Reflection and Transcendence: Inspirations of Interpretive
Anthropology to Case Study of Chinese Ethnic Traditional Sports
Reflection and Transcendence: Inspirations of
Interpretive Anthropology to Case Study of Chinese
Ethnic Traditional Sports
Tu Chuan-Fei (Jiangxi University of Finance & Economics, China)
Abstract
This essay reviews some case studies of Chinese ethnic traditional sports from the
perspective of Interpretive Anthropology. It is based on some major issues, like
cognitive logic, taxonomy of research, field work, ethnography illustration, cognitive
perspective, and the relationship between individual case and theoretical induction.
This study demonstrates the imperative implications of Anthropology theories and
methodologies in solving these problems. The main research findings include that case
study of ethnic traditional sports commences from the interpretation of the cognitive
logic to its significance; case study on this issue should focus on qualitative research
instead of quantitative research; “the native’s viewpoint” and “juxtaposition of
experience-near and experience-distant” are conducive to overcoming the limitations
of field work; Deep Description can be a tentative method of writing ethnography in
case study; case study should be conducted from the perspective of Local Knowledge;
and theoretical induction and construction of ethnic traditional sports should be carried
out on the basis of case study.
Key words: interpretive anthropology, ethnic traditional sports, cognitive logic, qualitative
research, field work, ethnography, cognitive perspective, theoretical induction
Introduction
The development history of anthropology tells us that the science of ethnic
traditional sports has no other choice but to rely on profound and intensive case studies
for further development. Many studies show that although case study has not made up
a large proportion in the study of Chinese ethnic traditional sports, it has shown the
tendency of rapid growth, which also indicates that case study will be an important
breakthrough in future studies of ethnic traditional sports. Given the significance of
case study in the study of ethnic traditional sports, this paper aims to explore some
problems existing in the case study of Chinese ethnic traditional sports from the
perspective of Interpretive Anthropology, hoping to bring some inspirations for the
case study of Chinese ethnic traditional sports.
Brief Review of Interpretive Anthropology
Interpretive Anthropology is the general term for various ethnographical practices
and reflections on cultural concepts. It emerged under the combined influence of those
dominating theories in 1960s, such as Parsons’ Social Theory, Weber’s Classical
Sociology, Phenomenology, Structuralism, Structural Linguistics, Transformational
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Linguistics, Semiotics, Critical Theory of Frankfurt school and Hermeneutics [1]. It
was an unprecedented time of great changes for western world in 1960s. Meanwhile,
the large-scaled radical social movements which broke out in the USA and Western
Europe at this time engendered a strong impact on the academic circles. Thus, the
struggle in anthropology field was for the first time directed against anthropology’s
historical links with colonialism and imperialism. Hence, “Centers of culture shifted
from society to individual, from objectivity to subjectivity, and this shift affected the
developing direction of anthropology.” As far as traditional cultural anthropology
study was concerned, anthropologists used to refer to the field work on their targeted
cultural subjects as “scientific experiments”, and regarded the act of forming
ethnography through observation, cognition, and objective description as “science of
culture [2].” However, this recognized tradition of anthropology, which anthropologists
were once convinced of, met with a fundamental challenge in 1960s. Anthropologists
who had sense of responsibility for society and human beings were obliged to rethink
the theoretical and methodological system of anthropology itself. Against this
background, in order to get anthropology out of the dilemma and maintain
ethnography’s status, American anthropologist Clifford Geertz fearlessly and
decisively put forward a new theory—Interpretive Anthropology with his insightful
deliberation and long vision. The emergence of this theory opened up new vista for
anthropology research.
The main contributions of Interpretive Anthropology are as follows: promotion and
interpretation of theories of Interpretive Anthropology based on epistemology;
advocacy of re-cognition, and emphasis of Local Knowledge; establishing the
examining significance of “deep description” and microscopy; and methodological
enlightenment on Narratology researches [3]. Interpretive Anthropology’s assertions of
interpretation of cultural significance, deep description at the micro level, advocacy of
Local Knowledge, etc., together with Geertz’s own achievements in this field, have
influenced almost all the research fields of humanities. In this way, the theories and
methodology of Interpretive Anthropology has become a revolutionary research
paradigm in the contemporary cultural research field.
Reflections on Case Study of Chinese Traditional Sports
Is the Cognitive Logical Starting Point of Case Study to Display Objective
Facts?
In case study of ethnic traditional sports, researchers always hope to see the original
features of the local culture, and acquire the unvarnished truth[4]. But researchers can
not reach “truly objective.” The reasons are as follows: firstly, what we contact directly
is not the entire picture, but only a small part that the research subjects would like us to
understand. Secondly, the limitations of field work and participant observation
themselves cannot guarantee that we grasp the objective facts. Thirdly, researchers
always tend to describe the targeted ethnic traditional sports culture under the
influence of their own personalized knowledge structure, background and inherent
emotional experiences. Lastly, there is always a tension in information exchange and
interpretation between researchers and cultural subjects of the targeted ethnic
Reflection and Transcendence: Inspirations of Interpretive
Anthropology to Case Study of Chinese Ethnic Traditional Sports
3
traditional sports.
The objectivity of case study is always regarded as the criterion of research not only
in case study of ethnic traditional sports, but in anthropology. However, since 1960s,
the objectivity of case study has been fundamentally challenged. In order to maintain
the status of ethnography and anthropology, Interpretive Anthropology puts forward
the idea that cultural analysis is not an experimental science for seeking laws of culture,
but an interpretive science for searching significance of culture [5]. It points out that
interpretation of cultural significance cannot be absolutely objective and accurate: “In
interpretation, we cannot rebuild the inner world of other people, or experience what
others have experienced. We can only understand them via the concepts and signals
they used when they built their inner world and interpreted the facts [3].” Therefore, a
so-called accurate interpretation of a culture is just like a dehydrated apple, devoid of
freshness and vividness. The cognitive logic of “culture—(significance) interpretation”
of Interpretive Anthropology strives to expand the space for understanding and
interpreting the targeted culture, so that cultural research will no longer be restricted to
displaying cultural facts truly and objectively, thus increasing to the utmost the
possibility and diversity of understanding and interpretation.
The cognitive logic of “culture—(significance) interpretation” of Interpretive
Anthropology has inspirations for the cognitive logic of current case study of Chinese
ethnic traditional sports. Now that an absolutely objective and accurate recognition of
the targeted ethnic traditional sports is impossible, a tentative diversified interpretation
of its significance would be a valuable attempt. Undoubtedly, standards of
interpretation will have to be considered in this attempt. Nevertheless, standards of
interpretation may not be counted as a problem for an anthropological school that
deems interpreting cultural significance as its duty. In addition, as the researchers
themselves, duo to the different knowledge backgrounds, culture traditions and
ideology, they can never follow the same criterion.
Should Case Study Stress Qualitative Research or Quantitative Research?
Quantitative research used to be very popular in the case study of Chinese
ethnic traditional sports. When faced with the targeted case in ethnic traditional
sports, researchers would usually have the tendency to analyze it by means of
mathematics and statistics. It is true that with informative data, the result of a
quantitative research is clear at a glance. But quantitative research can only
reflect superficial things. By no means can it go beyond the phenomenon in
discussion. Therefore, quantitative research is not conducive to the
communication and interaction between researchers and research subjects,
much less reaching the intrinsic nature of the targeted case. What’s more,
beside observable, calculable and measurable things, ethnic traditional sports
culture is also made up of common ethnic ideas and significance which are
incalculable and immeasurable. Therefore, in the case study of ethnic
traditional sports, this quantitative and natural science way of research method
cannot truly define the essential characteristics of ethnic traditional sports
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study.
Qualitative research and quantitative research should be combined in the
case study of ethnic traditional sports. Then, here is the question: should
quantitative research be the major research method, or vice versa? Interpretive
Anthropology believes that there exist two distinct research approaches in
humanities and social sciences: one is the theoretical explanation of general
rules and laws; the other is the interpretation of the significance of various
possibilities. The former is the quantitative research method of natural science,
while the latter is the research method of humanities and social sciences.
Anthropology belongs to the latter category. As a science based on human and
culture, anthropology has connections with natural and life sciences, but
actually anthropology puts more emphasis on the study of significances of
culture and human behaviors.
Therefore, the relationship between anthropology and humanities and social
sciences is much closer than that between anthropology and natural sciences. In
other words, in anthropology, qualitative research is the major research method,
and the quantitative method is the secondary. Similarly, in the case study of
ethnic traditional sports, qualitative research should be used as the major
research method, and the quantitative method as the secondary. Interpretive
Anthropology gives up the fashionable quantitative research method, but adopts
the qualitative research method to interpret the significance of culture. It is a
general reflection of cognition, emotion, morality and sense. This has great
significance for rectifying the tendency of putting particular stress on
quantitative research in the current case study of Chinese ethnic traditional
sports. It makes it clear that case study of ethnic traditional sports should stress
qualitative research rather than quantitative research.
What are the Limitations of Field Work?
Nowadays, more and more scholars emphasize the urgency and importance of field
work to studies of ethnic traditional sports. On the one hand, we should fully affirm the
great significance of field work, but on the other hand, we should also have a rational
attitude towards the threshold and limitations of field work.
When field work research is applied, several questions are worthy of our
consideration. First, what is field work in its strict sense? Some researchers take it for
granted to simplify the field work; others think that field work is just a series of simple
processes: to organize a few expert symposiums, to consult with the experts on the
content and structure of the questionnaire, measurement indexes, etc., to issue the
questionnaire to relevant local departments, and to collect the questionnaire for
statistical analysis [6]. The second question is about the role that the researcher plays in
field work, either being emic or being etic. Should the researcher stand above and just
be an objective and calm observer, or should he get involved as the research subjects?
How can he be and not be a researcher/a research subject at the same time? How
Reflection and Transcendence: Inspirations of Interpretive
Anthropology to Case Study of Chinese Ethnic Traditional Sports
should he balance between the two roles? Can a human be himself and non-self at the
same time?
How can we overcome those limitations of field work? According to Geertz, the key
is to deal with the role of the researcher himself properly. He questioned the debate of
researchers being emic or etic in field work. In his opinion, although language is the
basis of researches, it does not mean we can understand the culture of a nation even if
we have mastered its language. Therefore, he emphasized the idea of “holding the
native’s viewpoint.” And his Interpretive Anthropology proposed the idea of
“juxtaposition of experience-near and experience-distant.” Interpretive Anthropology
believes that the researcher should realize “fusion of horizons” of “experience-near”
and “experience-distant.” In other words, the researcher should juxtapose
“experience-near or native concepts of alien culture” with the more intelligible
“experience-distant” concepts which the writer and readers share. The specific
approach is “in and out.” The researcher transforms the native’s perceptions and
experiences into generalizations and expression forms that he is familiar with. Geertz
once talked about his own experience: regard himself neither as an outsider, nor as an
insider; try his best to collect, analyze and experience those local forms with symbolic
significances: language, thought, social system and human behaviors from which he
can discover how local people present themselves inside their own group, and how
they present themselves to outsiders[3].
Although Interpretive Anthropology fails to provide us with an effective
prescription to completely overcome the limitations of field work, it manages to jump
out of the debate of being emic or etic, and proposes the ideas of “holding the native’s
viewpoint” and “juxtaposition of experience-near and experience-distant” which have
great inspirations on how to use field work research more effectively in the case study
of Chinese ethnic traditional sports.
How Should We Write Ethnography?
Field work and ethnography writing are the basic methods of studying ethnic
traditional sports, and the important approaches to improving the research level of
ethnic traditional sports [7]. There is no doubt that field work research is important, but
how to write ethnography is much more important. Researchers in previous studies
generally used the writing mode of ethnography initiated by Malinowski. They
emphasized that the objective recognition of the targeted case should be acquired
through field survey, participant observation, etc.. However, researchers usually,
intentionally or not, introduced the culture of non-western ethnic traditional sports into
the cultural logic of modern athletic sports. Thus, objective recognition became a
“shadow of shadow”, logically speaking, unattainable. Now that objective ethnography
writing that anthropology had long been advocating could never be realized, from what
perspective should we understand the “cultural book” of ethnic traditional sports
“written” by the native themselves?
Interpretive Anthropology adopts the deep description way of writing ethnography.
In ethnography of deep description, there are no criteria for “right” or “wrong”
understanding, only the distinction between “profoundness” and “superficialness.”
Interpreting and understanding a symbolic act might lead to a deepened
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understanding—Interpretive Anthropology calls it deep description; otherwise, it
would be a superficial understanding if we described the act just as a
positivist-empiricist act. Interpretive Anthropology regards ethnography of deep
description as a discourse practice, and introduces poetic analysis into ethnography
writing: a piece of ethnography is just like a poem. Those assertions of least
explanation and most observation, “writing down systemic rules”, and capturing the
raw facts in remote places through specific analytic method should never be counted as
ethnography of deep description. In his research works of ethnography, no longer did
Geertz advocate scientificalness and reason as the sole guiding principle; instead, he
was more inclined to probe into the inner world of the aboriginals, regarding the
indigenous culture as a significance system for research.
The ethnography of deep description proposed by Interpretive Anthropology breaks
through the previous ways of ethnography writing, and has great inspirations on the
ethnography writing of Chinese ethnic traditional sports. A scholar commented, “The
attraction of Interpretive Anthropology lies in its profound exploration of the nature of
ethnography report. Such a profound exploration is just the basis of various
anthropological knowledge, and meanwhile an approach for other social sciences to
solve their own dilemma under the modern crisis of representation [1].”
Is the Cognitive Perspective of Case Study Singular?
The cognitive perspective of existing case studies of Chinese ethnic traditional
sports is singular, which is mainly manifested in the following two aspects. First, the
discussion is limited to sports only; what’s worse, researchers even judge Chinese
ethnic traditional sports by the criterion of modern sports. Researchers usually
interpret the targeted ethnic traditional sports casually in disregard of their cultural
background. For example, the study of Chinese Fire Cracker Ball is limited to describe
some technical problems, such as how the Fire Cracker Ball is snatched and how
victory and defeat is determined. No matter how elaborate the description is, it still
fails to reveal the true value of this minority sport—Chinese Fire Cracker Ball [5].
Second, in the studies of Chinese ethnic traditional sports, the studies on Martial Arts
occupy a leading position. According to Hu Xiaoming, the research of ethnic
traditional sports in recent years seems singular, Most of the studies focus on Martial
Arts and Health Preserving, but few involves other traditional sports of the Han
nationality or the colorful traditional sports of the 55 minorities. Therefore, there is no
chance for us to get a clear and overall view of Chinese ethnic traditional sports [7].
Since it is hard to get an objective and accurate interpretation of cultural
significance, then the significance obtained from “text” should be rich instead of being
monotonous. Very sensibly, Interpretive Anthropology adopts a term to define it as
Local Knowledge. The advocacy of Local Knowledge has pioneering contributions on
renewing the cognitive perspective of cultures. The emerging and flourishing
Interpretive Anthropology rebels against the trend, and emphasizes Local Knowledge.
Its courage to develop a school of its own and its milestone-like academic significance
are universally recognized [4].
Modern athletic sports have made a great impact on traditional sports of various
ethnos, so they have aroused resistance and criticism. Hence, it contributes to break the
Reflection and Transcendence: Inspirations of Interpretive
Anthropology to Case Study of Chinese Ethnic Traditional Sports
old thinking mode to conduct studies on ethnic traditional sports from the perspective
of Local Knowledge—interpreting the targeted ethnic traditional sports culture by the
criterion of modern athletic sports. In addition, it has great significance for enhancing
the sense of national identity and maintaining the diversity of world sports culture to
explore the historical value and destiny of ethnic traditional sports from the
perspective of Local Knowledge.
Can Theoretical Induction be Conducted in Case Study?
Hu Xiaoming pointed out that current science of ethnic traditional sports ignored the
study of theoretical foundation, so there was a huge blank in theories [8]. Some
researches attempted to convince people by “theories”, or to theoretically summarize
the ethnic traditional sports with hollow big words without referring to specific cases.
Besides, among the limited case studies, deep speculation on the case is little, and
abstract theoretical mediation beyond the concrete case is even less. In the case study
of ethnic traditional sports, the targeted case may not be typical or representative
enough. Subject to this problem, researchers are usually bad at theoretical induction at
a deeper level.
Interpretive Anthropology explicitly indicates that theoretical construction can be
conducted in cultural studies and adds that a convincing theoretical construction must
derive from case studies. Geertz said: “Important theoretical contributions exist in
special case studies. But it’s hard to abstract them from those studies, and then
integrate them into a so-called ‘cultural theory’. Theoretical construction is so close to
the ethnography interpretation of its targeted cases that once it is kept away from the
interpretation, it will no longer have much significance. The researcher should do his
best to determine on the theoretical course developed from a specific practice of
ethnography interpretation of its targeted case. Next, he can apply it to another specific
practice, and promote it to develop towards higher accuracy and wider relevance [6].”
Geertz put this academic assertion into practice in his own research. For example, after
analyzing the funeral ceremony of a boy in a remote village in Java, he went further to
explore the conflict between social structure integration and cultural significance
integration under the background of Indonesian society transformation. And he
regarded the conflict as the internal drive for culture change.
The idea that theoretical construction of Interpretive Anthropology should derive
from case studies reminds us that theoretical construction of ethnic traditional sports
should also derive from case studies. This also has inspirations on properly handling
the relationship between theoretical induction and case study in Chinese ethnic
traditional sports. Nevertheless, when studying a country like China with complicated
course of civilization, researchers should integrate different social forces into the
theoretical construction of case studies, reflect the merging of government mode and
non-government mode, and take into account the interactive relationship between
small and big communities.
Conclusion
Anthropology is usually regarded as the mother subject of ethnic traditional sports
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science. Therefore, we should absorb the quintessence of various anthropological
theories in case study of Chinese ethnic traditional sports. Interpretive Anthropology’s
assertions of interpretation of cultural significance, the microscopy of deep description,
etc., are criticized by some critics due to their lack of criteria and principles. And the
achievements Interpretive Anthropology has made during its research practices are
closely associated with the speculative capability and academic capability of Geertz
himself. Nevertheless, Interpretive Anthropology’s theoretical and methodological
assertions are of some reflective significance and reference value for the current case
study of Chinese ethnic traditional sports. Therefore, it is an exploratory method worth
trying.
References
[1] Clifford Geertz. Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. New
York: Basic Books, 2000,p.15,p.6,p.73,p.41.
[2] Clifford Geertz. The Interpretation of Culture. New York: Basic Books, 1973, p.5, p.33.
[3] George E. Marcus, and Michael M. J. Fischer. Anthropology as Cultural Critique: An
Experimental Moment in the Human Sciences. Chicago: University Of Chicago Press,
1999, p.47, p49.
[4] HUANG C. “The Appliance of Field Work in Ethnic Sports”, Chinese Sports Science,
2006, 32(3): 57-110.
[5] HU X-M and TAN G-X. “The Development and Prospect of Chinese Sports
Anthropology”, Journal of Sports Culture, 2008, 29(1): 17-23.
[6] LI ZH-Q. “Special Study and Field Work: Way of Ethnic Sports Study”, Sports Research,
2004, 26(4): 23-26.
[7] WANG M-M.The Imaginative Other land. Shanghai: Shanghai Peoples Press, 1998,
p.253.
Britain and the Development of Modern Japanese Sport: from Sporting 9
Amateurism to Fascism during the period of Japanese Imperialism
Britain and the Development of Modern Japanese Sport:
from Sporting Amateurism to Fascism during the period
of Japanese Imperialism
Daishi Funaba & Keiko Ikeda (Yamaguch Univ., Japan)
Abstract
The political aspect of shiso-zendo used a sports ideology. The shiso-zendo in politics
was thus produced to corresponded with the British sports-ethic.
In other words, Japan tried imitating the British in order to defend the constitutional
monarchy and make the people slough off the dangerous thought. In this process, the
Japanese nation adopted the British sports and its ideology. As the result,
“Britainization” of Japanese people was advanced. However it was the Japanese way of
interpretation, which was clearly concreted as the purpose of the shiso-zendo.
Key words : japanese sports, amateurism, fascism, imperialism
Introduction
The Japanese royal family had an important influence on the modernization of
sport in Japan. In addition, from many of the descriptions and pictures, it is clear
that the Japanese royal family was in turn influenced by the British attitudes to
sport. A picture of the crown prince (the Prince Regency) riding a horse on the
front of the first issue of The Journal of Physical Education and Athletics Games
(March 1922) highlights his enthusiasm for sports. 1 Moreover, the topic of the
journal’s first column was about the Prince and the notion of sportsmanship.2
This paper will show how much British sports made an impact upon the
development of Japanese modern nation. In particular, it argues that the Japanese
code of shiso-zendo was based on the British idea of athleticism, which itself
was a product of a 19th century public school education.
Notes:
1. Frontispiece, The Journal of Physical Education and Athletic Games, vol.1 (March, 1922), The
Japanese Society of Physical Education
2. A Count of Yoshinori Futara, “The Prince Regency as a Sportsman”, The Journal of Physical
Education and Athletic Games, vol.1 (March, 1922), The Japanese Society of Physical
Education ed., pp.2-4.
The Japanese Royal Family and the British Royal Family
The Crown Prince and the Prince of Wale (the future Edward the 8th)
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Official document have shown how Hirohito, the Crown Prince enjoyed a number of
sports during his regency period of the Taisho era (1911-1925). Most of them were the
British in origin. For example, there were two tennis courts and a two-hole golf course
built for the Crown Prince within the Akasaka imperial villa in 1922. In the same year
he started skiing with his brother, the Imperial Prince of Chichibu-no-miya. It is said that
the playing-courts within the palace lacked the space and new tennis courts were laid,
highlighting their enthusiasm for sport.1
Furthermore, Hirohito was a talented sportsman, something that appealed to the
Japanese nation as a whole. His healthy persona contrasted sharply with the long-term
ill-health of the Taisho Emperor. Thus, as a vigorous sportsman, Hirohito created an
image of the royal family that was one of health and regeneration. The Crown Prince’s
other sporting enthusiasms included mountain climbing and the noble sport of
horse-racing. Noble sports for the Japanese royal family meant British sports, as they
were considered to be the only ones suitable for royalty to maintain their grace and
dignity, and, importantly, as they were not associated with the masses. The Prince later
climbed to the summit of Mt. Fuji, while his brother Prince had traversed the mountain
ridges of “the Japanese Alps” and both had tastes of skiing. Tennis, golf and skating
were thought to be socially exclusive and it was also considered that these British sports
possessed a certain style. Ladies’ tennis, for example, was played in a fashionable skirt,
which was thought to be appropriate for female royals. However, the Prince also liked
the popular sport of sumo wrestling. But his enjoyment of sumo was tolerated because it
was commensurate with the idea that the royal family should respect traditional culture.2
The impact of the British Royal Family’s attitude to sport on the Prince, especially the
future Edward the 8th, was expressed in very deferential tones in 1922, in The Journal of
Physical Education and Athletic Games:
Your royal highness is provided with the great talents as a player of golf, tennis,
polo, horsemanship, shooting and other all sports. It is not a matter of fortune that
your royal highness has much daily vigour and acts greatly, energetically and
nimbly.
