included the views of the Enlightenment which angered
both the French government and the Catholic Church. Their censors banned the work but Diderot continued publishing
it.
Mozart, Haydn, and Beethoven – three composers in Vienna, Austria, who ranked among the greatest figures of the
classical period in music which was a new, lighter, and more elegant style of music.
Henry Fielding – an English author who wrote Tom Jones which told the story of an orphan who travels all over England
to win the hand of his lady
Frederick The Great – King of Prussia, called himself “ the first servant of the state” and thought that his goal was to
serve and strengthen his country, which was an attitude that appealed to the philosophes
Joseph II – the most radical royal reformer, he introduced legal reforms and freedom of the press, supported freedom of
worship, abolished serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid for their labor with cash. Many of his reforms were
undone after his death
Catherine the Great – admired by the philosophes, read the works of the philosophes and exchanged letters with
Voltaire.
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What was the new style of art that became popular during the Enlightenment, who were some of the
composers, what new writing style developed and how did the arts differ from earlier art?
Neoclassical – It differed from the Baroque style that it was now simple, elegant style that borrowed ideas and
themes of classical Greece and Rome rather than being grand, ornate, elaborate.
Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven – classical music emerges which is lighter and more elegant. Bach and Handel
had dominated the music with dramatic organ and choral pieces.
18th century writers had a new style. Novels now had careful crafted plots, suspense and exploration of
characters’ thoughts and feelings. It was popular with the middle class audiences and written in the everyday
language
Who were three enlightened despots that we read about, what countries were they from, and what did they
actually accomplish? In what ways were they less than true reformers?
Frederick the Great of Prussia – Granted religious freedom, reduced censorships, improved education. He
reformed the justice system and abolished torture. He did not end serfdom to keep the nobles loyal. He called
himself the “first servant of the state” and his was his goal to serve and strengthen his country.
Joseph II of Austria – was the most radical royal reformer. He introduced legal reforms and freedom of the
press. He supported freedom of worship for the Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews. He abolished
serfdom and ordered peasants to be paid cash for their labor. The nobles resisted and many of his reforms were
undone when he died.
Catherine the Great of Russia – She was most admired by the philosophes. She sought to reform Russia on the
ideas of Montesquieu and Beccaria. She tried to allow religious toleration, abolish torture and capital
punishment, but it didn’t happen. She did not end serfdom as it needed the support of the nobles.