Similar to your royal highness our Crown Prince also displays a great talent and an
ability for exercise and athletic games, much enthusiasm for them and demonstrate
splendid skills.3
The description above confirms that the only “noble sports” which the emperor was
allowed to pursue were British ones. In addition, it shows how much the Japanese royal
family was conscious of the British royal family’s enthusiasm for sport. And that the
Japanese royal family’s love of British sport provided an example for the Japanese
people to perceive these British sports as the appropriate noble sports. This was a good
example of the diplomatic route that British sports were introduced to Japan and made
the Japanese nation believe that they had noble qualities, as well as the idea that sport
was important in promoting the idea of the nation-state.
Notes:
1. Yasuhiro Sakaue, The Sports: A device of Power, Kodansha: Tokyo, 1998, pp.56-57.
Britain and the Development of Modern Japanese Sport: from Sporting 11
Amateurism to Fascism during the period of Japanese Imperialism
2. The Fourth Price was also an enthusiastic in baseball as a fan, and he himself organized his
own team. The Crown Prince was also interested in billiards and as to tennis, his enthusiasm
reached to the extent that he was given lesson by Mr. Kumagai, the silver medallist in tennis,
in the Antwerp Olympic Games. Ibid, pp.50-58.
3. Anon, “Foreword”, The Journal of Physical Education and Athletic Games, vol.1 (April 1922),
The Japanese Society of Physical Education ed., p.1.
The Prince of Wales and Japan
The Prince of Wales, later Edward the 8th (the Duke of Windsor after the abdication)
was one of the most influential British royals on Japanese sport. In April 19 th, 1922, he
had played golf with the Japanese Crown Prince at a Komazawa golf club in Tokyo. The
Crown Prince appeared in a bright-coloured jacket and plus-fours. He was paired with
Komyo Ohtani from Tokyo Honganji temple who had studied in England, while the
Prince of Wales partnered his equerry, Sir Lionel Halsey. The match was a ‘four-ball’
over nine holes, and finished in a win for the Prince of Wales.1 On this occasion, “the
Prince of Wales Cup” was awarded. This cup was displayed at the exhibition of
‘Exercise and Physical Education’ hosted by the Ministry of Education for one month
from April 30th 1923 at the Tokyo Museum. When the Cup appeared next, it was given
on the occasion of the “All Japan Athletic Meeting” where the Crown Prince, Hirohito,
gave a silver cup to Mr. H. Masuda, the winner in decathlon and Mr T. Noto, the winner
of the 400 M race, was given the Prince of Wales cup. This event left a lasting
impression of the royal family on the general public.2 The visit of the Prince of Wales
was a top-news story in the world of Physical Education and Sports. The journal of
Physical Education and Athletic Games reported as follows:
Although the royal visit of the Prince of Wales to Japan should be marvellously
celebrated in a various meanings, it is a much more joyful incident, because Britain
is the country of sport and his royal highness is a splendid sportsman. … However,
what we would like to assert with difficulty on this occasion is the fulfilment of the
morals of athletic games strictly, especially, the practice of sportsmanship with a
complete emotion based on the genuine characters of morality. In budo, the
Japanese traditional Martial Arts, we used to respect the propriety, and morals were
esteemed in the other athletic games too, ….. we should be careful that all the
supporters and players keep their excellent gentlemen-like attitudes. If we diffuse
the idea that all athletes should be all excellent gentlemen as well as all excellent
gentlemen should be all athletes, we are sure to make friends with the British
people much more, and it is thanks to our royal highness. 3
Thus, the visit of the Prince of Wales helped diffuse the idea that this gentlemanly
attitude and morality in sports was important. This seems to have meant the ideology of
amateurism. There was an assertion that such an idea matched the spirit of the Japanese
traditional Bushido, the moral code in the Japanese traditional martial arts. It was also
emphasized that such an idea had deep affiliation with British people.
Notes:
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1. Sakaue, op.cit., pp. 56-57.
2. Ibid., 58-59.
3. Anon, “An Assertion”, The Journal of Physical Education and Athletic Games, vol.1 (April
1922), The Japanese Society of Physical Education ed., p.1.
The Importance of the British Sports
I have already said that the British sports and the British royal family made an
important contribution to the development of Japanese sport. Here is an account of how
a Japanese commentator evaluated British sport in 1922:
Britain is the representative country of modern sports. Athletic sports are popular
in schools and societies.
In Britain, it is said that the words, ‘play’ and ‘exercise’ were originally synonyms.
We can imagine such a seriousness of them in their sports from the sentence that
“English boys play at their work and work at their play”, it was expressed when the
people from the continent see the English boys. For them, athletic sports are not
the means of exercise or leisure, but the methodology for cultivating character and
forming personality. …By self-control, self-restraint, cooperation and comradeship
needed in exercise and play, unselfish mind will be fostered, which helps to
develop the indispensable socially-good personality for the rest of their life.” Thus,
it is not the exaggeration to say that the character of school-pupils in Britain is
formed on the playground and the British gentleman is fostered through the
sporting spirit.1
The British sports were held in high esteem in the 1920s and it was thought that the
honest personality of a sportsman should be imitated in Japan, Britain was the country
of sports, the image of the gentleman was an ideal and the Japanese should aim for it.
In the first half of twentieth century, the world of Japanese physical education and
sports idealized the way of the British sports. Britain not only had an influence over
Japanese modern sports, but this influence also demonstrates how the existence of
British sport was important in combining the moral code of the Japanese traditional
martial arts with that of modern sports that were associated with the British sporting
ideology of amateurism.
Notes:
1. A Count of Yoshinori Futara, “The Prince Regency as a Sportsman”, The Journal of Physical
Education and Athletic Games, vol.1 (March 1922), The Japanese Society of Physical
Education ed., pp.14-16.
The policy of the Shiso-zendo (to direct the thought toward the
goodness) and Sports.
There was another important British effect on modern Japanese sports. Here, I would
like to show how the policy of the shiso-zendo, which has been thought to be an
influential pre-war ideology, peculiar to Japanese society, was brought to bear via the
Britain and the Development of Modern Japanese Sport: from Sporting 13
Amateurism to Fascism during the period of Japanese Imperialism
influence of Britain. The shiso-zendo literally means ‘to direct the thought toward
goodness’. Socially, however, it meant an educational and political ideology to control
people’s ideas in order to preserve the constitutional monarchy. Sports were greatly
utilized to diffuse and reinforce this ideology in the pre-second world war period.
The Origin of the Shiso-zendo
An article entitled “About the shiso-zendo”, written in 1928, states that “the
shiso-zendo has a simplistic history. When Takejiro Tokonami was the Home Secretary
[1918-1922], a joint meeting with three religions - Buddhism, Shinto and Christianitywas held and the parties of those three religions were committed with it. However, the
effect was scarcely felt.”1 The details are unknown, however. This suggests that initially
the shiso-zendo had a religious rather than a political meaning.
Later though the meaning of the ‘shiso-zendo’ changed into a political one. In
particular, after the so-called “Incident of March 15th” 2 in 1928 when a great number of
Marxists were arrested, and the voice advocating the need to diffuse the shiso-zendo
expanded. However, there is evidence to indicate that the shiso-zendo had been reviewed
before ‘the Incident of 1928’. The Standard of the Shiso-zendo was written by Giichi
Masuda and published in September 1921. As the publication was issued amid the
gradually increasing tendency to heed the ideology, it may have constituted the basis for
its later popularity. The book had asserted that Britain was a model society based on this
ideology.
The author wrote about the idealistic character of human beings and the standard of the
society, and referred to the notion of democracy which had caused some disturbance in
Japan in those days:
I believe that true democracy is the thought which demands the equality of
the living activities based on liberal, egalitarian and humanitarian love.
Therefore, with kinship of the justice and humanity, it is not the dangerous
thought. ...It is Britain where the democracy is prosperous and that the
country is a constitutional monarchy with no conflict among societies. The
political action of the monarch is decided by the cabinet which complies
with the majority of the House of Commons. Therefore, all political actions
of the monarch are responsible to the cabinet and there is no responsibility
for the monarch, who is seen as sacred. Thus, all politics and all laws are set
by the mind of the nation. The extent of the thoroughgoing democracy is
unable to compare with that of the federal government of the United States.3
Britain was thus thought to be the model of a democratic modern nation. The
description above was written to be apprehensive of the undemocratic general election
in those days and the need of directing the thought of the nation. Shiso-zendo was
insisted upon. Furthermore, the dangerous aspect of democracy was also described, and
that the British ideology was proposed to avoid it:
The dangerous aspect of democracy without the responsibility
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
if a nation without the responsibility insists on the democracy, the country falls into
a dangerous thought and it corrupts the State and society miserably. ….
As Nelson exclaimed that “I wish the British do their duty” in the Battle of
Trafalgar, the British is the nation who values the duty. The duty includes the
notion of responsibility. Therefore, the notions of the right and liberty also greatly
developed in Britain. 4
Masuda held the British ideal in high esteem and considered their attitude to be the
ideal. The following description also shows the reason why he was an Anglophile.
In the age of the French Revolutions, sooner the thought of the revolution were
diffused over the country, when the Britain is nearly subjected to the influence of it,
Edmund Burke, a famous politician, reviewed the argument on the revolution and
predicted that it would ultimately bring a miserable result. ... The Britain thus
escaped from the influence of the ideas of the Revolution. It would be desirable
if such an attitude is esteemed for the social winner of the fittest……..5
Masuda’s belief was based on learning from the stance of the British people who were
thought to be the survivors of the socially fittest in those days. 6
Japan was also threatened by the subversion of the Emperor as a constitutional
monarch. Then, it was obvious that he thought Britain was a good model for preserving
the Japanese royal house. And the shiso-zendo, therefore, was meant to direct the
thoughts of the people to the British ideal and, hence, preserve the constitution of the
Emperor. This corresponded with the interpretation of “directing (zendo) the thought
(shiso) of the people toward the goodness, the shiso-zendo.
The Policy of the Shiso-zendo and Sport
Sakaue argues that it was after “the Incident of March 15th in 1928” that the need for
encouraging sports as the means of the shiso-zendo was thought up and then established
as a political strategy. 1 The incident led to the dismissal of left-wing professors from
important universities such as Tokyo University. Furthermore, the Ministry of
Education started planning for a course of lectures in ‘thought-control’ and paid
attention to sports for the purpose of reinforcing “the shiso-zendo”. Tadao Kikukawa,
one of the leaders of the campus activism and an influential leader of the labour
movement, reviewed it in his article, “Politically-used Sports and the Players” written in
1930. He argued that the ideology-control of the authorities started after the meeting of
the Guard of Students of Five-Teidai2 universities3.
In this meeting, the policy for regulating the ideology of students was proposed and it
concluded that the over-inclination for intellectual education and the lack of a moral
education had resulted in the Incident March 15th. In addition, to increase
boarding-houses and distract students from “the bad thought (i.e. Marxism)”, sport was
resolved to be part of the solution. A chief officer of school affairs at the Ministry of
Education explained that “it is not because popularizing sports, by spending more time
doing it, leads to the avoidance of being influenced by the thought, but because a
physically-robust person is a mentally-strong person and sound in belief.”4
Britain and the Development of Modern Japanese Sport: from Sporting 15
Amateurism to Fascism during the period of Japanese Imperialism
In May1928 Toshimasa Yamada, a staff of “the Institute of Physical Education”
proclaimed that:
Generally the radically-wrong thought is to be fostered among the physically-weak
persons, namely mentally-disabled people. Therefore, we should propose the
reinforcing of the physical strength of our people as a great national policy of
salvation for this national crisis on thought. …A sound body will never lead to a
wrong way in one’s mind.”5
By 1928, the British idea, “mens sana in corpore sano (A sound mind in a sound
body)” had been thus politicized and diffused throughout Japanese society. Moreover,
the experts in physical education later approved of the government’s policy of “the
shiso-zendo”.
Sport, therefore became part of a wider political strategy, something that was later
copied by Fascism. In the 1940s, the influence of fascism was further intensified.
Athletic meetings were replaced by meetings for national defence with some games
being changed from their original style.
Notes:
1. Sakaue, op.cit., pp. 86-87.
2. The Five-Teidai meant the universities established by the Imperial Order of the State
University in1886: the universities of Tokyo, Kyoto, Tohoku, Hokkaido and Kyusyu
3. Tadao Kikukawa, “Politically-used Sports and the Players”, The Adaptation (December 1930),
pp.70-71.
4. Weekly Reports of Education, No.158, (May 1928), p.2.
5. Toshimasa Yamada, The Journal of Physical Education and Athletic Games, The Japanese
Society of Physical Education ed., vol. 7 (June 1928), pp.23-27
“Hatoyama, the Policy of the Shiso-zendo” (Athleticism) and “Fair play”
The policy of the shiso zendo began because the authority perceived the threat of ‘the
thought of the youth’ after the Incident of March 15th. Therefore, the shiso-zendo
became more influential just after the Incident and actively operated in 1930s. One of
the most actively- involved was a politician, Ichiro Hatoyama, the grandfather of Yukio
Hatoyama, a recent Japanese Prime-Minister (16 September 2009 to 8 June 2010).
Hatoyama took a leading role in the governmental education’s policy at the
Ministry of Education from December 1931 to July 1934. He called himself “the
Minister of Sports” and stated that sports are “not an argument, but deeds in practice. It
complements the lack of the part in theory by training, its spirit and experience” and
“every play reveals one’s naked character. There is no room to hide and cover anything.
The whole picture of a person will be portrayed out openly as a true figure there.” He
continued that, “from such a point of view, sports are neither tasteless nor dreary, not
only inclined to the healthy body”, and “sports have the meaning of an interest, a
pastime, but in addition, fulfil the excellent educational purpose as physical education,
at the same time, show an effect of the discipline for the mind.” “The cheerfulness and
activeness which were brought by sports will work enough to leave great achievements”
16
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
after they grew up as adults in society. He thus emphasised these functions of sports.1
According to Hideo Kaga, a sport historian, fair play was the most important element of
Hatoyama’s theory.
And Kaga argues that Hatoyama’s principle of sports-priority was set as a framework
for the policy of shiso-zendo and was diffused over the country as the most important
educational policy at that time.2
It was also important that his policy was expressed
as an emphasis of the ethics of fair play despite its intention to divert thought from
Marxism, for political and constitutional reasons. The sports-ethic, fair play, was
associated with the influence of Britain involved in this process. This shows that the
political aspect of shiso-zendo used a sports ideology. The shiso-zendo in politics was
thus produced to corresponded with the British sports-ethic.
In other words, Japan tried imitating the British in order to defend the constitutional
monarchy and make the people slough off the dangerous thought. In this process, the
Japanese nation adopted the British sports and its ideology. As the result,
“Britainization” of Japanese people was advanced. However it was the Japanese way of
interpretation, which was clearly concreted as the purpose of the shiso-zendo.
Notes:
1. Ichiro Hatoyama, An Argument of Sports, Tokyo: Sanseido, 1932, p.30.
2. Hideo Kaga, “The Trends of Sports in Japan around 1930 and its Historical Characters” The
Bulletin of the Nagoya Bunri University, vol.1, 2001, pp.129-133
On the Dialectical Relations between the Nationalization 17
and Internationalization of Chinese Kung Fu
On the Dialectical Relations between the
Nationalization and Internationalization of Chinese
Kung Fu
Guo Juan (Zhejiang International Maritime College, China)
Abstract
By using the literature research method, this essay analyzes the differences between
Chinese and Western culture, points out the favorable and unfavorable factors in the
international development of Chinese Kung Fu and puts forward that we should
correctly handle the dialectical unity of the nationalization and internationalization of
Chinese Kung Fu.During the development of Kung Fu, we need to further improve its
nationalization and gradually achieve its internationalization. Finally, the article
discusses the ways of the internationalization of Chinese Kung Fu.
Key words: kung fu, internationalization, nationalization, dialectical relations
Introduction
Kung Fu is a crystal of five thousand years of civilization in the history of Chinese
nation. It is a shining pearl in the treasure-house of the splendid Chinese culture. Due
to the differeces of cultures, values, and lifestyles, it is not easy for other countries to
accept Chinese Kung Fu in a short period of time. Barriers and problems are quite
natural in its spreading across the world. It is necessary to have a better understanding
of the cultural differences between China and western countries. It is important to find
the proper ways of the internationalization of Chinese Kung Fu during its process of
nationalization.
Some Cultural Differences between China and Western Countries
With the development of industrial society, sports culture exchanges between China
and western countries are strengthened greatly. However, the exchanges are mainly on
the technical level. Western countries often fail to understand the sports spirits and
values of Chinese people.
‘The unity of nature and human beings’ is a basic point of traditional Chinese
thinking. China is a continental and agriculture-based country. The nature is regarded
as an indivisible part of peope’s life. So Chinese people think that the nature and
human beings are united and harmonious and that human body is aslo harmonious.
This thought influences Chinese Kung Fu greatly. Many principles of Kung Fu reflect
this clearly, such as: ‘the unity of inside and outside’, ‘the unity of form and spirit’,
‘six inside and outside harmonies make you healthy and happy’, and so on.
The practice of traditional Kung Fu has special requirements about the time and place.
They should be practiced in the right surroundings, season, weather and time. This
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reflects the pursuit of harmony of nature and human beings in Chinese martial arts
spirit.
On the contrary, western sports pay more attention to the differences and conflicts
between nature and human being. They try to exploit the potential in human body
unlimitedly. They emphasize the minor study of bones, muscles, joints and action
skills. They pursue the goal of ‘higher, faster, stronger’. They constantly challenge the
limits of nature and human body. They try to keep physically fit through the training of
muscles.
In the two thousand years of history of feudal society, confucianism was the
orthodoxy, whose influences penetrated every corner of Chinese society. Under its
influence, Chinese Kung Fu not only pursues physical fitness but also places emphasis
on its educational function. It requires the practicers to ponder the philosophy of life,
to promote character development and to improve cultivation of minds during the
practice of martial arts. It emphasizes the integration of virtue and skills and does not
promote competition. The restrictions in Shaolin martial arts are essentially used to
strengthen the mind. ‘The doctrine of the mean’ is the core of traditional Chinese
culture. Without exception, Kung Fu is influenced greatly by the comity of this
doctrine. This leads to the cultural and psychological contempt for competition. This
results in the lack of competitive spirit and rules in Chinese martial arts. This is a
strong contrast with the adventure, challenge and competition in western competitive
sports. So, in order to spread Kung Fu in the world, we need to learn from western
sports culture and rules and combine them with Chinese martial arts.
The Nationalization and Internationalization of Kung Fu
The Nationalization of Kung Fu
Kung Fu is not only a sport but also a part of Chinese culture. It has strong ethnic
and cultural diversity and contains a strong national consciousness. The native
traditional Chinese Kung Fu is not conducive to the its nationalization. It abides by the
rules of ‘The original form can’t be changed’, ‘Only sons can learn Kung Fu from their
ancestors’ and so on. The things handed down from ancestors are worshiped. People
hold the oppinion that the older is the better. The practice of martial arts emphasizes
the hierarchy, school differences and internal teaching. So it has the feature of internal
unity and the pattern of family heritage. After the development of thousands of years,
the culture of martial arts accomodates Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism and other
philosophic ideas. It has not only fighting spirit but also the function of self-cultivation.
Chinese Kung Fu shows the charm of Chinese culture. The history proves that
Confucianism protected the characteristics of integrity, convergence and ethics of
Chinese Kung Fu. At the same time, intentionally or unintentionally, Confucianism
also resitricted the development and innovation of martial arts culture and caused a
certain degree of closure.
In addition, the deep-rooted thought of ‘contempt for other ethnic groups’ directly
impeded the cultural exchanges among the different ethnic groups in China and
between China and other countries. Only in Tang Dynasty, the leaders actively
absorbed other ethnic cultures. Most of the other dynasties were conservative. In the
past thousands of years, there were only partial and short-lived exchange of sports
On the Dialectical Relations between the Nationalization 19
and Internationalization of Chinese Kung Fu
culture especially during entertainment feasts among different Chinese ethnic groups
and between China and other countries. When we review the history of ancient
Chinese sports, it is not diffcult to find that this kind of exchanges failed to affect the
mode of family heritage of martial arts. Under the influence of strict and clear
hierarchy in family heritage, martial arts did not develop toward the direction of
personality and common people respection. This impeded the nationalization of
martial arts and is not conducive to its internationalization. Of course, we can’t deny
the certain development and spreading of military martial arts. Besides, peasant
uprisings promoted martial arts in certain degree and facilitated its nationalization
within a certain range.
Though Kung Fu was regarded as the quintessence of the country, it was only a
sport practiced by minority of the people or troops most of the time. There were not
many martial arts schools or centers. So it is far from nationalization. In 1980s, the
new state policies and principles promoted the position of martial arts and its workers,
which led to a recovery of Kung Fu. In the late 1980s, martial arts became widespread
across the country. Teenagers could practice it freely. Chinese Kung Fu began its
process of nationalization and it is still in this process today.
The Internationalization of Kung Fu
The meaning of ‘internationalization’ can be summarized as the following three
points. The first point is ‘exchange’. There should be more exchanges among different
countries in the field of martial arts. Different countries should put aside differences,
seek common ground and increase international contacts. The second point is
‘coordination’. Within the bounds of possibility, countries should narrow the gap of the
different martial arts and seek a widely accepted coordination. The third point is
‘unity’. That is to pursue the integration and unification of martial arts in the world.
Based on this, the internationalization of Chinese Kung Fu should do its job in the
three aspects. The first is to increase the international exchanges of martial arts. The
second is to promote the international coordination. The third is the standardization
and unification of martial arts in the world. Exchange is the basis. Coordination is the
means and unification is the aim. So, it seems that the internationalization of Chinese
Kung Fu can be defined as the following. With the development of the economy, the
policies and affairs of martial arts should gradually follow the internationally accepted
practices according to the logic order of ‘mutual exchanges —mutual coordination —
standardization and unification’.
The root cause for the reform of Chinese martial arts is the need of the development
of society and martial arts. Of course, the impact and influence from international
martial arts is also one of the reasons. The international martial arts contributes to the
reform of Chinese Kung Fu more than impacting it. From the culture on material,
institutional and psychological level which starts from ‘debation between Han people
and minorities’ to the modern sports, many dynamic factors of western sports culture
can be seen. These factors contributed a lot to the modern culture reform. We can say
that the dynamic factors in advaced western culture and traditional Chinese culture and
the combination of internationalization and nationalization jointly promote the
development of Chinese martial arts to its modernization. So the international martial
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arts needs not only martial arts workers’ broad view but also their humanistic spirit. It
needs to break the tradition of family inheritance and establish mechanisms for
multiple inheritance.
It has no doubt that Chinese Kung Fu will influence the world. Chinese Kung Fu was
played in 1936 Olympic Games. But it was only an accessory of the games. At that
time Chinese sports were still on a very low level and were uncompetitive. The martial
arts performances could make up for certain deficiencies in sports. However, the
performances successfully spread the unique charm of Chinese Kung Fu. In 1960s, one
of our Kung Fu teams visited Burma under the leadership of Premier Zhou Enlai. In
1970s, our martial arts athletes visited other countries more frequently. And many
athletes from other countries also came to China for learning. Bruce Lee, a Hong Kong
actor, made Chinese martial arts world-famous and the word ‘KUNF’ began to be used.
In 1980s, a film named ‘Shaolin Temple’ starred by Jet Li made Chinese martial arts
reach a new climax and brought it into a new period of development. Martial arts
organizations were built in many coutries and areas, such as Chinese Martial Art
Association in the USA. In order to study and learn Chinese martial arts, Six-Country
Kung Fu Union was set up in Switzerland, Italy, France, the UK, Germany (former
West Germany) and Spain. African International Martial Arts Union was founded in
Congo, Somalia, Algeria, Mauritania and some other African countries. The Chinese
martial arts organizations in Southeast Asian Countries were too numerous to mention
individually. In order to further spread the martial arts to the world, China has
successfully held many martial arts exhibition games, invitational tournaments, watch
matches, training courses and martial arts festivals. The internationalization of Chinese
martial arts is the inevitable trend of historical development and the need of the
development of martial arts in the new period.
Dialectical Unity of Nationalization and Internationalization of
Kung Fu
The Internationalization and Nationalization of Kung Fu is an objective
contradiction in the development of Chinese martial arts. How to correctly view and
handle this contradiction and make martial arts better serve the world and
national-wide fitness programs is a question we must answer. Judging from the current
international environment, the internationalization of martial arts has become the
mainstream of the times and the principal aspect of contradiction. Based on this, we
hold the following views. We must correctly understand the dialectical relationship
between the internationalization and nationalization. Judging from the current and
future development trend, the nationalization of Chinese martial arts will subject to its
internationalization.
For this reason, we must have the right attitude of properly protecting distinctive
national features and actively promoting the internationalization of martial arts.
Specifically, we should follow the following requirements. 1) Rely on the authority of
the international martial arts funding 2) The direction of internationalization is to put
aside differences and seek common ground. 3) Combine with nationalization. 4) The
coexistence of unity and flexibility 5) Easy things first, the progressive harmonization
and unification 6) first national, later international. The first step for the
On the Dialectical Relations between the Nationalization 21
and Internationalization of Chinese Kung Fu
internationalization of new competitive martial arts organizations is their
nationalization. We should take an active part in or organize global or regional martial
arts professional bodies and government-related coordinating organizations. We should
make use of international forums to introduce Chinese martial arts and achieve
two-way coordination. In the next place, in order to put aside differences and seek
more common ground, we should establish specialized research institutions of martial
arts. In the end, the numerous standard-setting bodies should fully absorb and learn
international martial arts practice. They should try to avoid unnecessary differences in
a pragmatic manner and achieve the greatest degree of international coordination.
Though the process of martial arts internationalization is hampered by its
nationalization, its internationalization has become an unstoppable trend. If we
consider only from the point of view of environmental factors, the historical
inevitability of internationalization is mainly from five aspects: 1) Taking into account
the growing international martial arts exchanges, it is difficult for any country to exist
only depending on its own martial arts resources and market. 2) The number and size
of martial arts industry is expanding and its business activities are having more and
more influence on martial arts globally. 3) The scope of martial arts market is
expanding and transnational martial arts activities are increasing. 4) There are some
issues of common concern in different countries, such as martial arts culture, martial
arts morality and so on. 5) International and regional martial arts organizations and
competitions are increasing. Due to the above reasons, the process of martial arts
internationalization is speeding up and the status and authority of International Wushu
Federation is being promoted.
The dialectical unity of nationalization and internationalization of Chinese martial
arts is is a continuous process of development. It is not only a process of conversion
from traditional martial arts to the international martial arts but also a process in which
Chinese martial arts achieve its informationization, industrialization, scientification
and modernization.
Development Strategies for the Internationalization of Chinese
Martial Arts
Correctly Handle the Relations between Competitive Kung Fu and
Tradition Martial Arts
Traditional martial arts is the source of martial arts and the basis of the development
of martial arts. Traditional martial arts is also the the essence of national culture. It
integrates historical tradition, philosophy, values, lifestyle and other cultural patterns
of the Chinese nation. It is the typical of national identities. The main function of
traditional martial arts is fighting. At the same time it also has the functions of fitness,
cultivating one's moral character, keeping in good health, entertainment and aesthetic
enjoyment. It is a reflection of Chinese personality. However, traditional martial arts
has qualitative difference from western sports in the aspects of thinking style,
cognitive style and values. Therefore, it takes a long time for other countries to know,
understand and accept our traditional martial arts.
Competitive martial arts is a product of the combination of traditional martial arts
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
and western competitive sports and is a product of reformation and evolution. It has
the characteristics of simplification, being receptive and being operable. Comparing
with traditional martial arts, competitive matial arts has more things in common with
western sports. There is no doubt that competitive martial arts seek quick success and
instant benefits. It is just like cutting the feet to fit the shoes. There is not enough link
with the national heritage. But after all, competitive martial arts meets the current
needs of social development. This is the product of the times and the choice of history.
Competitive martial arts sets up a bridge for Chinese Kung Fu to be internationally
recognized. At the same time, it is also a window, through which people can
understand the deep meaning of our traditional martial arts. So, competitive martial
arts is the first step for our Kung Fu to be understood and accepted by the international
society.
Speed up the Training of High-level Athletes, Coaches and Referees in the
Field of Martial Arts
The level of athletes, coaches and referees directly influences the development of
martial arts sport. The higher the athletes’ level is, the more intense the competition is
and the more spectacular the performance is. Then the audience will have a stronger
sense of participation and the martial arts sport will develop more rapidly. The
knowledge and skills of coaches play an important role in the effectiveness of training.
In the training of coaches two jobs need to be done. First, International Martial Arts
Association or Chinese Wushu Association authorized by International Martial Arts
Association can hold coach training courses of different levels and types. Second,
countries should use their own resources to train their own coaches. The referee is the
organizer and judge of martial arts competition. The referee’s level directly influences
the performance of athlete and the effect of competition. Therefore, referees should
receive constant training and more international competition referees should be
nurtured. At the same time, the management level should take their responsibilities of
referee training. According to referees’ actual ability they can be ranked in different
levels. Relegation system and dynamic management should be employed according to
referees’ performance. When the time is ripe, some professional referees can be
nurtured. In addition to domestic ones, we also need to nurture foreign athletes,
coaches and referees to spread high-level martial arts sports in every corner of the
world.
Speeding up the Construction of Martial Law
To ensure the development of martial arts toward the direction of scientification and
industrialization, the relevant laws must be established and improved. In 1995, Sports
Law of The People's Republic of China was enacted. Since then we began to manage
sports according to law. With more and more exchanges of international martial arts
activities, how to solve the disputes and such problems as talent flow and stimulant use?
How to protect the legitimate rights and interests of our athletes and coaches without
going against international common practice? How to solve the legal issues caused by
the coaches and athletes in foreign exchange and cooperation? All of these are the
problems we have to face. Therefore, the legal construction of martial arts is
On the Dialectical Relations between the Nationalization 23
and Internationalization of Chinese Kung Fu
imperative.
Establishing Network of Domestic and Foreign Martial Arts Promotion
Martial arts circles should unite all sectors of society and use various means to
establish the martial arts’image of being suitable for the young and the old and for all
walks of life. The acquisition of this image and attractiveness should mainly come
from the creative and successful reform in Chinese martial arts. For example, we can
organize Chinese martial arts tour groups and establish bases for the promotion and
development in continents, countries and areas around the world. We can regularly
send coaches to these bases. In this way, Chinese martial arts can be spread and
promoted with focus, step by step and targeted. Research about the intention sorting
order of foreigners’ practicing Chinese Kung Fu has shown that quite a few of them
hope to know more about traditional Chinese culture. So during the process of
promoting martial arts in other countries, we can not ignore its cultural identity. We
can give some lectures about martial arts during the tour performances. Through tour
performances and lectures, people around the world can know more about not only
martial arts but also Chinese culture. This strategy should be effective.
Strengthen the Work of Standardizing the Martial Arts Terms
The international promotion of martial arts should be regarded as a system. The
promotion of skills is only an aspect of this system. So we should fully consider the
issue. An important aspect of the international promotion is the language. At present, a
pressing issue is the translation work of martial arts and the uniformity and
standardization of professional terms translation. Now the main problem to be solved
is the contents martial arts contains when it is translated to other languages. Does
‘martial arts’ refer to competitive martial arts, traditional martial arts or both of them?
We also need to unify and standardize the martial arts terms in China. For example:
should we call free hand fighting or free combat? Another example is: should we call a
kind of kick in free combat ‘leg side’, ‘leg whip’ or ‘cross kick’? How can we talk
about international promotion if we don’t standardize these terms in our own country?
Conclusion
In short, when treating the problem of the international development of Chinese
martial arts, both blind optimism just because of being workable and pessimism due to
barriers are wrong attitudes. As long as we seize the opportunities, innovate
continuously and promote in the right time and appropriate ways, Chinese martial arts
will become a shining star on the stage of world sports.
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[7] Zong Xuefei. A Modern History of Chinese Kung Fu and Its Internationsl
Development Trend. [J]. Wushu Science, 2005,2
Sport – beyond Moral Good and Evil
25
Sport – beyond Moral Good and Evil
Jerzy Kosiewicz
(Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education, Poland)
Abstract
The fair play principle is a vital or a significant value of sport. It should not be placed
in any hierarchy of values which is connected with sport, because it comes from and
refers to another axiological order of behaviours and the discussed principle should not
be forced into a different realm of behaviours regulated by rules of a given sport. Nor
the fair play principle – that is, its application – is the basis for, a determinant of or a test
of individual or collective righteousness, or a proof of active goodness in sport, because
sport is neither an ethical phenomenon, nor a touchstone or a testifier of morality. Its
task is realization of pragmatic aims which have been assumed in it. It refers to aims
which have been determined by the human being in order to fulfil one’s own and social
needs, expectations and dreams.
It refers to various forms of highly competitive sport and all forms of sport for all.
Highly competitive, professional, Olympic and spectacular sport is one of the most
difficult, hard and tiresome forms of work. It is one of the reasons why it should be free
of additional and redundant moral duties, which unnecessarily complicate both
preparations for and the course of rivalry.
Key words: morality, fair play, moral norms
Introduction
In considerations on the place of the fair play principle among other values of sport it
is possible to distinguish at least five standpoints: a) the one absolutising its qualities, b)
the one pointing out that the significance of the discussed principle is still considerable
but diminishing, c) the one recognising it as an out-of-date principle, which still,
however, deserves some attention, d) the one describing it as an anachronistic Don
Quixote’s legacy inherited from Coubertin and the 19th century, e) the one which
completely rejects existence (need of existence) of moral principles in sport, including
the fair play principle.
The view assuming that the fair play principle is the highest value in sport is
characteristic for the majority of Polish theoreticians and practitioners connected with
sport and with physical culture as such. It refers to, among others, Zofia Żukowska, who
emphasizes also pedagogical functions of the abovementioned culture. R. Żukowski, on
the other hand, argues that the fair play principle is the highest value in Olympism.
The second, less absolutist standpoint is presented by some authors from countries of
Middle-Eastern Europe – like, for example, L. Donskis who is of an opinion that “the
world of sports is simply based on Fair Play” (2005, p. 5). That viewpoint is shared by
some proponents of the European Fair Play Movement, such as J. Palm, who points out
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
that “the idea of Fair Play has the important role in Sport for All” (2004, p. 1), and who
insists that “Sport for All presents a major task for the Fair Play movement” (ibid.). H.
Digiel is of an opinion that “the principle of Fair Play is still valid”, 2004, p. 7).
The third viewpoint is associated with S. Loland’s statements, which point out to
historical determinants and somehow anachronistic traits of the fair play principle emphasizes, however that it is something more than an outmoded gentleman and
Coubertin’s ideal and that it can “prove its status as something more than a historical
anachronism: as topical ideal”, Loland 2002, p. 102). By the way, he was clearly
surprised by the fact that the discussed principle is regarded in some countries as the
highest value in sport. An exchange of opinions on that topic took place during my stay
as a visiting professor in the Norwegian School of Sport Sciences in Oslo in September
2009.
The role of fair play in sport
Digiel and Loland are not alone in their view that the fair play principle plays an
important role in contemporary sport, but in English-language literature the predominant
role is played by the fourth standpoint, proclaiming that the discussed principle is too
archaic in its relation to assumptions of contemporary highly competitive sport and that
it is Don Quixote’s legacy – that is, a manifestation of noble and utopian naivety (L.
Donskis 2005, pp. 4-5). R. Renson points out after L. Allison (2001) that upholding to
the fair play principle in sport has become a manifestation of “an anachronistic survival
of the amateur sport ideal” (Renson 2005, p. 3).
I would like to emphasise – and I represent the fifth of the abovementioned
standpoints – that, similarly as many others, I not only do not share an opinion, and the
connected arguments, that the fair play principle is the highest value in sport (it has
never been it and it will never be). I am even of an opinion that it is quite redundant, that
the basis for activity which is connected with it are rules of particular sports and not
moral principles, because the latter are not connected with sport in an organic, essential
and identity-related way.
Firstly, it is because of the fact that moral principles do not constitute a part of rules of
particular sports, which have legal character. The discussed rules, if they are to be a
basis for athletes’ activities in particular sports organisations, are approved and
registered by proper authorities of administrative courts. Legislation creates neither
moral norms, nor customs. Law, morality and customs characteristic for various social
groups, while enforcing observance of the connected norms, use sanctions which are
autonomous from each other. Of course morality and customs can be sources of legal
norms, similarly as law can influence ethical attitudes or customary norms. However
law in the formal sense is not connected with them – that is, it neither creates moral or
customary norms, nor it evaluates moral or customary behaviours (except for those
which are in contradiction with it). It is obvious that commonplace interpretations of law
can have moral or customs-related character. Law does not forbid such activity. It is
permissible, but it is connected with law neither in an organic, nor in an essential, nor in
an identity-related way. There is no organic cohesion between law and morality, because
the latter (similarly as customs) is connected with the first neither in an ontological way
(because morality is an abstract being of emotional and irrational character), nor it is
Sport – beyond Moral Good and Evil
27
connected with law in a functional way (because the foundation of law is morality). It
means that it does not belong to the system of law, which is interpreted by L. Bertalanffy
as a rational structure (Bertalanffy 1973). The above-mentioned argument concerns also
statements with the included contexts of justification, referring to allegedly close
connections between sport, on the one hand, and morality and customs characteristic for
sportspersons milieu, on the other hand
The abovementioned essence of a given sport is constituted by two its basic
components. The first of them are those qualities which – referring to Plato’s theory of
ideas – are general enough to be recognized as characteristic for all sports, for sport as
such. The second are those qualities which make a particular sport different from the
other sports. They are determined by a definition of a given sport, which is constituted,
first of all, by regulations and rules of play and competition which are characteristic for
a given sport. In rules of play and sports competition (influencing the contents of the
second part of a given sport) there are no moral norms which would be present there in
an open, clear and explicit way. They are absent also from the first component –
similarly as in Plato’s conception of eternal ideas. It is because of the fact that morality
is included in the idea of the good, which is autonomous in its relation to others. The
human being perceives it in an intuitive way and he can saturates ethics with any
manifestations of his own activity. It does not mean, however, that the idea of the good
is a part of the idea of the beauty or the idea of the tree.
Law (including rules of given sports, which are sanctioned by law) has not emotional
and irrational qualities. Hence, in the formal (logical, methodological) sense it has
different qualities than normative ethics.
On the other hand, identity of a particular sport results, first of all – and shortly
speaking – from its recorded regulations. It is co-constituted also by, among others
(what is not important from the viewpoint of that argument), by contestants’
competitions and the connected technical and tactical assumptions, which are necessary
for realization of the assumed scenario of competition (the plan of a game), not to
mention architecture of sports facilities, sports equipment, sportswear and particular
audience.
Is fair play the highest value in sport ?
In my paper „Is the Principle of Fair Play the Highest Value in Sport?”, which I read
in Vienna, during a conference organized by the European Fair Play Movement, and in
Durham, during a conference of the British Philosophy of Sport Association (I
participated both as a keynote speaker in 2004), I attempted to explain why – according
to my opinion – the abovementioned principle is not the highest value in both variously
defined highly competitive sport and different forms of sport of all. I presented also
changes in my standpoint in that respect. First I argued that the highest value in sport is
variously conceived success and then that the human being is the main basis and the
most important aim of various activities connected with sport, as well as that s/he
crowns the hierarchies of immanent values determining the source, sense, essence and
identity of sport. In that particularly anthropologised conception of sport I perceived
also the role played – although not in the foreground – by moral influences, by the fair
play principle.
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
In that place, on the other hand, I present another viewpoint concerning fair play,
because I undermine not only axionormative views and aspirations of proponents of
promotion and consolidation of the discussed principle but also the sense and the need
of existence of the ethics of sport. I have come to a conclusion that sport is – and should
be – an amoral phenomenon (what should not be confused with an immoral one); that is,
it is completely independent from ethics, except of deontological ethics concerning
professionals who have moral obligations to their employers and other persons whom
they provide with their services and who are concerned by them. The abovementioned
deontological ethics is, however, placed by me beyond the range of the notion of sport,
because I am of an opinion that deontological norms – that is, moral assumptions
connected with the profession of an athlete, should not be placed among identity-related
qualities of a given sport at all. The more so, they should not be placed higher than those
qualities, which are determined to the greatest degree by rules and regulations of play
and competition which are attributed to a given sport. (Kosiewicz 2005, pp. 367-369).
Admittedly deontological values are treated as moral duties, which are integrated with
the professional athlete’s ethos, but – from the viewpoint of methodology, formal logic
and meta axiology - it is a case of mistaken implementation, because the
abovementioned values are not present in regulations of any sport, and they are not
permitted by the abovementioned regulations (which expose the essence, sense and
identity of particular sports). Because of that reason, in the strictly formal sense, they are
situated not even in the margin of sport, but out of it. They are, in the ontological sense,
external and alien, in spite of the fact that they can play an important role in – more or
less emotional – relations between an employer and an employee.
In regulations of particular sports, like in the case of F1 car races, there can appear
norms forbidding definite behaviours which are harmful for contestants’ health or
dangerous for their life. That kind of norms has, however, a legal – that is, strictly
formal – character , and it is approved by a registering court on the basis of the
Administrative Code. For example, protection of citizens’ health and security from
murders, temporary or permanent injuries is also legally regulated. It is not a
manifestation of moral activity, because moral behaviours have solely relative and
irrational character, which is in contradiction with the logic of law. Moral or
customs-related implications derived from law are in contradiction with it in the
methodological, logical and axiological (meta-axiological) sense, because it is
impossible to derive any moral values from a strictly rational, pragmatic regulation. It is
a phenomenon which is similar to that criticized by D. Hume, who proclaimed that no
moral duties result from a description of reality (which includes strictly cognitive
statements: truth or false in the logical sense). Conduct which is contradictory with it
was called by him a naturalist fallacy (Hume 1947, 1963, 1974). That argument is
applicable also to moral implications derived from regulations of particular legally
regulated sports. Those implications are also logically unjustified. Taking it into account,
it is possible to proclaim that moral principles are utterly external and alien in their
relation to sport.
Admittedly, there has been created some normative, highly idealized moral codes, but
they do not take into account everyday practice – that is, sport in reality. A normative
statement concerning Olympic athletes’ behaviours, which – as a matter of fact – does
Sport – beyond Moral Good and Evil
29
not take into account realities of the profession which is practiced by them, can serve as
an example. What is focused on in a given case is propaganda which affirms greatness,
uniqueness and superiority of the Olympic Games over non-Olympic sports and other
forms of physical culture. It often seems to me – especially while reading texts by Polish
proponents of the fair principle and ideologues of Olympism – that the abovementioned
superiority is to refer even to cultural achievements of the ancient civilization and the
contemporary civilization.
The fair play principle and the connected moral principles are (from the legal
viewpoint) – as I have tried to prove above – something completely external and alien in
its relation to qualities of sport, because particular sports are founded not on moral
principles but on appropriate regulations which have solely pragmatic character and
which simultaneously are the essence and the most literal and coherent (although often
extensive) definition of the presented sport. They determine identity, character, qualities
and principles of play and competition. If there were not any of them, any particular
sport cannot exist (Kosiewicz 2005, p. 368). If social activity which is connected with it
is registered as a sports association its rules are provided with formal qualities connected
with the administrative code. Disobedience to rules of rivalry and norms of that code
may result not only in administrative consequences but also with penalization. Hence
regulations of a given sport have pragmatic, utilitarian qualities – they are sanctioned by
the law and that way they are connected with a given state’s jurisdiction. International
sport associations are registered also by various particular national register courts.
The law allow neither any moral rules based on emotional, subjective and relative
judgments - which would permit to act at one’s own discretion - nor latitude to be
included in its regulations. By the way, there is distinguished a notion of morality of the
law, but it has a different non-ethical normative meaning connected with its internal
properties, such as e.g. its non-contradictory character or not applying its regulations
backwards (the law should not have a retrospective character).
Moral norms in sport
Introduction of moral norms into sports regulations would cause deformation of both
regulations and sports, and negation of their essence, sense and function. Sports
competitions would transform into rivalry first of all in the field of morality. Sports
aspirations and result would be of secondary significance.
Rules of a given sport allow their twofold interpretation. The first consists in coherent
and unexceptional obedience to its regulations. It leads to coming into existence of an
idealized – and rarely met in practice – form of competition resulting in so-called pure
play. The second allows treating those rules as something which admittedly constitutes
the main determinant of the course of rivalry, but which also permits their intentional or
unintentional breaking or finding loopholes in them in special cases which are saddled
with sanctions.
Both ways of interpreting sports regulations are in accordance with their formal
meaning and they do not have – it refers also to the second case – any morally
condemnable traits. Participants of competitions (it refers especially to the second
interpretation) make use of binding rules in order to achieve the maximal effect, which
is expected and assumed by the strategic plan of the game. It comes from that that the
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
main aim of rivalry is not to play in a peaceful way and without fouls (Fraleigh 2003,
pp.166-176, Li-Hong Hsu 2005, pp. 6-7, Simon 2007, pp. 219-227). Nor it is
idealization of regulations of a given sport from the viewpoint of so-called pure play or
realization of any transcendental – in their relation towards the rules of the game –
moral norms, which would not be connected with assumed and expected results of
rivalry. What is important is to realize assumed aims in such a way to avoid exclusion of
a contestant or his/her team from the game and not to overstep the barrier of social
norms in a way which would result in temporary or permanent exclusion (in the penal
sense) from the social group of athletes or from society as such.
Conduct in accordance with regulations of a given sport has no moral character - it
has only a pragmatic character, similarly as conduct in accordance with principles of the
administrative, civil or penal law. Of course, while acting in accordance with regulations
of sports rivalry, similarly as in accordance with legal codes, it is possible to achieve
other additional aims – such as, for example, aesthetic, spectacular or moral ones. In
each case, however, regulations of the game and legal norms have social priority,
because they are the most important regulative determinant of conduct in variously
defined human groups. The abovementioned sports and legal regulations are not moral
norms. They can, however, influence moral behaviours if the latter are in conflict with
the law or rules of the game.
From that viewpoint, moral norms are exterritorial in their relation to assumptions and
rules of a given sport. They are so alien that they are not introduced to regulations of a
particular sport. Athletes or other persons who are professionally connected with highly
competitive sport – such as, for example, coaches, club officials or owners – are neither
required to have moral beliefs, nor to practice moral behaviours if they act in accordance
with rules of sports rivalry – both in their first and their second abovementioned
meaning.
Any judgments of more or less accidental behaviours taking place during sports
competitions in the light of vague moral principles lead to disruption of relations and
distortion of assumptions, aims and needs of sport. The source of their inspiration is not
ethics but a different axiological and normative order. The European Fair Play
Movement – and the connected national movements for fair play – judge athletes’ moral
behaviours and ethical attitudes which are not concerned by rules of rivalry. Thus they
judge something what is completely alien in its relation to the essence and assumptions
of a particular sport. After all, moral judgments of behaviours may arise various doubts
because of assumed viewpoints. The latter depend on, among others, the cultural, the
ideological, the political, the religious, the historical or the geographical context. The
moral judgment is determined also by personal and social experience. It is based on
relativistic and situationistic motivations and needs which may be experienced and
justified in different and even contradictory ways. It is obvious that that type of
evaluation – that is, moral evaluation – has solely non-objective, discretionary,
permanently changeable character, dependent on passing circumstances and with a
context of justification lacking stable criteria.
The viewpoint presented in that paragraph need not to be more developed, because
there is extensive literature – from the field of meta ethics (or, in other words, meta
morality or the philosophy of morality in its narrow sense) – concerning that subject and
Sport – beyond Moral Good and Evil
31
based on ethical relativism. Further abbreviated presentation of assumptions of ethical
relativism and its connections with sports normative ethics would have – in the light of
philosophy – features of explanations or repetitions of textbook character (and it is just
something I would like to avoid)
I can add that a moral judgment or a connected ethical interference in the course of
sports phenomena before them, during them or after their end seems to be – from the
viewpoint of philosophy - an obvious mistake both in axio-normative and cognitive
sense, because it does not contribute with universalistic values deserving being
universally followed. It introduces into the rules of competition and play emotional and
relative moral norms, which are alien and external in its relation to pragmatic and formal
assumptions.
Moreover, an attempt at subordination of sports competitions to one and, moreover,
general moral norm – which can be variously interpreted and specified depending on
relativistically and situationistically (referred to accidental situations) founded intuition
of the good – leads to deformation of the sense and the aim of activity: especially in
broadly understood highly competitive sport. Such a behaviour (which earlier had
individual character) should not be rewarded, because resulting possible repetitiveness
might negatively influence – as a possible categorical quasi-imperative – the course of
sports rivalry. It might result in priority of morality over the pragmatic determinant of
the ethos, the utilitarian thread of rivalry. Such a possibility is connected with
popularisation of an irrational fair play principle which is promoted by authorities and
members of the European Fair Play Movement, and especially by Polish promoters of
the principle. That irrationality is connected with the fact that the abovementioned
principle is contradictory to the essence or the sense of sport: also as a basis for a false
hierarchy of values (which assumes that the fair play principle is the highest determinant
and the reference point of sports rivalry).
Behaviours of a moral character may take place and appear during sports rivalry,
similarly as during production of sportswear, sports equipment or facilities – such as, for
example, great stadiums. However no employer, both in the first and the second case,
expects from employees of definite companies (including sports clubs and athletes
employed on the basis of contracts) behavioural and moralizing ethical displays while
performing their duties. They are assessed only on the basis of pragmatic effects of their
work. Athletes, for example, are assessed not only on the basis of final results of rivalry,
which are one of the most important indications of their level of preparation (concerning,
among others, their endurance and fitness), but also on the basis of realization of
technical and tactical assumptions by them in a given case.
Moral issues can be taken into consideration as a possible additional factor which
stimulates some athletes or their teams for more effective – or more spectacular – rivalry
(game or race) or as a factor which significantly disturbs the course of rivalry. Then they
are treated in an instrumental – not in an autotelic – way.
The pointed out factor has emotive qualities, similarly as other elements of that kind –
which are mediated by, among others, ideology, politics, religion or ethnical
determinants. However, in variously manifested sports rivalry, founded on particular
regulations of a given sport, the main aim certainly is not to prove moral, ideological,
political, ethnical or religious superiority, but to achieve variously conceived sports
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
success.
Moral behaviours may serve as a criterion for assessment of, among others,
representatives of those professions which are accompanied by deontological ethics –
such as, for example, physicians, journalist, scientists, teachers or clergymen of various
denominations. However, the fact what profession is practiced by them is determined by,
first of all, their professional qualifications and not by their moral predispositions or a
possible vocation. Those qualifications have the primary and basic character – like the
final premise while determining methodological types of sciences. Ethics has a
secondary character.
In the case of clergymen, such as Catholic ones, we have to do – unlike in the case of
other professions – with such a situation where professional activities should closely
interweave with the priest’s, the monk’s or the catechist’s ethical attitude, as well as with
his moral teaching. Because of the fact that religious service (treated by me as a specific
form of profession) cannot be separated from moral beliefs and behaviours, the
discussed profession can be attributed with qualities characteristic for a vocation. The
term “vocation” can be also used in the case of activity of such outstanding philosophers
as Socrates, Pythagoras and his proponents or Giordano Bruno (by the way, a
philosophically inspired vocation do not need implicate moral imperatives).
However, in the case of the physician, the teacher, the journalist, the scientist or the
philosopher there is no necessary close connection between their widely understood
moral beliefs and conduct. It means that in their case a possible demand suggesting
necessity of such a connection need not be fulfilled.
In the case of the athlete that type of connections has accidental character. S/he is
obliged only to observe regulations of rivalry and to obey recommendations of the coach
or of the head of the sports club. Neither he is ordered to be a carrier of any specific
moral goods, nor he is required to make himself or his team repulsive because of his
obvious immorality, indecency or showing disrespect to and breaking the abiding law.
Conclusion
To sum up the abovementioned considerations, I would like to emphasise that –
similarly as in the past – I am not of an opinion that the fair play principle is a vital or a
significant value of sport. It should not be placed in any hierarchy of values which is
connected with sport, because it comes from and refers to another axiological order of
behaviours and the discussed principle should not be forced into a different realm of
behaviours regulated by rules of a given sport.
Nor the fair play principle – that is, its application – is the basis for, a determinant of
or a test of individual or collective righteousness, or a proof of active goodness in sport,
because sport is neither an ethical phenomenon, nor a touchstone or a testifier of
morality. Its task is realization of pragmatic aims which have been assumed in it. It
refers to aims which have been determined by the human being in order to fulfil one’s
own and social needs, expectations and dreams.
It refers to various forms of highly competitive sport and all forms of sport for all.
Highly competitive, professional, Olympic and spectacular sport is one of the most
difficult, hard and tiresome forms of work. It is one of the reasons why it should be free
of additional and redundant moral duties, which unnecessarily complicate both
Sport – beyond Moral Good and Evil
33
preparations for and the course of rivalry.
On the other hand, sport for all sets out cathartic, escapist, ludic, hedonistic, aesthetic,
cognitive, fitness-related, relaxative, health-related or even therapeutic aims. It is not
organized because of ethical needs.
It is assumed that the first form of sport has instrumental character and the second is
autotelic regarding its different relation to work. However, when it is assumed that none
of the abovementioned forms of highly competitive sport or sport for all is practiced for
the very sport - that is, sport as such - it is the viewpoint which makes us perceive every
form of sport as an instrumental one, because it is treated as a means for definite and
various individual and social aims.
Notes:
That viewpoint and proper argumentation are presented by me more extensively in the
paper “Is the Principle of Fair Play The Highest Value in Sport? – New Considerations”
(Kosiewicz 2005, pp. 363-370). Nota bene, a scientific – and, especially, a philosophic –
opinion is treated by me as a whole composed of content-related assumptions and a
context of justification, which explains those assumptions by presenting proper reasoning.
Hence, I do not give additional information that an opinion of such a kind includes
arguments.
Nota bene in the first case (I refer to the abovementioned figures) we have to do with a vocation:
with a mission of both philosophical and religious character. The first aspect is confirmed by a
message included in an anecdote about Pythagoras, where he proclaims that “we, the
philosophers, came to that life from another life not to achieve fame or gain money, but to look
for the essence of things – that is, for the very reality – in the most insidious way” (Cyceron,
V, 3, 7-9; Diogenes Laertios, VIII, 8; Malingrey 1961, pp. 30-32; Domański 1996, pp. 3-4).
The second aspect, on the other hand, is connected with principles of a pious and ascetic
foundation of the moral ethos called Pythagorean life, which came directly from Orphics’
ethical principles described in a similar way – that is, with a name of Orphic life. According to
assumptions of Pythagoreans’ soteriological ethics, practicing philosophy (that is, for example,
mathematics or astronomy) was – very shortly speaking – a manifestation of ascetical
behaviour and, simultaneously, a form of cultic activity.
In the second case we have to do with a moral vocation of strictly philosophical character, an
uncompromised mission to disseminate truth. Socrates proclaimed that virtue is a good, which
was identified with knowledge; that is, with wisdom as fulfilment. He devoted his life to
defending his innocence – and the connected moral beliefs, which were simultaneously his
own and universal – till the end of his court trial. He rejected ethical conformism for justice
understood in the absolutist way (Platon 1982, pp. 227-307).
Giordano Bruno, on the other hand, appreciated first of all not moral and religious, but strictly
cognitive – that is, philosophical – views concerning construction of cosmos. They assumed,
among others, plurality of worlds, and especially of planetary systems similar to our solar
system. Both that vision of the universe – which, nota bene, was more revolutionary than the
Copernican one – as well as his conceptions of hylosoism and panpsychism, could not be
accepted by the then Catholic church, which fought them with the Holy Inquisition. Bruno
identified with his philosophical vocation and even facing the stake he did not reject his views,
in spite of insistent persuasion (Suchodolski 1963, pp. 405-425).
I would like to emphasise that the majority of the arguments from the context of
justification which is presented in the text aims at challenging a commonly approved
thesis which affirms a need and merits of a close connection between morality and sport.
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If it comes from my assumption and the connected argumentation that sport can be
situated beyond moral good and evil, and athletes’ activity can be based on rules of
definite sports, which are independent from ethics, I think that it is justified to proclaim
that forcing athletes to behave according to moral principles is a redundant burden and an
additional non-professional duty for them and their profession (which is somehow similar
to enforced religious behaviours).
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[18] Kretchmar, R. S. (2005). Ethics, Value Choices, and the Good Life. In Practical Philosophy
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Acculturation of Oriental Martial Arts in Europe
Jong Young Lee (The University of Suwon, South Korea)
Abstract
The oriental martial arts in the Europe have been accompanied with great emphasis as
sport and physical fitness. The original source of the oriental martial arts had originated
from the various types of fighting for self-defense purpose. In the Asian process of
development, religious rituals and spiritual purposes of Buddhism, Taoism, and
Shintoism have been strongly added to its bodily training. Nontheless, they have lost
their original cultural significance in both European and Asian countries. Korean
Taekwondo has been acculturated into some European cultural grammar of sports &
physical fitness. In the perspective of some traditional sense, the oriental martial arts
have had a sort of unique aura that the public felt difficulty in accessing easily. The
argument concerning the tradition and unavoidable change has become a repetitive
theme in all of oriental martial arts. As signified in the term "art" of martial arts, the
artists in the area of physical activities, would imagine constructing more attractive or
compelling paradigm.
Key words : oriental martial arts, taekwondo, master teacher
Introduction
In the outward appearance, the oriental martial arts have enjoyed great popularity and
international growth in recent decades. They have spread to nearly all countries in the
world, including Europe. Among them, the oriental martial arts, called Judo and Tae
Kwon Do became Olympic sports. But what is oriental martial arts ? What does the
oriental martial arts lose and gain when they changed into sports ? Is martial arts a
sport ? Is martial arts just fighting skill ? Is martial art like dancing sports like
capoeira ? Thus, defining a clear concept on oriental martial arts is not easy matter to
state, considering a new version as colonial sports products, having the aura of
mysterious orientalism in the western people's viewpoint.
Strictly speaking, the European concept on orientalism has to be re-defined. The
orient as a geographic reality may be a product of the western imperialism. The
Western, commonly named Europe, needed to establish the opposite part in order to
confirm its own identity. Its own identity is legitimized by constructing the opposite
object. Accordingly, the word of orient may imply its fabrication in colonizing process
in the modern conquest period. In the meantime, the Europe has produced a biased
knowledge, or image on Asia, while trying its legitimacy in the process of conquering
the oriental region. The image includes the ones of mysterious and babarious,
humiliating Asian people.
The Asian image, firmly established in the European people's consciousness, has
adversely, influenced Asian people's self-image in spite of themselves. An example is
Asian people's inferiority complex toward themselves, compared to the superiority
Acculturation of Oriental Martial Arts in Europe
37
feeling of the West. Some of European trainees recognize the oriental martial arts as
the dominant culture Asian people have (Kim & Back, 2003).
As this qualitative study focuses on how Western culture has accepted the body
culture of oriental tradition, it concentrates on the European concept on Asian martial
arts. This study is being complemented by concerned literature review, including the
interview with Taekwondo and Judo masters, who have practiced as martial art teachers
in the Europe.
The Eastern Concept on Martial Arts
Oriental martial arts are not like sport, which can be easily included in the context of
European bodily exercise. Oriental martial arts seem to mean more than sport. What
values and significance can the oriental martial arts have ?
According to the book "The Way to Go" written by Kim & Back, the contemporary
Asian martial arts have developed from a variety of different practices. In nearly all the
cases, the original source was a form of fighting for self-defense purpose. But, in the
course of development, religious rituals and spiritual purposes of Buddhism, Taoism,
and Shintoism have been strongly added to its bodily fighting.
In the late nineteenth and twentieth century, the more spiritual purposes came to carry
more weight. This change was especially evident in Japan, when the samurai class had
already had several centuries of peace. In the 19th century, with the Westernized
modernization of Japan, the military significance of the martial arts declined, and came
to be more emphasis on martial arts as a spiritual way of life.
Even in the other oriental nations where the military class was not disbanded, the
traditional martial arts lost much of their original practical significance. Rather
modernized artillery was more effective than traditional martial arts. This shift in the
applicability of the martial arts might be said to have cleared the way for a purer
manifestation of their less fighting aspects (Cox, 1993). There seems to have been a
conscious acceptance of the need to stress the spiritual, artistic side of the martial arts at
the expense of the practical and combative. Thus profound shift in the essential aspects
seems to be marked in the Eastern martial arts from practical skill to spirituality.
But this trend cannot be defined with a decisiveness because it is in the intermingled
situation. Chinese Tao was used to describe the practical aspects and has strong
connection to the Taoism and Buddhism. In modern days, the practical element has
not been overlooked in the Asian nations of Korea, Japan, China, considering the
combat skill teaching and physical fitness improvement cases of Taekwondo, Karatedo,
Judo, and Wushu.
The Oriental Martial Arts as a Hybrid Sport in Europe
Oriental martial arts constitute an important part of modern sport or physical
culture. From training halls in remote temple area they came to sport halls, schools,
and to the film, influencing the shape of global culture. There are about 150 millions of
people practicing, but layout of popularity of particular martial arts is different in each
European country. Judo is popular in France, and karate of different varieties is popular
38
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
in Poland. Taijiquan, a sort of Chinese gymnastics, is becoming more popular in
European countries (Kim, 2000).
On the other hand, their native martial arts in China and other asian nations are being
modified by influence of the Western model of sport. The Olympic sports of Judo and
Taekwondo are based on the ground of European sports in pursuit of practical result,
thereby downgrading the philosophical framing and pedagogical values of oriental
martial arts. Chinese wushu, Thailand Muay-Thai, Japanese Jujutstu & Karate, Okinawa
Karate, and Filipino style of martial arts are also trying to step on the Olympic
road. These oriental martial ats are closely related with the European culture of
commercialization, democratization, and media coverage. These are not asking rigid
religious dogma to the concerned people (Donahue, 1997).
Flexible and modified oriental martial arts under globalization processing are
becoming export commodity, being accepted and adapted in general European cultural
format. Additionally, not only in the Asian nations do national traditions of martial arts
become the basis of physical education, as Judo and Kendo in Japan, Wushu in China,
Taekwondo in Korea. There are some attempts of adaptation of national martial arts of
those Asian countries to the system of physical education of European countries. This
fact means the holistic pedagogical role of martial arts are for general development of
the students. Theory of martial arts with strong emphasis on educational dimension
have already been applied at several European universities, including Germany and
Poland (Cynarski, 2003).
Thus, new hybrid versions of physical exercise are being created, intermingling the
rules of ethics, discipline, physical, & rehabilitative exercises with technical skills in the
field of Western science and Oriental wisdom. Oriental martial arts look like a new
model for combative sports being institutionalized in certain European ways.
The Cases of European Experiences on the Oriental Martial Arts
According to an interview with a 35 year-old Romanian called Mr.D who had started
his aikido career since his primary school days and has field experience concerning
oriental martial arts in Spain, an unexpected remark was noticed by the research author.
"Current European martial arts were imported from mainly the oriental regions. To me, utilizing
reversely the opposite person's power is amazing point in the oriental martial arts. As far as I
know, the European motives in deciding to learn oriental martial arts are by the impact of the
western movies showing versatile bodily skills by the asian actors, the desire to show masculine
appearance by making strenuous body exercise of any kind, and commercial concept of give and take
between the trainer and the trainee. They just want to learn the practical skills of body usage from
their masters, not caring too much on ceremonial or pedagogical routines."
On the other hand, there was a different comment from 26 year-old Korean
Taekwondo master called Mr. Kim who had started his Taekwondo career since his
primary school days and various teaching experience for the western people.
"European participants wanted to taste unique or curious smell from their asian master teachers. To
me the different tastes meant very polite body gesture towards them or wearing special attire in color,
attire logo and design in order to reproduce mysterious asiatic atmosphere, disregarding my daily
habits in my country. Some Taekwondo masters insist on their original teaching method in
Acculturation of Oriental Martial Arts in Europe
39
Korea. But most of them are not. I think, from the starting stage of teaching, consistently
familiarizing the western people to their teaching or treating style is important."
Mr.Y. who was a Taekwondo master in Spain, remembered his experience.
European trainees did not care on the original contents of Korean taekwondo. Any
kind of punching forms, which are being used in the other fighting sports, was allowed
in their teaching classes.
"Spanish people are crazy in bull-fighting, professional soccer matches, and ,if I add, Korean
martial arts takwondo. In the previous days, there was about 1,500 taekwondo dojo (gym) in this
nation, currently increasing at double, in the number of about 3,000 all over the nation. The Spanish
trainees respected taekwondo master's decent etiquette and were expecting, implicitely,
oriental mysterious image in leading style and physical performance. Above all, the trainees do no
care the original bodily movement forms or rigid spiritual lesson that the taekwondo training in
Korea have strongly emphasized. Thus the taekwondo master teachers had to change their
teaching contents at their customer convenience. Mixed teaching style was allowed at many cases,
borrowing various forms of boxing, karate, judo. Additional exercise therapy methods such as sport
massage, spinal posture correction or oriental acupuncture can be included as side subjects in their
taekwondo teaching."
A Korean martial art master Min Kim has expressed a similar opinion, retrospecting
his 10 year teaching experience in France. He has faced various cultural difficulties,
owing to misunderstanding on the character or traits of French people. He has found
Korean teaching style does not fit the French people.
"In France, oriental martial arts is noted for both mystery or effectiveness in
fighting. Oriental martial arts in France are rooted on a mixed foundation of both classical standards
of the orient and the western exercises. Thus, sportization and westernization of the oriental martial
arts took over the genuine or subjective spirit that the oriental martial arts imply. French trainees are
more interested in acquiring physical techniques than moral, ethical, philosophical pursuits in the
oriental martial arts. They just stick to French method of thinking in the relationship between the
masters and the students. French trainees do not regard their master teachers as lifetime advisor or
guide. Their personal relationship is mainly based on the master's technical superiority, mutual
friendship, and financial counterparts."
He also had pointed out the conflicting points with Korean habits toward master
teachers he has internalized since his young age. But he had also to compromise with
himself as a foreign asian person who cannot overcome easily the social reality in
France.
"Some oriental masters insist on a principle that French trainees must follow the master's
teaching method because they want to learn their martial arts from asian teachers. Many oriental
masters think that teaching oriental martial arts to the trainee should be carried out in a closed and
very conservative viewpoint, not following economic exchange theory. The wisdom and bodily
expertise of genuine martial arts are the results from hard training over the long period. It is difficult
to share these wisdom with the people with no credibility. Passing over their precious expertise is
to be limited to the cases of close relationship between parents and children. French trainees do not
have this kind of intimacy with their master teachers. They simply want to learn only body
techniques from their masters. Some asian masters was disappointed at their behavior.
Notwithstanding, the oriental masters are destined to be adapted into French style, or the relationship
between customer and seller in relation with a commodity called oriental martial arts."
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
European countries have had a remarkable growth in number of martial arts schools
and in the concerned population. Fueled by the martial arts movies of Bruce Lee,
oriental martial arts rose in their appeal to participants. Some masters who brought
martial arts to the West did not intend to spread the martial arts into professional
field. Along with the rapid growth of the martial arts in the west, more people had
chance to approach its training, and the oriental martial arts have became as a career or a
business.
In some aspects, professionalization appears to be a motive, as it leads to great
expertise of higher levels of physical proficiency. But, some people exploit martial arts
for their own monetary profit without caring much implicit negative effects. Financial
leverage may force the masters to make the training more appealing, and rank
advancement easier.
The spiritual side of the martial arts and concern for building a positive character
takes a backseat to physical prowess. The black belt trainees are leaving the dojo gym
too early. After that they are opening their own dojo gym and they teach what they
know. Certain things of oriental traditional value system are being disregarded, while
knowing the feasibility of producing better fighters or criminals. The masters are now
searching for their students through solicitation. The masters who adhere to oriental
martial arts tradition would select only a few trainees under their constant guidance. At
the populism situation of oriental martial arts, the most of European trainees are not
seriously concerned with whether their masters are qualified or not. It leads to strictly a
matter of how much self-defense techniques can I learn for the dojo registration
fee. The master's attitude toward the trainees has dramatically changed, while the
intrinsic culture of the oriental martial arts is being inter-mixed with the modern
sports-minded ideology in Europe (Kim & Back, 2003).
In this context, Mr. K, a 27 year-old taekwondo master introduces 2 year teaching
experience in Europe. His remarks sound similar at some points concerning oriental
master teachers with the previous cases.
"First of all, I've felt the big difference between teaching in Europe and teaching in my
country. Language barrier in communication with them have given me a big stress I could not
tolerate. But foreign trainees were more eager to learn Taekwondo than the Korean trainees in my
country. They admired my versatile foot-techniques in Taekwondo performance. At this situation, I
would feel proud of myself on the dimension of Korean people's patriotic emotion. But, I could not
find an ideal teaching method for the foreigners. In particular, I could not find a proper alternative to
pack up the cultural gap in general. To us Korean masters who fell in love with Korean kimchi,
the culture of hamburger bread may be a tangled riddle. The foreigners highly respected on
their master's practical bodily expertise, not for the authoritarian, solemn, and moral image of
the master teachers which is an important part in my country. Personal character in choosing
their teacher in my country is very important dependent variable. If possible, the trainees in my
country would screen the personal factor of the master teacher through various opinion
channels. But, some western people are impolitely approaching their asian master teachers. We
Asians must prepare for this kind of awkwardness because bodily self-defcense and physical fitness
through oriental martial arts are their primary purposes in the most cases."
A Taekwondo master, Kim Young Jong(2008) gave a comment on a spanish
harmonized case in oriental martial arts. Spain is one of the big three in European
taekwondo, including Germany and France. It hosts national championships of
Acculturation of Oriental Martial Arts in Europe
41
sub-Junior, Junior and senior level. On a strict standard, their high-leveled taekwondo
athletes are selected for International competitions. Spain has showed the second place
after Korean taekwondo team.
"The trainees in my taekwondo came across the name of taekwondo through mass-media,
mouth-talk or local rumor. My taekowndo shop includes the persons of various social levels such as
lawyer, medical doctor, policeman, military army, housewives, etc. Mr. Enrique Mancherdo is a
lawyer. Mrs. Madolores Espinosa is a housewife. Mr. Jorie Lopez is a construction worker. Mr.
Jose Lopez is a banker. Mr. Antonyo Montes Ropez has served in a metal refinery factory and has
become a world champion in his weight. He'd started his taekwondo career since the early age with
a sort of ambiguous curiosity and mysterious feeling for the oriental martial arts & their culture. He
came to visit Korea many times, whenever he has a chance of vacation period. He is very polite
toward Korean master teachers & people around him. He is also a well-disciplined spanish trainee,
showing very positive response at every thing around him. In Spain, opening a taekwondo shop is not
so difficult. A high degree certificate is not required as mandatory. The relationship between
the teacher and the students is so flexible, compared to Korean situation. If Asian masters do
continuous effort in upgrading the personal credibility and the teaching ability, dependable job as a
taekwondo coach is quaranteed."
The Master teacher in France the above-mentioned Min Kim, had commented that
French people think the oriental martial arts as equal status with the oriental
people. Thus their martial arts signify only physical training which can upgrade French
style martial arts into the higher level.
"In France, the term of martial arts is defined as a combative sport in the region of the far
eastern nations. French trainees has three general concepts in relation with the oriental martial arts.
The first type is not to distinguish from the combat sports of the west. They are only interested in
the technical aspects of the oriental martial arts. In the other words, they do not care about the
other perspectives the oriental martial arts imply. This trend strengthens the attitude of pragmatism
and commercialism toward martial arts, while requiring quick and superficial imminent results from
their training. The second type is to adhere to the tradition of all of the martial arts. emphasizing
its behavioral, moral, and philosophical value. These values are regarded as old-fashioned
and meaningless to some trainees. The third type is to understand the holistic aspects of martial arts,
both trying not to disregard its philosophical value and denying dogmatic approach. French
trainees in general are trying to pursue individual well-being and therapeutic effects which can be felt
in their real life through training of martial arts. They do not want to over-cross such positive line
as calmness or peaceful mind as the result of martial arts training."
Conclusion and Suggestion
Considering aforementioned comments, the growth of the oriental martial arts in the
Europe has been accompanied with great emphasis on the martial as sport and physical
fitness. The original source of the oriental martial arts had originated from the various
types of fighting for self-defense purpose. But, in the Asian process of development,
religious rituals and spiritual purposes of Buddhism, Taoism, and Shintoism have been
strongly added to its bodily fighting.
The oriental martial arts have spread widely in Europe, while they have lost their
original cultural significance in both European and Asian countries. Modern oriental
martial arts are included in the category of general sports. The oriental martial arts such
as Taekwondo has been acculturated into physical education and sports by the influence
of the European tradition of sports. Traditional combative elements of oriental martial
arts have diminished. In the age of mass culture, Chinese wushu has also become a
42
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
theatrical performance for the general spectators. Their widespread popularity of
taichiquan was by mental or physical well-being or health reasons rather than fighting
technique.
In the perspective of some traditional sense, the oriental martial arts had an unique
aura that the public felt difficulty in accessing. The arguments concerning the tradition
and unavoidable change have become very common theme to all of oriental martial
arts. All of them can be part of sports in the competitive format or not just in the
physical fitness & well-being pursuit as a public life activity.
It is a reality that the main income of the oriental master teachers in Europe depends
on the registration fee from the trainees. This condition means binding or coercing the
master teachers into some European cultural grammar of physical activities. The
martial arts, like most of human things, have never been static. Unchangeable model of
the oriental martial arts did not exist in the real meaning. All of the original or
traditional things seem culturally-formatted versions at the people's convenience in
certain historic period or location.
As signified in the term "art" of martial arts, our artists in the area of physical
activities, would probably imagine more attractive or compelling things.
References
[1] Cox. J.C.(1993) Traditional Asian Martial Arts Training : A Review. Quest, Vol.45
No.3.
[2] Cynarski W.J.(2003) Globalization of Sports Culture. Rzeszow, Poland.
[3] Cynarski E.J. and Obodynski K.(2003) Far-Eastern Martial Arts in the Process of
Globalization. Institute of Physical and Health Education. Rzeszow, Poland.
[4] Donahue. J.(1997) Ideological Elasticity. Journal of Asian Martial Arts, Vol.7
No 2.
[5] Kim, Daeshik and Back Allan.(2003) The Way to Go : Philosophy in Martial Arts
Practice. Nanam Publishing House. Seoul, Korea.
[6] Kim, Min Ho (2000) Westernization of the Oriental Martial Arts : A Case
of France. The Forum of the Korean Cultural Anthropological Society
Development of Physical Education for Student’s 43
Restiveness in Schools in Nigeria
Development of Physical Education for Student’s
Restiveness in Schools in Nigeria
Odunola Bello (FCT College of Education, Zuba – Abuja, Nigeria)
Bolaji Ojo-Oba (Nigeria Football Federation, Nigeria)
Abstract
Development of education not merely depend on one single unit but the work of the
whole social network. Youth constitute about forty two percent of the overall population
of Nigeria and a good percentage of this are found in the secondary schools. Studies by
Amusa (2010) and Bello (2009) reveal that it is during this period of secondary
education that the youths have much of the abundant energy to withstand physical
activities and also seek avenue for social and mental activities. It is required that these
potentials be well directed towards the development of self and the society that the child
belongs. Physical education in school is a gate way to all games and sporting activities.
It therefore becomes necessary that physical education make provision for the proper
engagement of the youths especially in the use of their leisure time and also prepare
them to earn living through sports and games. It is the position of this paper that
physical education if properly organized can profitably engage youths in sports and
games, thereby remove them from involvement in such negative vices as cultism,
drunkenness, examination mal-practice drug addiction restiveness etc. since sports and
games have in built discipline through rules and regulations embedded in them.
Key words: physical education, restiveness, youth
Introduction
Every subject in the school curriculum has something to contribute to the nation as
well as to the student learned Physical Education as subject in secondary school and as
an integral part of education system strives to promote the total child. Physical education
in secondary school is geared towards guiding the child to being more incorporated and
effective individual physically, mentally, socially, skillfully and morally. This is why it
offers instructions and guidance in a wide range of sport skills which can satisfy the
physical need of the child and contribute to socially efficient living. In addition to this,
the programme on information regarding the development and maintenance of physical
and mental health as it relates to physical activity in modern living.
The secondary school child falls within the pre-adolescent and adolescent stage. This
period is essentially marked by rapid and equally profound changes in the physical,
physiological, cognitive, perceptual and psychosocial development. These significant
changes tremendously affect the behavioural and emotional patterns to the extent that
adolescent may become rebellious, easily upset, confused; a period referred to as a
period of “storms and stress” or “age of ideas”. This is a period of rapid change in
interests, attitudes, behaviour and increase in size, height and it is a stage of high
44
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
emotionality, unrealistic expectations and a period when they act like adults and
concentrate on other behaviour that are associate with adults examples smoking,
drinking and engaging in sex (Hurlock,1977). Among the physical changes experienced
by the secondary school youth is the increase in muscle size, full of energy and activity.
If no useful event is provided for them to discharge the energy bottled up in them they
try to vent out in several violent and unacceptable ways.
In view of the unique contributions of physical education and its wide acceptability
by educators as one subject that can provide the needed guidance and avenue that can
positively influence the life of the youth of secondary school age with carry-over values
yet not much has been done to provide the needed requirements for the optimal
functionality of the subject in secondary schools.
This paper highlights.
- the meaning, concept and importance of physical education in secondary school
curriculum.
- ways of curbing negative vices in students through physical education
- state of physical education in secondary schools in Nigeria
- obstacle to effective teaching of physical education in secondary schools and
finally
- the paper makes recommendation on how to enhance this subject to ensure that
the goals of this subject are achieved.
Meaning, Concept and Importance of Physical Education in Secondary
School Curriculum
Physical education is an intergral part of general education because its objectives are
in line with that of the general education. Amusa (2010) explained Physical Education as
a broad discipline which focuses on development of skillful body management, artistic,
creativity through bodily movement, competitive elements involving the use of
psychomotor, skills, training the body for physical fitness development and coping in
challenging environment. At secondary school level, sports are expected to become an
intergral part of the youth subculture which should be highly valued by students at this
level. At this level of education because of the developmental stage of students, interest
in consuming a variety of sports often stimulate and reinforced youth within the school.
Bello (2009) explained that schools are established to prepare children for adult life
and so a major function of the school is to socialize the young ones. The school
educational programme should assist in the transmission of culture of a society from one
generation to another. The educational institutions are to provide the needed skills and
knowledge that will enable an individual to grow into maturity so as to live on
independent life. By having sports in the secondary curriculum, it will provide students
the opportunity of participating in sports which will in turn reflect cultural values, norms,
ethics and standards of the society. This discipline, according to Ramos Argenira et al
(2008) should be understood as the development of all capacities that surround body
formation, to get the highest progress of physical, expressive, motor and other
possibilities. Physical education if well planned in secondary school. This is more so
because it is a stage that psychologists believe that young persons develop their attitudes,
appreciation, practices and interest in sports especially if a solid foundation was laid at
Development of Physical Education for Student’s 45
Restiveness in Schools in Nigeria
the primary schools. Varnier and Fait (1975) summarized the unique contributions of
physical education in secondary education to include the following:
(1)Developing total and physical fitness
(2)Increasing movement skill range and accuracy
(3)Increasing knowledge and favorable attitudes
(4)Socializing the individual and
(5)Fostering a better use of leisure time.
Physical education programmes in secondary schools is a welcome development and
widely accepted by educators as part of the general educational programme in view of
the educational values that could accrue from it if well controlled. It is co-curricular in
nature and focuses on wholesome and total development of children.
Curbing Student’s Restiveness through Physical Education
Secondary school age as previously seen falls in line with the adolescence.
Adolescence is a critical time in the life of a person and so it becomes necessary that the
school has to live up to this challenge, so that the best can come out of this. Physical
education is one subject in the school that provides avenues for curbing the negative
vices exhibited by some secondary school children. Physical education help to inculcate
in the children good moral up bringing which are embodied in the sports and games
students participate in. Participation of students in physical activities such as games and
sport bring about the following:
1. Inculcating of good moral behaviour: Physical education teaches children to
obey rules and regulations embodied in the different sport and games. Failure to
obey these rules attract some forms of penalty. Apart from using the rules to keep
the game under control, this is one way of instilling into a child spirit of
obedience, discipline and good moral behaviour.
2. Talent Hunt: Physical education is a trade in which one could earn a living from.
It is observed that most of the children who are not so sound in their academic
work are the ones who trigger violence and unrest in the school. Physical
education provides avenue for mass participation in sports and this may lead to
identifying, encouraging and developing potentials sportsmen and women who
would have wasted away with the negative vices.
3. Inculcation of spirit of sportsmanship: Children are taught to win honourably
and to loose gracefully. Physical activities are a time made to be competitive
resulting in selection and placement. Students must not see this as a do or die
affair. They must accept to be losers at sometime in their life. This virtue is well
taught in physical education and is carried over to later life.
4. The wide use of leisure time: This is one area that students hardly know how to
make use of. There is an adage that says the devil finds work for an idle hand”
Moment of idleness are the very moment that students get engaged in these
negative vices. Many of them take to drinking, holding unrewarded meetings, use
that time for drug taking etc. Physical education provides different types of
physical activities that one can engaged in during such leisure. If such activities
are properly put in place and the necessary directives are given students will find
these more rewarding and little or no time would be left for them to get involved
46
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
in the negative vices.
5. Inculcation of co-operative attitude, respect for leaders and spirit of oneness:
It is logical to put these three qualities together because co-operation brings about
oneness and oneness is mark of good governance which is seen in the way
subjects respect their leaders. Physical education makes use of team games,
appoint from among the students captains (leaders) who must be obeyed and
respected by the other team mates while they work together as a team. These
good virtues if properly inculcated in children enhance their adult life and cause
them to work co-operatively within the society in which they live, respecting the
feelings of other people too.
6. Training for physical fitness and maintenance of good health: Physical
activities engage in by students during physical education programmes help to
keep students not only in good frame of body but also of mind. Students use this
as avenue for release of tension and discharge of excess fat. In addition to this,
there is that general improvements in the anatomy and the working of the human
body.
The State of Physical Education in Secondary Schools in Nigeria
In view of the unique contributions of physical education which act as panacea for
curbing student’s restiveness, very little and in some cases nothing has been done to
provide the needed requirement for the functionality, of this subject in secondary schools.
The National Policy of Education (1981) states that the quality of instruction at all levels
has to be geared towards inculcating among others “the promotion of the emotional,
physical and psychological health of the children”. Physical Education as a subject in
the school curriculum requires some special facilities, equipment and supplies to be put
in place before its educational goals and objectives can be achieved. Also physical
education is a technical subject that requires a well trained specialist teacher to handle it
properly. An observation shows that this subject is yet to be made attractive to the
students because of the poor state in which the subject is placed. It is a known fact that
physical education is now made an examination subject for both the junior and senior
secondary schools but the problem rest with the following:
- who teaches the subject? How is it taught? How much of the needed facilities
are there in school?
- how much time is given to the teaching of this subject?
- what is the content of the examination? - All theory or all practicals?
If we spend time to look into these areas mentioned above as they relate to the
teaching of physical education in secondary school one will at the end come to the
realization of the fact that there are many obstacles to the effective teaching of this
subject in secondary schools. These obstacles therefore hinder the subject from taking
the state it is supposed to take.
Obstacles to the Effective Teaching of Physical Education in Secondary
Schools
1. Lack of facilities, equipment and supplies: The importance of facilities and
equipment as an incentive to sports participation and sports development need not
Development of Physical Education for Student’s 47
Restiveness in Schools in Nigeria
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
be over emphasized. Facilities and equipment are the vital elements necessary to
achieve success in any school sports programme. Cagne (1975) described
facilities and equipment as key elements” in any sport programme. Bello (2009)
noted that facilities serve as moral boasters to performing students and enhances
to a great extent their happiness. The lacking of these elements are so evident in
secondary schools that the consequences are that the teaching-learning situation
are lacking and teachers feel less confident enough to inspire students. Again the
absence of these elements get the students estranged from the subject which is
sixty percent practical (Psychomotor)
Inadequate manpower supply: Physical Education is a technical subject that
requires trained personnel to successfully handle it. It is disappointing to observe
that many secondary schools do not have enough trained teachers’ of physical
education. This explains why many schools fail to offer this subject in
examination. The subject is not examination in Joint Admission Matriculation
Board (JAMB) which leads to choice of course at tertiary levels. Also many do
not hold the usual annual intramural sports for the students. It is doubtful if we
continue at this rate whether we will get enough hands to continue when the
present ones retire.
Time Allotment: Many schools fail to allot enough time or non at all for the
teaching of this subject. The forty minutes on the time table is okay for subjects
like English and science but for physical education more time should be given yet
many principals of schools refuse to see the need for such a demand. This
inadequate time hinders the teacher from effectively putting the students through
efficiently.
Attitude of school heads: Many school heads still see physical education as
mere running and playing activity and so attach no importance to the subject.
This attitude is carried over on to every other demand made about this subject.
This is one area that posses great hindrance to the development of this subject.
Lack of Motivation: There has been a dwindling enthusiasm and commitment on
the part of the physical education teachers due to poor level of motivation they
receive from the government generally and the society. It is sad to hear that
physical education teachers are given allowance of only four hundred naira a term
and are expect to be with the students on the field. No provision has been made to
take care of any risk he or she is bound to meet.
Lack of appropriate text-books: This is an obstacle which directly affect the
teaching effectiveness of teachers of physical education. There are no text books
and journals to help up date information in these areas; some teachers of physical
education still continue to teach old and out-dated stuff due to their inability to
come in contact with new facts due to lack of text books.
Recommendation on Strategies for Improvement for the Teaching of
Physical Education in Secondary Schools.
Whenever the cause of a problem is identified, it becomes easy to resolve that
problem. The problem will only persist when one fails to tackle the cause of its. Having
known the reason for the poor state of physical education in secondary schools despite
48
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
its widely acceptable values, the following recommendations are made to enhance the
achievements of its goals as a subject in the curriculum of the educational system.
1. Provision of adequate and qualitative facilities, equipment and supplies that
would be sufficient and available to students at all times, This will help to
motivate the students and rekindle their interests in this subjects. There and then
will the teachers teach with confidence believing that all they teach will go a long
way to inculcate those good virtues meant to be achieved as goals of physical
education.
2. Provision of adequate and professional teachers of physical education to
secondary schools. Only such teachers can do well in the teaching of this subject.
3. Organization of Counselling Unit for talented athletes: Talented athletes should be
counselled or the need to continue in this area and should be well motivated. For
those who are not academically sound, they could be encouraged to take up
coaching work.
4. Textbooks should be made available in the school library to help the teachers up
date their records, and supplementary readings for students.
5. Sport Clinics and workshops should be organized for both the teachers and the
students from time to time, to update the on new rules and regulations
6. Students should be made to take practical examination on this a subject at both
the junior and senior secondary as this would help them to be closer to the reality
and not just the theory part of it. The Joint Admission Matriculation Board
(JAMB) should include Physical Education in their examinable subjects for
students in the choice of course of study to the tertiary institutions.
7. Schools should be encouraged to hold their regular intramural sport as well as
extra-mural sport, as a source of talents selection.
8. Physical education is a unique subject with some laudable objectives; it is
somehow capital intensive and so needs the assistance of the Federal State and
Local Government to implement the National sport policy schools if these
objectives are to be achieved.
Conclusion
Physical education as an intergral part of the total education strives to develop the
total child through the use of movement involved in various physical activities. Its
objectives are valuable especially in the area of curbing students restiveness and
negative vices, but its present state in secondary schools is below expectation. This is
because this subject in all its ramification is fraught with a lot of problems consequently
educational authorities must realize that the subject has become part of the education
culture and so need be developed and lived with.
References
[1] Amusa, Lateef O. (2010) Prospects and challenges in physical Education in Sport
in Africa during the 21st Century. In Physical Education and sport in Africa Eds
L.O. Amusa A. L. Toriola and I. V. Onyewadume. Ibadan Nigeria Lap Publication
Ltd. Pg. 335.
Development of Physical Education for Student’s 49
Restiveness in Schools in Nigeria
[2] Bello Odunola (2009) Youth Restiveness and Cultism Eradication Through sport.
Paper presented at the NAWIS National Conference at Lagos NIS Surulere Lagos
pg. 5
[3] Cagne, R. M. (1975). Essential of Learning for instruction. Illinois: The Dryden
Press.
[4] Hurlock (1976). Developmental Psychology; New Delhi. Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Co. Ltd.
[5] Manaster, G. J. (1977). Adolescent Development and the Life-Tasks
London: Alyn and Bacon Inc.
[6] National Policy of Education (1981), Federal Government of Nigeria.
Onifade (2001). Equipment and facility managements: A problem in secondary
schools in Nigeria. In journal of Nigeria academia of sports management. Lagos –
Nigeria Vol. 5 pg. 15.
[7] Ramos Argenira et al (2010) Pedagogical Practice in Physical Education. In
Global Perception. Sport Education Teaching of P. E. and Curriculum Studies. Eds
Walter Ho and Hai Res Macau ISCPES 2010 Vol. 2 pg. 151.
[8] Vernier and Fait (1975), Functional strategies for effective sports management
practice: A guide for sports managers and administrators: Lagos sports and leisure
consult.
Communication Skill Difference among 51
Men and Women in Sports
Communication Skill Difference among Men and
Women in Sports
Rasool Nazari (Islamic Azad University Naein Branch)
Mohammad Ehsani (Tarbiat Modares University)
Hameid Ghasemi (Islamic Azad University Karaj Branch)
Faredeh Ashraf Gangoei (Islamic Azad University Tehran Center Branch)
Abstract
The purpose this research was to review the difference in Communication skills. The
research was done using descriptive strategy. It involved 400 sports managers, coaches
and athletes Isfahan city. Communication skills questioner were used as research tools.
Data analysis was done through presumptive statics, solidarity coefficient, t test and
ANOVA methods. The results showed that there is a considerable difference between
verbal and audible skill among men and women athletes, but there was no significant
difference in feedback skill of men and women the general conclusions is that
communication skills between men and women should be knowledge.
Key words: communication skill, sport, gender
Introduction
The process of communication is definer as transfer of a message from sender to
receiver, in such a way that the receiver understands the meaning exactly the same way
as the sender does. Organizational communication also indicates the process in which
the manager exchange information and meanings whit other individuals and units inside
and outside of the organization. Personal communication skills attitude, knowledge,
culture and our position in social systems from the point of view of communication
method associates us to a specific group.
The results of investigations indicate that poor communication causes conflict and
disagreement among individuals. Since people send 10% of their wakefulness time in
some kind of communication (writing, reading, talking and listening). We find that one
of the major force keeping us from being success is lack of existed a dominate
traditional attitude in relation to communication between men and women, there are
basic physical differences in these genders, hence the question here is “should there be a
differential discrimination or not ?.
Sullivan (1994) indicates that men tend to be more active and aggressive in
performing their duties, while women tend to disclose more and often show explicit
reactions ‘towards their tasks. In this regard women use move nonverbal
communications that men. Although these differences in the communication domain
leads us to imagine the differences in communications between the two genders. There
is no room for such belief that men and women are totally differences and segregated in
regards to communication .
52
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Most of the investigations that have been done in the commutation domain recently
suggest that aspect any gander effects commutation behaviors very little or moderately.
Canary and hause(1993) suggested that some in divisor is communication methods
and their repetitions has a direct relation to their gender. Selection such methods is
done with regards to factors such as disclosure, discomfort, anger and the way usage
nonverbal communications take place. Based on some investigations generally women
are more disclosing that men and are move accepter that men. Disillusive means sending
person information to others. Method of sending this information results in improvement
of sending contents and intentions in the interpersonal communication domain. Hence,
there are some difference in the factors of communication methods among men and
women .
Kinney (2001) through an investigation found that women are more communication
with other groups and are better accepted by other members of the group. In general at
discussions and talks rough communications alone with verbal argument happens more
with men compared to women. Aggression, anger, and physical contact is common
among women but bussed on the investigation this kind of behavior is more accepted
from men and appears more their communication behavior. Another aspect of
communications is the nonverbal kind. Hall (1998) performed an investigation in regard
to gender difference in the non verbal communication doming.(which includes
nonverbal expressions extension movement, non meaningful gestures, staring .etc) he
found that some of these no verbal communications will difference represent station
depending on the gender. Generally, there are some differences in nonverbal between
men and women. Men tend to use this kind communication less than women while
women use it in an active and positive way.
Nevertheless, clear difference are present in the communication domain between men
and women which involves concretion on face to face talks in an angered situation dies
closure level non verbal communication and social concepts and so on. Sports have an
order in which operational domains and interactions are defined therefore considering
communication literature in sports this kind of interactions is clearly visible. The natured
sports create special order for communication studies. Kneading and colleagues
indicated that exiting properties challenges that are hidden in the nature of sports would
be an appropriate opportunity to study different communication be heavier in the
comfort and aggressor spectrum. Sullivan (2004) found that in the communication
domain some difference between men and women athletes due to gender.
Many of managers, coaches and athletes emphasis Alton being serious, which causes
communication problems in the sports domain and prevents suitable communications
from talking place. Therefore it can be suggested that specific person's topics alone with
cultured factors are very important and effective in communication.
Papastergiou(2010) suggests that usage of technology in the recent years in the
information and communication fields among sports managers is increasing and some
how it has reduced the face to face talks whit subordinates therefore causing move
problematic communications. Kristin Guo(2009) in an article investigated key elements
of communication processes and reviewed a variety of Communication skills in order
to improve communication strategies. He divides communication obstacles into two
categories: per sound obstacles such as beliefs valves selective perception evolution of
Communication Skill Difference among 53
Men and Women in Sports
the source ability to listen and perceive and extended communication obstacles such as
attention timer and place. People with stronger communication skills will be able
overcome these obstacles. Most important skill includes verbal, audible and feedback
skill. Now we are faced with questions: Are there any difference in these communication
skills between men and women? Dose the nature of sports activating effect these
communication skills?
Methodology
Considering that the purpose of this research is to determine the difference in
communication skills between was done using descriptive strategy and was performed
in calibration.
Statistical Society: statistical society involves athletes from the Isfahan city. Sampling
was done randomly and regards to the type of sports from group sports with two
participants. There were a total of 400 participants, including 200 women and 200 men,
Athletes There were chosen randomly different sports such as soccer, basketball,
volleyball, handball, Taekwondo, karate, wrestling, badminton, and fencing sports.
Finally, 326 questionnaires were returned from a total of 400 distributed. That is about
81.5% which was then analysis. It should be mentioned that choosing participants was
done based on the class of people number of athletes in groups of the sport from
Students sport and sports commissions. The participants were trained about the
requisitions and method of response.
Instrument research
Research tools Barton J.E (1990) questionnaire was used for this research. Skills of
verbal, audible and feedback communication are evaluated in this questionnaire. The
consistency of this questionnaire was measured sing combat’s Alpha test (0.81).
Statistical methods
In order to analysis the that in addition to the descriptive choices such abundance,
percentage and average other methods like presumptive statistics including Kolmar gruff
Smirnoff test, Levin’s test, t test for independent groups correlation coefficient and
(F) test were used. It needs to be mentioned that for analysis the data, edition it of
SPSS 16 was used.
Results
Levin’s test was performed in order to review the homogeneity of the variables at the
beginning, which did not present a significant variation between the variables based on
the information given in the table (sig=0.085). Them to review the normalcy of the
distribution of variables kolmo grof Simonof was preformed, which indicated the
distribution of variables is normal (sig=0.000).
Based on the data from figure the research was done on single individuals 68.7% and
married individuals 31.3%
54
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Fig.1)
Marital status of participants
Figure2. Show that 7% of the participants have a graduate degree or higher 51% have university
education up to a bachelor degree and 42% have high school diploma.
Fig 2) Education level of participants
Communication Skill Difference among 55
Men and Women in Sports
Table1)
Average ages and experience of participants
******
Numbers
Maximum
minimum
Average
Age
326
15
60
28.9
Sport experience
326
1
54
7.99
Table (1) indicates that the average of age is 28.9 years, youngest age was 15 and oldest
was 60 years. The age difference in the participants was as high as 45 years. The average
sport experience is 77.9 years with highest experience period 54 years and the lowest
experience period one year. The results indicate a difference of 53 years in the sport
experience of participants.
Table 2) the difference between variable .auditable, feedback com. skills between men and
women
Skills
df
t
sig
Verbal
324
3.558
*0.000
Audible
324
2.559
*0.010
Feedback
324
0.569
0.570
Based on the data given in table 2 there is significant difference in verbal and audible
communication skills between men and women but there was not a significant
difference in feedback communication skills between them.(α= 0.05)
Table 3) the difference between educational level and verbal, audible and feedback
communication skills.
Skills
Verbal
Audible
Feedback
Between groups
Within group
Between groups
Within group
Between group
Within group
df
F
sig
3
322
3
322
3
322
34.20
*0.000
14.09
*0.000
25.34
*0.000
Based on tables 3 finding there is a significant difference in verbal audible and feedback
communication skills of participants founded on level of education. (α= 0.05)
Table 4) Relation between agreed participants and verbal audible, feedback skills
Variables
Age
Verbal skill
Audible skill
Feedback skill
Persons coefficient
0.194
0.84
0.16
sig
*0.000
0.396
0.529
56
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Based on the presumptions of findings in table 4, these is significant relation between
the age participants and verbal communication skills but there is no significant relation
in the cased audible and feedback communication feedback. (α= 0.05)
Table 5) Relation between sport experience and verbal audible feedback skills among
participants.
Variables
Sport
experiences
Verbal skill
Audible skill
Persons coefficient
0.319
0.047
Feedback skill
0.035
sig
*0.000
0.131
0.774
Based on the finding in tables 5 this is a significant difference between sport experiences
and verbal but no significant difference was show between two other skills.(α= 0.05)
Discussion and Conclusions
This research examined the differences and variations between men and women
athletes in the communication domain. With regards to the results in communication
factors components of verbal and audible there was a significant difference but in the
category of feedback skills there was not such a difference. Men to be more active and
aggressive in performing tasks. While women tend to disclose more often and most of
the time portray more expressive reactions and responses. Differences between men and
women in verbal and audible could be related to disclosure among women and rough
emotional state in men. However women compare to men tend to be more
conversational. Where men seldom get involved in communication situations.
This part of the research results is consistent with Sullivan’s research results.
Generally there is a rougher combinational behavior with verbal contention when men a
anguish with each other compare to that of women. Aggression anger and even physical
contacts is not common among women but these kinds of behavior are more acceptable
among men and appear more in their communication behavior. Furthermore the
communication styles that individual represents and frequently repeat is directly related
to gender. Selection of such styles in regards to the factors such as disclosure disc com
fort anger and method of non verbal communications takes place. There for we could
say that men and women have different patterns of verbal and audible skills. But
considering there is no variation in the divination from the standards of average they use
a similar style in feedback skills. Because feedback is necessary in communications
since it gives the ability of determining the true message has been exchanged and
received by participants. This part ay research’s result is consistent with that of Kenny’s
(2001).
In the verbal audible and feedback skills there was a significant difference based on
the level of education of individuals considering the previous results based on existence
of differences due to educational level between men and women bath lets in the
communication domain it could be acknowledged that level of awareness knowledge
and social position that individuals Aguirre in the society along the again of cultural
Communication Skill Difference among 57
Men and Women in Sports
traits results in the definition individuals level of communications.
Therefore, level of education is considered an effective factor in gaining
communication skills for both genders. The result of present research is consistent with
Sullivan’s (2004) results. With regards to the obtained results there is a significant
relation between age and verbal skills considering verbal skills of individuals depending
on their age gaining experience in different environments and situations progresses. it
could be a knowledge that age is an effective factor in the communication skill
department and the individual gains social positions as his / her gets older and
somehow he is more influential the audience. The result of this part of the research is
consistent with Sullivan’s.
It could be said that in general one of the important ways of effective communication
is understands one another and special attention towards the existing differences in
communication skills between men and women should be taken in consideration.
Therefore, one need to try to know the other individual and to understand where they
come from what ideas and thoughts they have and their culture and past experience one
should acts with full awareness and consciousness. Therefore individuals with taking in
consideration the existing differences in communication skills should recognize their
own communication strategies and try to improve them. Since success full individuals in
communication build bridges this way and through their speeches and functions connect
the post present to the future with an inspiring perception.
References
[1] Allen Barker (1338), Reinforce meant of successful and effective comm. Skills
translated by: Farted Heart Tehran Be Tadbir Publishing
[2] Ali Akbar Frahahangi (1383) Organizational Comm. Ideas Cultured Services
Institute of Rasa
[3] Andre, 1'., & Holland, A. (1995). Relationship of Sport Participation to Sex Role
Orientation and Attitudes toward women among high school males and females.
Journal of Social Behavior, 78, 241-253.
[4] Bcrgvall, V. L. Bing.J. M., & Freed, A. F. (1996). Rethinking Language and Gender
Research: 'Theory and Practice. New York: Longman.
[5] Bing, & A. F. Freed (Eds.), Rethinking Language and Gender Research: Theorv and
Practice (pp. 54-76) New York: Longman.
[6] Canary, D .J. & Hause, K. S. (1993). There any reason to research sex
differences in Communication. Communication Quarterly, 41,
129-144.
[7] Dindia, K., & Allen, M. (1992). Sex differences in self-disclosure: A meta-analysis.
Psychological Bulletin, 112, 106-124.
[8] Duck, S (1993). Re-examining Gender Differences in Friendship: A dose look at two
kinds of data. Sex Roles, 28, 709-727.
[9] Freed, A. F. (1996). Language and Gender Research in an Experimental Setting. In
V. L. Bergvall, .J. M.
[10] Guo .Kristina L. (2009).Effective Communication in Health Care: Strategies to. The
58
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Business Review, Cambridge Vol.12 Num. 2.
[11] Hall .J. A. (1998). How big are nonverbal sex differences) The Case of Smiling and
Sensitivity to non-verbal cues. In D.J.Canary & K. Dindia (Eds.), Sex differences
and similarities in communication (p. 78). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
[12] Kinney, 'I'. A., Smith, B. A., & Donzclla, B. (2001). The inllucnc« of sex, gender,
self-discrepancies, and self-awareness on anger and verbal aggressiveness among
I.S. college students. Journal of Social Psychology.
[13] Kncidingcr, L. M., Maple, T. L., & Tross, S. A. (2001). Touching behavior in sport:
Functional components, analysis of sex differences, and ethological considerations.
[Journal of' Nonuerbal Bebanior, 25, 43-62.
[14] Mohsenianrad Mehdi (1387).communication science human comm. (inter-personal,
group, social) Tehran, Sorush Publishing’s.
[15] Papastergiou Marina (2010) Enhancing Physical Education and Sport Science
Students’ self-efficacy and attitudes regarding Information and Communication
Technologies through a computer literacy course. Journal homepage:
www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu. Computers & Education 54. 298-308.
[16] Stephen J. Romano (2002) Communication Survival Skills for Managers. FBI Law
Enforcement Bulletin. 71, 9.
[17] Stephen Robins (1382) Organizational Behavior. Translated by all Parisian and
seed Mohammad Arabi, Tehran: cultural researches office.
[18] Sullivan, Philip (2004). Communication Differences between Male and Female
Team Sport Athletes. Communication Reports; summer; 17, 2; Academic Research
Library
The Combination of Sport and Tourism in Leisure
59
The Combination of Sport and Tourism in Leisure
Liu Bo-li & Liu Li (Chengdu Sport University, China)
Abstract
This paper, from the perspective of leisure and lifestyle, makes an analysis of the
relationship between leisure and lifestyle, discusses the combination of sports and
tourism in leisure, and proposes that the sports tourism industry should integrate with
not only social leisure industry but also the whole tourism industry, instead of being
developed independently.
Key words: leisure, sport, tourism, combination
Introduction
With the rapid development of socio-economy, people’s lifestyle is undergoing
dramatic changes, and recreation has become a new cultural and economic phenomenon
in our society. The concept of leisure is gradually implanted into people's minds.
More and more attentions have been attached to the problems such as to promote a
healthy leisure lifestyle, to guide the mass to recreate in a healthy, scientific and active
manner and how to cultivate one's taste and enrich their spare time with the civilized and
healthy content which is popular among the people
Recreation and Lifestyle
Lifestyle is the concrete and vivid reflection of social structure and its way of
operation. It is a field that is rich in content, complex in level, diverse in form, and
closely related inherence. What we usually refer to as lifestyle is the variety of life
activities under the guidance of values, including people’s material, spiritual, political
and social life.
Lifestyle is subject to and affected by the means of production. It is of the temporal
and national character and a class character in a class society, as well as the character of
subjectivity. The temporal character means that different times have different ways of
life; the national character means that the way of life is affected by national traditions
and customs; the class character is determined by the possession of the means of
production; individual subjectivity means that instead of adapting to life passively, man
has the obvious initiative. After the way of life has been developed into customs, it
relatively has stability and independence. It also reacts to production, promoting or
impeding the development of production methods. Lifestyle is the comprehensive
reflection of the development of both material and spiritual civilization of mankind. At
the same time, it affects the development of the material civilization and spiritual
civilization of human beings.
Lifestyle refers to various activities of people in order to survive, enjoy and develop.
It involves material and spiritual life. Material life includes the material life in working
hours and leisure time. Spiritual life also has a wide range. In general, it includes
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
political life, cultural and artistic life, and religious life and so on. Social patterns,
economic foundations, national traditions, customs, geography and environmental
factors also have an important impact on the way of life. It is an integrated category
restricted and affected by a lot of social and natural environmental factors, and is closely
related to people's health. It is the necessity of social development to lead people to
establish a scientific, civilized and healthy lifestyle.
Lifestyle includes not only the behavioral level, but also the cultural level. Just like
social development, the modernization of lifestyle does not mean the complete break-off
with tradition. The modern way of life also needs to maintain the useful part in the
tradition. Lifestyle is a concept with very broad contents, which includes people's
material life, such as clothing, food, shelter, transportation, labor work, rest and
entertainment, social interaction, the ways one gets along with others, and other values,
moral concepts and aesthetic standards in spiritual life. All these methods can be
understood as the life modes of various ethnic, class and social groups under a certain
historical period and social conditions. Life style is an important part of the socialization
of human beings which decides the nature, level and direction of individual socialization.
Lifestyle is a historical category, and changes with the development of society. People in
different societies, different historical periods, different walks of life and different
occupations have different lifestyles and these lifestyles will be counter-productive to a
person's ideology. In short, the changes in lifestyle affect a person's ideology and values
directly or indirectly. Therefore, social lifestyle affects a person's behavior and attitude
towards society through the process of forming his ideology and psychology, and
reflects the values of a person, that is, the basic tendency of the world view.
People's way of life is subjected to living environment, living conditions, history and
era, particularly to the economic and cultural environment. However, as a person
independent in thought and action, choosing what kind of lifestyle, after all, is
determined by individual subjectivity and thought. Therefore, choosing what kind of
leisure activity depends largely on the quality, personality, self-cultivation, state and
style of the individual. In other words, in order to get a noble, healthy, rich recreation
lifestyle, you should first of all have physical and mental health, a bright personality, a
noble style, and a lot of hobbies. In any case, leisurely pace of life need a peaceful and
broad mind.
Recreation is inextricably linked to lifestyle, and healthy leisure is an important
aspect of a healthy lifestyle. After stepping into the modern society, science and
technology make great changes with each passing day, economy, society and culture
develop rapidly, and social productive forces have been rapidly improved. The
production mode of going to bed with the lamb and rising with the lark in the
agricultural civilization era has been replaced by the large-scale, high-yielding and
efficient production mode in the industrial civilization era. The improvement of
productivity and the prosperity of material life allow people to have more and more
leisurely time. However, when leisure has become an important element in life, people
always regard leisure as the same thing as daily entertainment, rest and play instead of
thinking of it as a form of life, let alone exploring the meaning of life in the philosophic
level. In fact, leisure does not simply mean rest, play and entertainment, but it is an
important component and a form of life. On the characteristic of the nature of leisure,
The Combination of Sport and Tourism in Leisure
61
both Chinese and Western philosophy gives a high degree of concern about its cultural
and aesthetic significance almost by coincides.
The Combination of Sport and Tourism in Leisure
Although we are very familiar with such words as "leisure", "Sport" and "tourism",
combining them to carry out special studies just began a few years ago at home. Sports
tourism is traveling with the primary purpose of leisure. Although there's the pursuit of
adventure and excitement and the challenge of the limits of the human body, it is the
same as leisure tourism, emphasizing on the physical and mental enjoyment of tourists
and stressing even more the state of mingling with nature and culture during people's
participation. On the one hand, it builds the cultural imagery through people's behavior,
thoughts, sentiment and the feelings produced by the intimate contact between man and
nature, so as to achieve the harmony, comprehensive and complete development of
individual physical, mental state and will; On the other hand, the sense of beauty is
produced and leisure life is enriched through the tension and relaxation of body, sports
activities, curiosity and the contact with nature. There's a common feature of the
behavior established on the basis of sports tourism, that is: the need to fulfill people's
desire of learning knowledge, staying close to nature, fitness and entertainment,
accomplishing self-development and developing personality by pleasing body and mind
or pursuing excitement.
The reason of the organic combination of sport and tourism is that the two have many
same or similar features. As a leisure, entertainment and consuming activity, tourism
mainly meets people's needs in terms of physical, spiritual and cultural aspects; Sport is
also a cultural phenomenon of human society and its development is also based on the
need to satisfy people's growing physical and mental enjoyment. The existence and
development of sports and tourism activities have the same social, economic and
cultural background, and the both play a similar role in human society, especially when
socio-economy has been developed to a certain extent, the two activities have
similarities to meet people's high-level psychological and physical needs.
First of all, sport and tourism are the outcome of meeting people’s ever increasing
demand for the society and culture when human society has developed to a certain
period of time, so their development has the same socio-economic background. With the
continuous improvement of the social productive forces, the highly development of
economy, the rise of personal standard of living and income, the increase of
consumption capacity as well as the growth of leisure time, the demand of physical and
mental enjoyment has been greatly improved. People are pursuing high-grade, healthy
and civilized cultural and recreational activities, so that sport and tourism provide them
with such a choice.
Secondly, sport and tourism are both social leisure consuming activities, and the
means for people to meet their spiritual and cultural needs. As socio-economic activities,
in addition that they have a common basis for economic development, in sports or
tourism activities, the participants always have to have economic ties and relations with
different aspects of society, that is, obtaining and meeting the corresponding demand
through currency exchange. Moreover, as people's cultural consuming activities, sports
market as well as tourism market, plays a role of driving the socio-economic growth.
62
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Therefore, sport industry in the tourism industry occupies a very important position in
the development of modern socio-economy.
Third, sport and tourism are both cultural activities, because both activities have rich
cultural connotations. In the activities, people not only increase their knowledge but also
strengthen their body; not only appreciate the beauty of nature but also experience the
harmony between man and nature; not only appreciate the cultural heritage of mankind
but also enrich the knowledge of modern life; not only understand the customs around
the world but also promote the exchange and friendship between different countries and
ethnic groups. Therefore, sport like tourism does not mainly belong to the field of
material way of life, but a cultural or spiritual way of life to the participants.
Fourth, any object that constitutes sports or traveling products has its own unique
historical, national characteristics and cultural atmosphere. Through immersing
themselves in such an atmosphere and accepting the influence, participants can achieve
the purpose of pleasing both body and mind and enlarging their views. Participation in
tourism or sports activities can not only promote the cross-cultural exchange and
dissemination, but also to some extent protect national customs and splendid cultural
traditions. The national culture, including national sport is a kind of resource. During
developing and using this resource, a nation, region, society and even the local people
must attach importance to the excavation and protection of those beneficial national
traditions and local culture so as to protect them while excavation.
The tourism theory circle holes that, as a leisure activity with a wide range of contents,
tourism includes camping, mountain climbing and other outdoor activities and sports
competitive activities. If we say that sport and tourism are originally interconnected in
such activities, the second category includes drifting, rock climbing, skiing and those
projects which have been developed by using natural conditions. They are a deep-level
exploration of sport and tourism. The third category includes programs set up in hotels
and restaurants, such as bowling alleys, tennis courts, swimming pools and others that
provide body-building and entertainment services to tourists. The organic composition
of these contents and programs forms the combination of sport and tourism.
Tourism can be divided into two categories: the pure tourism and the chain tourism.
The pure tourism includes the visiting, recreation, amusement, touring and vocation
spending; while among the chain tourism, sport is part of it. In terms of the motivation
of the travel, it can be divided into sightseeing travel, healthcare travel, cultural travel,
social communication travel and economic travel, ect. The motivation for the healthcare
travel is to relax and build body after work and study. Travelers can choose the body
building and relaxation related scenic spots as well as the travel activities which is
beneficial for both mental and physical health. In terms of mental need of the travel
resources by travelers, tourism can be divided into the intellective, the stimulating and
the participating categories. By integrating sports activities into the travel to reinforce
the participating in the travel activities, various mental needs for people can be satisfied
on the other side.
Tourism resources are formed by nature or created by human society, which are
continuously changing and getting enriched. According to tourists’ purpose of travelling,
tourism resources can be classified into psychological, spiritual, health, and economic
tourist resources. Considering the nature of tourism resources, they can be divided into
The Combination of Sport and Tourism in Leisure
63
natural and cultural tourism resources. In natural tourism resources, that is to say in the
landscape, people do physical exercises consciously or unconsciously while appreciating
the beauty of nature; In cultural tourism resources, activities of culture, arts, and sport
can be developed. From the aspect of the development of tourism resources, new
tourism places through artificial building are one of its types and means. As to the actual
situation of different sightseeing places, taking in some sports items selectively and
combining sport and tourism organically and harmoniously are also in line with the
principles of the development of tourism resources.
Conclusion
As the leisure styles in the modern society, sports and travel activities are in
consistent with the scientific, ethic and healthy lifestyle which is valued by the
contemporary society. Since the mass sports activities and the mass travel activities are
both conducted in the free time, so they are both the leisure activities and the fashion.
The sports recreation activities and the travel recreation activities are emerging to the
heyday in many countries and regions, the popularization and the influence to the whole
society and people’s life have dramatically exceeded the people’s traditional
understanding towards the sports and travel. Scientific progress and the advent of the
knowledge economy have played a promoting role by providing the abundant free time
for people. With the improvement of the society and people’s living standards, it is more
and more likely for people to choose the sports activities and travel activities to enrich
their spare time and meet their mental, cultural life demands.
Just as the development of tourist industry should be included into the recreation
industry, the sports tourist industry should be integrated into social recreation industry
rather than develop independently. Recreation industry and the tourist industry can
reinforce each other to achieve the common development. However, if we hope a
healthy development in the sports tourist industry, we must go out of the limit to seek
self – survival and self –development in the broad social recreation scope.
References
[1] Object of Recreation Study，www.zgxxylw.com
[2] Zhou Li-jun，On Recreational
Science，2005.4
2004-11-03
Sport and Healthy Lifestyle, Zhejiang Sports
[3] Liu Bo-li，Sports Tourism in Recreational perspective, Electronic Science and
Technology University Press，2007.8
A Research and Analysis on the Current Situation of College 65
Intellectuals’ Participating in Leisure Activities in Shanxi
A Research and Analysis on the Current Situation of
College Intellectuals’ Participating in Leisure Activities
in Shanxi
Yan, Ai-Ping（Shanxi Normal University, China）
Abstract
Combined with the actual conditions in Shanxi, the paper conducts an investigation
and an exact analysis on the current situation of college intellectuals’ participating in
leisure activities by means of utilizing literature, questionnaire and statistics, etc. Aiming
at discovering the existing problems, the paper tries to put forward the countermeasures
and suggestions so as to help college intellectuals improve their body constitution,
which could better contribute to the economic development in Shanxi and in this way
will they bring into full play their wisdom of advising.
Key words : leisure activities, shanxi, recreational sports
Introduction
On Jan 26th 2010, governor Wang Jun pointed out in his government's work report at
the third meeting of the Eleventh People's Congress that:
“……based on the conditions of our province, we should focus our attention on some
key problems in such important areas as new energy, new material, biological
engineering, ecological environmental protection and also on some major works like
clean coal production and processing, coal mining safety production,
aluminum-magnesium alloy and its deep processing, energy saving…… We must
vigorously promote the high-tech industries, make full use of high technology and
advanced applicable technologies to transform and upgrade traditional industries, and
cultivate new economic growth point……"
To achieve breakthroughs in key areas and cultivate new economic growth point, we
need a team of intellectuals with high-quality. And physical health was an important
manifestation of “high-quality”. Therefore the physical health of this population would
directly affect its staff assistant role playing. In this sense, their health and longevity
play a significant role in the economic and social development of Shanxi Province.
Taking Shanxi for example, high level intellectuals primarily exist in a group made up of
college professors and associate professors . Therefore, for the purpose of promoting the
economic and social development of Shanxi, it makes great sense to conduct a deep
investigation and analysis on current situations of college intellectuals’ participating in
recreational sports and thus to discover the existing problems with reasonable
suggestions of strengthening their body build.
Research Subject and Methodology
66
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Research Subject
300 Professors and Associate Professors from Shanxi University, Taiyuan Science and
Engineering University, Shanxi Agricultural University, Changzhi Medical College,
Shanxi Normal University are chosen as the research subject of this paper.
Methodology
Literature Studies
About thirty relevant literature and document home and aboard are consulted
Questionnaire
Methods like questionnaire and interviews are used in the investigation.
Totally 311 questionnaires were send out, and 300 were received (96%) including 280
effective questionnaires, occupying 93%. The reliability and validity are 0.83 and 0.75
respectively.
Mathematical Statistics
The data from the effective questionnaires will be entered into the computer and then
processed by using SPSS10 and EXCEL.
Results and Analysis
Analysis on the Basic Structure of College Intellectuals in Shanxi Province
Structure Analysis on their Age and Academic Title
As it’s shown in Table 1: The male professors are apparently more than the female
ones (68, 18% / 31, 82%), while the trend and structure of the two curves are extremely
similar. The group size of professors decreases as age grows: 54.2% of the female and
72.5% of the male are under 40; the males and females among 41 to 50 were 45.8% and
27.5% , showing respectively that most of the professors are in their middle-age or
agedness. 150 objects were associate professors. 150 objects were professors in which
males were proportionally more than females. As for academic titles, male professors
are higher than the female ones on average.
Table1 Basic Information of the College Intellectuals in Shanxi（%）
AGE
DISTRIB
UTION
TITLE
DISTRIBUTI
ON
TEACHING
WORKLOAD
RESEARCH
WORKLOAD
INCOME
EXPENSE ON
SPORTS
<40 54.2
ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
52.8
OVERTIME
PERIODS
14.6
SYSTEMATIC
SUBJECT
49.0
LOW
79
0-100(RMB)
19.1
68.18%
<50 72.5
PROFESSOR
58.3
FULLTIME
PERIODS
13.5
NATIONAL/PRO
VINCIAL
TOPICS
23.4
MEDIUM
21
100-200(RMB)
0.7
FEMALE
(150)
<40 45.8
ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
47.2
OVERTIME
PERIODS
11.6
SYSTEMATIC
SUBJECT
47.8
LOW
70
0-100(RMB)
19.6
MALE
(150)
A Research and Analysis on the Current Situation of College 67
Intellectuals’ Participating in Leisure Activities in Shanxi
31.82%
<50 27.5
PROFESSOR
41.7
FULLTIME
PERIODS
10.3
NATIONAL/PRO
VINCIAL
TOPICS
20.1
MEDIUM
30
100-200(RMB)
1.5
Analysis on their Teaching and Scientific Research
From the perspective of teaching and researching, there’re little differences among the
male intellectuals and female ones in Shanxi. However, the options for “fulltime
periods” and “overtime periods” are greatly occupied. From the two options above,
males account for 28.1% and females 21.9%. Most of research topics were within their
own areas (males 49.0%, females 47.8%). The number of “national/Provincial topics”
decreases successively. The average topic number per person is 67 for females and 1.76
for males, from which we can find that the workload for males are obviously higher than
that of the females. In retrospect, the workload was comparatively heavy for the college
intellectuals in Shanxi Province, especially for males.
Analysis on their income and recreational sports expense
From the statistics about the intellectuals’ income in Shanxi can we conclude that
income distribution between males and females are basically similar. 150 of them have
low income, in which 79% were male and 70% female. 150 of them get medium income,
in which 21% are male and 30% female. None of them have high income. This
corresponds to the age and title distribution of the college intellectuals in Shanxi. As for
the expense on recreational sports, most of the respondents fell into the catalogues of
either low level (0-100 RMB) or middle-low level (100-200 RMB). The females’
expense was slightly higher than the males’ expense. There was an outstanding linear
relation between income and sports expense. In the low level catalogue, the females’
expense was slightly higher than the males’ expense, possibly due to the study and life
pressure on the males. More social engagement and less leisure time may also cause
such a gap. Meanwhile, the females tend to have more leisure time and pursuit of health,
beauty and fitness, which urged them to actively participate in some economic sports.
Analysis on the College Intellectuals’ participating in recreational sports in
Shanxi
Analysis on the Population of College Intellectuals Involved in Sports Activities
If we define sports population as people who play sports at least three times a week
and at least thirty minutes every time 12% of the males and 13% of the females (14% in
average) would satisfy this standard in our respondents. This amount of sports
population was evidently lower than the national average of 31.4%, showing the sense
of sports of the intellectuals in higher education institutes in Shanxi Province was worse
than the national average level.
Analysis on the Objective of Sports Participation
Through research we found that the items of “Good” and “Average” both fit in with
the normal development of physiological function of human body. As age grows, partial
and overall physical function declines, in addition to occupational diseases likely to be
68
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
caused by long-term career habits. Fair amount of professors had physical or mental
problems. Normally professors had no pressure from title evaluation, economy and life,
while they did have some from research and teaching. The growth of age sometimes
gives them fatigue and a feeling of loss of strength.
Table 3, sorted according to weights, showed that 32% of the intellectuals agreed a
self-assessment of “average”, a fact that we couldn’t pay too much attention to. The
professors and associate professors chose “avoid diseases” (37％、27．1％) and “keep
fit” (28．2％、24．7％) as the two major incentives of sports participation , because of the
multiple characteristics of their age, energy, health conditions, working pressure, and etc,
in addition to the specialty of their positions due to which they have to bear the
strenuous pressure from teaching, research, and working. Their consistent choices of the
first two items instead of the others told us that the intellectuals had reached a consensus
on the close relation between sports and health, so demonstrated these stable incentives.
This consensus would inevitable effect their participation level and choice of
recreational sports. The distribution of the incentive of associate professors was
comparatively flat, showing the special needs of this social position from a side.
Table 2 College Intellectuals’ Sports Participation Objectives in Shanxi Province (%)
①KEEP
HEALTHY
②AVOID
DISEASES
③HOBBIES &
RECREATION
④RELAX BODY
& MIND
⑤
DIETING
ORDER OF
OBJECTIVES
28.2
37.0
17.4
13.0
4.3
②①③④⑤
24.7
27.1
24.1
21.2
2.9
②①③④⑤
PROFESSOR
ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
Table 3 College Intellectual’s Self-assessment About Health (%)
NUMBER
PROFESSOR 225
ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR 75
TOTAL 300
①VERY GOOD
②GOOD
③AVERAGE
④BAD
N %
52 14.2
N %
43 18.2
N %
94 36.9
N %
36 11.1
ORDER OF
HEALTH
CONDITION
1 2 3 4
③①②④
15 13.3
21 21.3
18 17.3
21 20
②④③①
67 17
64 16
112 32
57 13.3
③①②④
Analysis on the College Intellectuals’ Choices about Sports
The statistics shows that the intellectuals’ choice of sports was in such a order:
walking, jogging, radio gymnastic exercises, dancing, chess, martial arts, Qigong,
badminton/ping pong/pooling, basketball/volleyball/soccer, golf/tennis/ bowling, fitness,
traveling/outing/fishing. The weighted order of sports choice demonstrated different
individuals' need, interests, hobbies and physical abilities. On account of the age
characteristic, subject characteristic, economic conditions and special positions of the
intellectuals in higher education institutes in Shanxi Province, their choices of sports
differentiated, acting according to their capabilities. They seemed to prefer the sports
with the features of health, fitness, entertainment, popularity, practice, and moreover
sports with a sense of competition and aesthetic value. Events such as ball games,
swimming, outing, fishing and etc have some degree of confrontation and relatively high
A Research and Analysis on the Current Situation of College 69
Intellectuals’ Participating in Leisure Activities in Shanxi
intensity, most of which were group activities. Walking, dancing, and chess have
relatively low intensity, more entertainment and convenience therefore became the
favorite sports of professors and associate professors.
In addition, chess was highly-ranked in all items, primarily because it was economic,
recreational and social, thus highly acceptable by people at different levels. From the
statistical results: the choice of sports of the intellectuals in higher education institutes in
Shanxi Province diversified and individualized gradually, from the deficient and boring
choice of running and gymnastic exercises before. However, we cannot neglect the
existence of a group of non-exercise people, a fact that stated that there was much space
to improve the fitness of the intellectuals in higher education institutes in Shanxi
Province.
Analysis on the sports participating form
The basic sports participating forms of the intellectuals in higher education institutes
in Shanxi Province included but not limited to alone, with colleague/family, with friend,
with community, and in sports and fitness club. This showed that they were relatively
proactive in recreational sports, caring about development of personality, exchanges of
feelings and coordinating of social connection. The weights of participating alone
inclined as the title enhanced. Namely professors tended to exercise alone, closely
related to their age and psychological characteristic. The participation in sports through
community or fitness club was minimal, since generally such forms required certain
amount of physical strength and energy. It stated that there was still much space to
improve the fitness of the intellectuals in higher education institutes in Shanxi Province.
Table 4 College Intellectuals’ Preferences for Sports in Shanxi (%)
①WALKING
②JOGGING
③GYMNASTIC EXERCISES
④DANCING
⑤CHESS& CARDS
⑥MARTIAL ARTS
⑦QIGONG
⑧BASKETBALL/VOLLEYBALL/FOOTBALL
⑨BADMINTON/PING PONG/POOLING
⑩GOLF/TENNIS/ BOWLING
⑪FITNESS
⑫TRAVELING/CLIMBING/FISHING.
⑬OTHERS
ORDER OF SPORTS PREFERENCE
PROFESSOR
23.9
8.6
4.3
10.9
6.5
6.5
0
4.3
8.6
2.2
4.3
6.5
13.0
①⑬④⑨②⑤⑥⑫③⑥⑪⑩⑦
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR
12.4
7.1
3.5
6.5
10.6
4.7
1.8
6.5
16.5
2.9
2.9
7.6
22.9
⑬⑨①⑤⑫②④⑥③⑪⑩⑦⑥
Table 5 College Intellectuals’ Sports Participating Form in Shanxi(%)
PROFESSOR
①
ALONE
②WITH
COLLEAGU
E/FRIEND
③WITH
FAMILY
④COMMUNITY
SPORTS
⑤SPORT
AND
FITNESS
CLUB
⑥
OTHERS
43.1
25.6
18.3
5.6
4.6
3.0
ORDER OF
SPORTS
PARTICIPATI
NG FORM
①②③④⑤
⑥
70
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
18.9
33.8
18.2
8.1
5.9
4.6
②①③④⑤
⑥
Analysis of the mode of recreational sports
According to the survey, the college intellectuals in Shanxi prefer to choose
researching, lesson planning, physical exercising, Internet surfing and watching TV as
their prior options, showing that their research assignment is rather heavy that they will
spend fair amount of leisure time on their work excepting for 8-hour working time, thus
deficient recreational time is lost. In the long run, they can hardly avoid those popular
diseases of modernization.
Table 6 Various Ways for College Intellectuals to Participate Recreational Sports in Shanxi (%)
①CONDU
CTING
RESEARC
H
②LESS
ON
PLANNI
NG
③PHYSIC
AL
EXERCISE
④INTERN
ET
SURFING
⑤WATCHI
NG TV
⑥OTHE
RS
PROFESSOR
45.87
15.36
12.23
9.15
8.14
6.73
ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
52.45
13.46
15.66
6.39
5.32
3.62
TOTAL
63.42
14.41
14.05
7.77
6.73
5.18
ORDER
OF
PREFERE
NCE
①②③④
⑤⑥
①②③④
⑤⑥
①②③④
⑤⑥
Analysis on the Influential Factors of Recreational Sports Participation
While investigating into this topic, we find that various factors potentially influence
their sports participation, especially time, field/facilities, scientific instruction,
community sports management and many other aspects (Table 7). In general, time
serves as the major influential factor which improves that college intellectuals in Shanxi
are lack of leisure time. It is consistent with the previous analysis. Lack of scientific
instruction and management also become the influential factors, which thus shows
clearly the direction of a bright future career for the students major in social sports to put
the relevant knowledge into practical use. Table 7 also shows that, apart from time,
physical problems are also main problems. Due to long-term hard working, they suffer a
lot from research pressure and all sorts of diseases appear as age grows. As high level
intellectuals in college, their working specialty lead to overload work, heavy tasks and
all kinds of pressure that leaves them not much energy to exercise. In leisure time, they
are likely to refresh by taking a break. The fatigue and diseases are respectively
proportional to age and title distribution, which calls for our vigilance.
Table 7 Influential Factors of College Intellectuals’ Sports participation in Shanxi (%)
40.5
②FIELD
AND
FACILITIES
17.8
25.0
41.7
①TIME
PROFESSOR
ASSOCIATE
PROFESSOR
Conclusion
10.3
④COMMUNITY
SPORTS
MANAGEMENT
5.6
10.3
3.4
③SCIENTIFIC
INSTRUCTION
⑤LIFE
PRESSURE
WEIGHTED
ORDER
25.8
①⑤②③④
13.8
②①⑤③④
A Research and Analysis on the Current Situation of College 71
Intellectuals’ Participating in Leisure Activities in Shanxi
First, the sports population of college intellectuals in Shanxi Province is
comparatively low; the forms of sports participation are diverse in which self alone,
family, and colleagues are major forms; the significant objectives include keeping fit,
avoiding diseases, entertaining, affection exchanging and life enriching; lack of time
was the major influential factor of sports participation.
Second, sports hobbies are still not completely formed due to a lot of reasons such as
their low income, great pressure from work and scientific assignment, insufficient
leisure time and low-level expense on sports exercises.
Third, the health conditions of the intellectuals in higher education institutes in
Shanxi Province are not optimistic due to the long-term working, researching pressures
and social environment. Nearly half of the professors are exhausted and sick in some
degrees.
Suggestions
First, the leaders of the higher education institutes should pay great attention to
promoting sports participation among the intellectuals in that exercising appropriately is
the best instrument and measure of preventing, mitigating and treating the diseases of
modernization caused by some biological factors. Thus we should formulate a system
that can urge the intellectuals to participate in physical exercises actively.
Second, the labor unions in higher education institutes should work out practical
sports participation plans, coordinating with Health Center and Department of Sports,
strengthening the efforts to advertise for sports and fitness, creating a positive exercising
environment, raising awareness of sports participation among the intellectuals,
increasing the sports population of intellectuals, promoting their health, making fully
use of the human resources, in order to set up a firm foundation for the realization of
sustainable development.
Third, each college is supposed to relieve the stress on the intellectuals so that they
could be more available for physical exercises. Research shows that continuous mental
strain was one of the most important factors causing the diseases of modernization.
Fourth, more efforts of community physical construction should be also intensified in
cities. Meanwhile social sports instructors are actively cultivated for conveniently
instructing the college intellectuals.
References
[1] Guo, Li-ping & Xu, Shu-fang. 2009. Staticstical Analysis on Physical Training of
Famale Intellectuals in Jilin [J] Bulletin of Sport Science & Technology
[2] Zhong, Hai-tao& Li, Zhuo-qi. 2009, 3. Simple Analysis on Deng Xiaoping’s Policy
toward intellectuals in Bringing Order out of Chaos[J] Theory Horizon
[3] Guo, Li-ping. 2008, 29. The Investigation,Analysis and Cauntermeasures on the
Cause of the part Intellect Do Not Participate in Physical Training-Taking Set Jilin
Province as an Example[J] Jilin Normal University Journal(Natural Science
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[4] Zhao, Hong. 2006,2. Research on the Health Condition of the Higher Intellectual in
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Physical Education
[5] Zhuang, Zhi-yong. 2005,4. A study of teachers' physical training in some of
Fujian's universities in transition[J]Journal of Ningde Teachers College(Natural
Science)
[6] Chang, Nai-jun.2001,21. Research on the Sport Awareness of Different Citizen
Groups in Middle-scale Cities in Shanxi Province[J]China Sport Science
[7] Lu, Yuan-zhen. 1995. Chinese Sports Sociology[M]
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for Senior Intellectuals in University[J]China Sport Science and Technology
[9] Chai,Jian-she. 2002,38. The Research and Analysis on Current Situation of
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[11] Zhang, Jian-xiong. 1998,18. Research on Features of Advanced Intellectuals’
Participating in Physical Exercise [J] China Sport Science
Participation in Fitness Activities to Enhance Physical 73
and Mental Health for the Elderly
Participation in Fitness Activities to Enhance Physical
and Mental Health for the Elderly
Gao Li & Deng Zhen
(North China Institute of Science and Technology, China)
Abstract
The problems faced by the elderly health care this article bring out strengthen the old
sports, play old social values and emphasis on sports to bring the physical and mental
benefits to the elderly in order to arouse social attention. Physical exercise can promote
health and longevity of older persons, which can slow down mental aging, maintain or
promote the mental health of older persons and cure mental illness of a number of
elderly patients; the elderly participate in enjoyable physical activity can bring about
huge economic and social benefits.
Key words: elderly sport, physical and mental health
Introduction
In China every year a large number of elderly retire from the workplace, with ample
leisure time, but feel at a loss, energy decline, not respected, their own contacts to
narrow the scope, etc., are not adapted to the performance of retired life, how to enrich
the retired life, not just the elderly own business, but also in society as a whole the
material and spiritual civilization. Physical exercise has potentiality in enriching the life
of the elderly feel, energetic, exercise in a knot in the new old friends, make up for lost
back down to improve the quality of life of older persons leisure time, resulting in a
positive social effect.
Many elderly people in China participate in routine physical activity, are overcoming
the traditional mind-set of the rapidly changing environment of social life feelings of
nostalgia and regression, as well as caused by other aspects of loneliness, depression,
emptiness, psychological pleasure.
China has a complete physical education system from primary and secondary school
to university and this system has played an important role of promoting the physical
development of young people.
Compared with the international community, China's old sports is a late start, the level
of understanding remains low, lifelong sports ideology is not in-depth.
Physical exercise throughout the older age groups are not active, physical and mental
illnesses increase, the country's aging sports is hard to healthy development, and
therefore governments at all levels should attach importance to the elderly sports,
establish and improve the guidance of old sporting institutions, to carry out the elderly
sports activities, to provide the necessary health care knowledge , promoting healthy
development. This research is being oriented for this kind of challenge.
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
An Object and Methods of Study
The Object of Study
Study the situation for the elderly to participate in physical activity.
Research Methods
Literature Research
Look up famous book of Character education at home and abroad , data compilation
and a large number of journals; careful study of China's sports psychology, sociology,
biology, exercise physiology and related information-based ,which has laid a theoretical
basis for analysis of the subject .
Interviews with experts and scholars
Interviewing and correspondence to visit the Beijing University of Physical Education,
Capital Institute of Physical Education, Beijing Normal University, East China Normal
University, Central China Normal University, Chinese Academy of Sciences of
Psychology and other relevant psychology, education experts and scholars, which rich
experimental basis.
Study Results and Analysis
China's old health care business is facing a grim situation. As social and economic
development, people bear a strong sense of psychological stress and depression,
modernization of social life and sports places restrictions on the elderly are increasingly
fewer opportunities for physical exercise, and now many countries have entered an
aging society. Health care costs increase at a huge extent, and put a heavy burden of
economy for every national. In 1995, Japan's population aged 65 or older accounted for
15% of the total population, when large national health-care costs 26.7 trillion yen,
according to Ministry of Health forecasts that in 2000 Japan health-care costs amounted
to 38 trillion yen, and similarly, in 1996 the U.S. government for national health care
costs amount to 1 trillion U.S. dollars.
But China is quickly turning into an aging society countries, this is not only a large
population, but also the elderly population , large-scale population as a whole, an
increase of speed, due to declining fertility, the average life expectancy extension,
during "85" period China's Aging average annual population growth rate of 3.37% is
much higher than the total population over the same period the average growth rate of
1.19%, in 1996 the population aged 60 or older is 120 million, accounting for nearly
10% of the total population, by 2015 the elderly population is expected to reach more
than 200 million, to the 2025-2050 years, the proportion of the elderly population
increased to 25%, while due to historical reasons, China's elderly nutrition basic is
poor ,the happening of physical, mental diseases is high frequency, the medical
instruments are difficult to resolve, also causing the count aging health-care expenses is
high, the international economic burden is too heavy. Difficult to obtain for the elderly
"sense of worthiness and happy" and trigger a number of social problems, which should
arouse the sports workers and society as a whole sufficient attention.
Vigorously develop the old sports, reflect the social value of older
Developing the old sports and embodies the old-age social have values of great
significance, as is the following aspects.
Participation in Fitness Activities to Enhance Physical 75
and Mental Health for the Elderly
Developing the old sports that promote physical and mental health are conducive to
intellectual resources of older age groups.
Scientific research shows that the human cerebral cortex about 14 billion nerve cells,
the capacity is significantly, left and right cerebral hemisphere is uneven development,
when the left hemisphere play high-level neural activities, the right hemisphere has not
yet brought into play and vice versa. Through sport, the elderly experience, absorb and
apply new information actively thinking, to maintain its function, delay the aging, the
overall promotion of their well-being, from the specific situation of China,
60-69-year-old population groups, the Division , education, culture, health, and other
technical personnel, is very important intellectual resources, but the physical health
cause for concern, the community should actively encourage them to provide training
places ,emphasis on health care and promote good health, not only can reduce the
burden of the national and society, but also for the elderly "second intellectual resources
and development", continue to contribute to intelligence and wisdom, and create
considerable social wealth.
Developing the old sports, improve the quality of leisure life of older persons and
promote social progress.
In China every year a large number of elderly retired from the workplace, with ample
leisure time, but felt at a loss, energy decline, not respected, their own contacts to
narrow the scope, etc., are not adapted to the performance of retired life, how to enrich
the retired life, not just the elderly own business, but also in society as a whole the
material and spiritual civilization. Physical exercise can enrich the life of the elderly feel,
energetic, exercise in a knot in the new old friends, make up for lost back down to
improve the quality of life of older persons leisure time, resulting in a positive social
effect.
Developing the old sports and improve life-long physical education ideology in China
to meet the needs of the community
The founding of several decades, China has sounded a complete physical education
system from primary and secondary school to university and played an important role
of promoting the physical development of young people, as compared with the
international community, China's old sports is a late start, understanding remains
one-sided, lifelong sports ideology is not in-depth, such as physical exercise throughout
the older age groups are not active, physical and mental illnesses increase, the country's
aging sports is hard to healthy development, and therefore governments at all levels
should attach importance to the elderly sports, establish and improve the guidance of old
sporting institutions, to carry out the elderly sports activities, to provide the necessary
health care knowledge , promoting healthy development.
Physical exercises for the elderly to produce good effects of physical and
psychological
Domestic and foreign scholars from the perspective of mass sports psychology,
according to the body - heart interaction theory, confer systematically the elderly
population and the elderly physical characteristics of sports, form and affect of the
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
physical and mental health of older persons in physical activity that: sport can improve
the elderly brain blood circulation, improve cognitive function and regulation of their
emotional state, to adapt to changing social living environment and perfect life.
Participating in physical exercise to speed up the brain blood circulation, slow down
brain aging
Part the brain blood flow is the key to success or failure of the brain, for the elderly,
it is particularly important, older age is increased ,cerebral blood flow is reduction,
oxygen uptake in the brain is reduced , nutrient utilization is reduced, the brain's energy
metabolism in general is reduced, and therefore susceptible to disease, brain exercise
must be integrated with physical activity, so that muscle blood acceleration, to solve the
brain glucose shortage of supply, thereby delaying the aging brain. At the same time
neuro-physiological studies have shown that: the body starts aging brain, which led to
the body disorder. Physical activity should be strengthened to enhance immune function,
anti-aging.
Participating in physical exercise to alleviate the central nervous, sympathetic
nervous system tension
Sports center is a muscular activity, and muscle activity in the nervous system also
carried out under the regulation, the elderly participate in some sports, left hemisphere
reduced electrical activity, muscle tension decreased, sympathetic response to the
tension factor caused by dilution resulted in psychological comfort, quiet and experience,
to ease tensions.
To participate in physical exercise, relieve emotional stress, to improve the
effectiveness of mood
Increasing number of research results show that although the causes of some mental
illness, as well as how sports contribute to the elimination of the mechanism of mental
illness has not yet entirely clear, but physical exercise can maintain or improve mental
health, treatment of mental illness results, to be recognized, and clinical practice should
be used.
Long-term physical exercise, can improve the elderly feelings, flow state, a large
number of studies have shown that physical activity has a balance of benefits,
improvement of mood functions.
Foreign researchers Hatfield (1987), Abele, A; Brehm, W. (1993) and other studies
have shown that: the elderly physical exercise can improve mood, fluid status, to
promote the positive aspects of the transformation of the domestic researchers Huang
Jian (1995), Qin Gang (1998), etc. The study also obtained the same conclusions, while
studies have found that older mood improvement, increased sexual pleasure, but also to
persist in physical training activities, has created favorable conditions, namely,
participation in physical activity and mood improved interaction of the elderly have
good psychological benefits.
Long-term physical exercise can eliminate the elderly depression, anxiety and other
Participation in Fitness Activities to Enhance Physical 77
and Mental Health for the Elderly
emotions.
Mao Zhixiong, WANG Ze-shan (1986), Qin Gang (1998), Shu-Ying Zhao (1998),
Pempler (1984) and many studies have shown that physical activity can help reduce
depression, anxiety level, improve low mood, eliminate psychological problems, so that
the elderly have good feelings and state of health, and Ryan (1983) survey 1750
physicians, 60% of people think it should be seen physical activity as a treatment for
anxiety, depression, means; 80% of people think that physical activity is an effective
means of treatment of anxiety, depression . Therefore, many elderly people participate
in physical activity, overcome the traditional mind-set of the rapidly changing
environment of social life feelings of nostalgia and regression, as well as caused by
other aspects of loneliness, depression, emptiness, psychological pleasure is more able
than 10 medicine to lift the physical and mental fatigue and suffering.
Long-term physical exercise, maintain or delay the processing capacity of cognitive
decline in elderly people
Cognitive psychology research shows that middle-aged people to the future, a gradual
decline in cognitive abilities, manifested as reaction speed, memory, attention and other
functions decline, causing inconvenience to the daily lives of the elderly, so to maintain
or slow cognitive processing capacity of older persons is very important. Many scholars
at home and abroad have studied in the physical activity for the elderly the impact of
cognitive processing capacity, such as Mao Zhixiong, Xu Han (1998): Physical exercise
ways and the relationship between information processing ability for old person,
indicated that physical exercise can be maintain long-term or delay decline in cognitive
processing capacity of older persons and the adverse psychological factors due to
decline in cognitive function.
Conclusions
According to their own characteristics of the elderly; actively promote the
development of sports undertakings in old age.
The sensory function decline in their body, the information can not be effectively
carried out a combination, causing sensory system disorder for the elderly, such as the
hands and feet lack of coordination or visual, language obstacles, to be high-rise
residential restrictions on the activities for the elderly physical training conditions,
which affect the physical and mental health of older persons. Therefore, the elderly
should be based on their own characteristics, actively promoting the development of old
sports.
Leisurely nature
Physical exercise is different from the young and middle-aged, has to meet the leisure
needs of the high-level, more emphasis on the rich inner life which is a sense of
happiness, a quiet sense of the subjective effects, there is no external pressure, do not
think the burden, which is a real entertainment, sporting events has interesting,
entertaining, favorite for the elderly, such as croquet, tai chi, tai chi sword and so on.
Diversity
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
First of all, old sport is an important component of social work for old age, old-age
education is the focus of the work, all levels of government, trade unions departments
should actively implement the older age groups lifelong physical education programs to
help elderly people to create a healthy and active later life, organize a variety of old
sports and establish old sports clubs, enriching the social and cultural life of the elderly;
secondly, the elderly live in scattered, relatively weak in physique, not walk a longer
distance road conditions, which should be combined with decentralized, flexible, and
diverse organizations sports.
At present, I have just to implement the national fitness program to promote sport for
development, governments at all levels should actively plan and guide so that the
country's aging sports get to a new stage.
References
[1] Abele.A. & Brehm,W.(1993). Mood Effecfs of Exercise Versus Sports Games:
Finding and Implications for well-being and Health: S. Leventhal and M.johnston
(Eds). International Review of Health Psychology, John Wiley &Sons Ltd
[2] Athletic Physiology(1990). Sports Institute General Teaching Materials. The People
Sports Press.
[3] Mao Zhixiong & Hanxu (1998). The Relationship between Physical Exercise Mode
and the Elderly Information Processing Ability. Sports Science.
[4] Mao Zhixiong & Wangzeshan (1996). The Relationship between Beijing ville
Exercise and Mental Health. Research on Emotional Dimension. Beijing Sports
Institute Journal (supplement).
[5] ISSP(1993). Physioal Activiti and Psychological Benefits: A Position Statement.
International Journal of Sport Psychology.24
[6 ] Shao Xiao(1987). Physiological Psychology. The People Education Press.
[7] Zhao Shuy Ing(1998). The Activities and Mental Health. The Sixth National Sports
Psychology- refereed conference papers abstract.11
Strengths and Weaknesses of Sport Tourism in Iran
79
Strengths and Weaknesses of Sport Tourism in Iran
Mohammad Ehsani (Tarbiat Modares University, Iran)
Rasool Nazari (Islamic Azad University Naein Branch, Iran)
Abstract
Tourism development is increasingly being viewed as a catalyst for economic
development among many indigenous communities throughout the world. Many
indigenous communities also recognize that tourism development can stimulate change
in social, cultural and environmental dimensions as well. Research related to native
tourism development tends to emphasize issues related to; sustainable planning and
control of resources (Zeppel, 1998), indigenous tourism and its link to parks and
protected areas (Altman, 1989), frameworks for indigenous tourism development (Smith,
1996; Sofield & Birtles, 1996), and the social-political context of native tourism
development strategies in northern contexts (Notzke, 1999).
The connection between the tourism and sports made a new branch of tourism
attraction by people around the world .The aim of this study is investigating the strength
and weakness points of Iran sports- tourists and has been accomplished through a survey
including all types of sports tourists in Iran. The data was collected by self administrated
questionnaire with 0.83 reliability and” t” and “F” tests were used to analyze the data.
The results showed that different international sport events, special security police to
keep the security for tourist, holding cultural festivals ancient places and peace in Iran
are points of strength of tourism in Iran. On the other hand, lack of standard sports and
recreational facilities, lack of cooperation between the organizations relating to the
tourist affairs are considered as weakness points.
For the discussion and conclusion it should be noted that the culture and management
factors have meaningful variances according to the marital status and the ages among
the sport- tourists (  = 0.05). Therefore, the concerned manager must make preparations
according to the tourist interests and ages. Finally it seem that strength points and
potentials of tourism Iran are more than the weakness points.
Key words: sports tourism, strength, weakness, Iran
Introduction:
Tourism is known as white industry, it’s a kind of industry that has little impurity and
more output in imprison with the other industries. Iran is one of the countries that have
tourism industry and historical soles potential among top ten countries, but it contains
world tourism less than one percent. security council statistics committee based on
world tourism organization , has explained tourism in this way : Its peoples
movement to places apart of their usual life locations , provided that , this journey
doesn’t take more than one year and gaining pleasure time , business and the other
purposes are goal of it . Tourism industry is one the considerable fields that nowadays
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
noticed in different points of view. It's because of tourism is important both
economical values and cultural influences. Today tourism industry is as a symbol of
cultural identity and one source of income. Tourism is so important in economical and
social improvement that is called invisible export. Its undeniable, tourism quality
improvement efficacy life level, foreign exchanges income, public impure production,
cultural exchanges strange tending international relations.
Tourism is a main way for communion in world peace through international
understanding, creating friendly communications and cultural exchanges. On the other
hand tourism is the most important sign of politic stability and social security so
government's effort for improving this industry is multipurpose. Attendance of tourists
in public sport activities is one the factors that its destroyer impression on tourism
expansion known as international terrorism (Brazj.I2002). Happening terrorist actions
incidence in tourism areas decrease international interest toward reaction.
Recently sport is one of the most effective issues in economical, social, political and
cultural positions in societies. Sport is a world issues that we can see its appearance in
the world such as: Olympic Games and world Cup. Now, a link between sport and
tourism has created a new kind of tourism that it’s a favorite case of people around the
world. Iran has thousands tourism and historical attraction and beside all of them there
are desirable information level for establishing different sporting activities so that
various environment conditions can impress establishing and creating very great sports
centers in different parts of the country . There is a very clear difference between sport
and tourism, nevertheless their relation should not be ignored.
One of the most common factors for generating motivation in tourism is sport and
mixture of tourism and sport provides an industry that is called sport tourism. Something
important should be considered and that is, it should take sports events just about sporty
attitude. Something interesting that covered by tourism is every tourists entry can
provide 7 to 9 jobs. Some studies have been designed to describe how significant sporty
events can lead to tourism (Chalip and Green ,2000 Olympic). They said it’s not enough
just to have fan of sport, and think they are absorbed by it automatically without
considering its grace and services. It’s better to plan so strategies for tourists by
cooperating of tourism agencies. Those tourists that travel for cooperating in an especial
activities named “active sport tourism” and those who travel for watching a sport events
named “passive sport tourisms”. Though, different events of sports including expensive
charges which means impact of attracting peoples thought, so it can get a number of
volunteers to solve such as these problems encounter.
These days sport programmers try to know which factors impress fans presence for
watching the events. There are a lot of facters in which tourists purposes can influence
choice of sport event. Based on some researches sport event attraction, security, safety
and financial limitations can determine whether they are leaned or not? some researches
provide some impressive factors such as attractiveness of event, security, safety,
financial limitations , increasing peoples communication , comfort , being new and
interesting (Braz , 2002; Grtton and Henry 2001; Ramaguchi 2002 ; Neirotti et al 2001) .
It should consider that these factors are different from threat and opportunities such as
any source of country, culture, kind of events, sport field and also demographic
characteristics. Because of advantages and disadvantages of Iran, sport tourism are not
Strengths and Weaknesses of Sport Tourism in Iran
81
known, in addition, there is lack of especial studies in this field, so it is difficult to
conclude and discuss more.
Despite the Tourism and Heritage Organisation, Physician Education Organization ,
National Olympic Committee and the other centers , as mentioned before those
problems cause to be impossible to make a more profit for them out of sports events.
So, it should be knowing advantages and disadvantages of sport tourism in Iran is
necessary. This study tried to determine attractive factors and obstructive elements in
relation to active sport tourists who travel to Iran.
Methodology
Determining of strength and weakness of sport tourism in Iran was the aim of this
study, hence; this research is done by self administrated questionnaire contained five
categories such as; management, culture, substructures , politic natural and unnatural
attractiveness for strength and four categories such as; management, culture , sub
structures and politic designed for weakness of sport tourism in Iran. Data was collected
from samples particularly “active sport tourists”, such as: players ,coaches, authorities
and the others who have traveled to Iran as formal and friendly organizers games in
2008. Its noticeable in this manner, those samples were tested who were available and
they were one hundreds and twenty (120). Crobach Alpha Ccefficient was (.83).
Analysis of data was used in both descriptive such as: percentage Mean, frequency,
standard deviation and presumption statistic t- test and f test utilization.
Findings
The results showed that the majority of samples are players (76%), and then
coaches(11%), authorities (7%), others (6%) can be seen in fig 1.
Figure 1: Frequency of participant in research
In terms of ages the samples were ranged 22 to 27 (63.3%), from 28 to 33 (20.8%),
from 34 to 39 (8.3% ), and more than 39 years old (7.6%) can be seen in fig 2.
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Figure 2: Frequency in research based on age
Marital status considered for all samples in order to responsibilities and family affairs.
Married tourists were more than single ones. It was (51.7%) for married and (48.3%)
for single ones can be seen in fig 3.
Figure 3: Frequency based on marital status:
The results of the study showed that the participants emphasized on elements
involved in both strengths and weaknesses of sport- tourism in Iran. They named the
strengths to use up to date technologies (fundamentals), novelty and variety in
international sport events, good nutrition which is based on the participants; taste, and
having safe guards for the tourist (administration), having ceremonies and traditional
shows (culture), being able to visit historical buildings and monuments and traditional
Strengths and Weaknesses of Sport Tourism in Iran
83
architectures (natural and traditional attractions), and finally, having friendly
international relations with other countries (politics). See table 1.
Table1: comparison about strength of Iran sport tourism
Dimension
Fundamentals
Administration
Culture
Natural and
traditional attractions
Politics
Mean
SD
3.71
3.43
3.41
0.95
0.84
0.88
3.51
3.56
0.90
0.86
The participants of the study also showed significant results on the elements
related to the weaknesses of sport- tourism in Iran. These included: lack of
standard entertainment facilities and equipment (fundamental), not having proper
coordination among the organizations involved in sport events and the ones in
tourism matters (administration), inappropriate behaviors of some spectators in
stadiums (culture), finally, unreal and negative rumors about Iran in some other
countries (politics). The means of the two groups revealed that the participants
emphasized on strengths more than the weaknesses of sport- tourism in Iran.
Table2: comparison about weakness of Iran sport tourism
Dimension
Mean
SD
Fundamentals
3.69
0.89
Administration
3.64
0.95
Culture
3.75
0.88
Politics
3.88
0.86
The f- test, comparing average for determining advantage based on marital status and
average of disadvantages based on age of participants with respect to results of table 3:
when it consider advantages in culture field and disadvantages in management field
about sport tourism based on tourist age, it found that there was a difference in their
point of view(&=0.05).
Table 3: comparing average for determining advantages based on marital status and average of
disadvantages based on age of participants
Reference
Married statue
Age
Positive point
culture
-
Negative point
management
Means
39.57
46.52
F value
4.98
2.94
Significant
0.03
0.04
The results of t test, the points of view of active sport tourists about average in
comparison with advantages and disadvantages. With regard to results of table 4 :
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
the results considered , then it can be seen there were very considerable
differences among active sport tourists in the advantages and disadvantages
factors. The average of two groups was showed that the tourists attitude was
more positive points than negative ones see table 4.
Table 4: the points of view of active sport tourists about average in comparison with advantages
and disadvantages
Index
Means
SD
Negative point
52.60
12.60
Positive point
40.97
9.23
df
t
Significant
118
8.16
0.001
Discussion and Conclusions
Today events are held with different purposes, but whatever is clear is that economic
and social improvement sustainable issues as improvement of relations with the other
countries are important. So, they try to held the events in the best way whether now or in
the future. It's vital to know the ways of attractiveness of foreign athletes and sport
tourism as advantages. Participants as “active sport tourists” believe that they can be
happy when stakeholders be up to date, because their competitions are in safe and high
standard conditions and environment.
On the other hand, loss of facilities and standard sport equipments is one of the factors
must be studied in field of substructures. Air fair, visa and political situation it’s a barrier
of tourist attraction, because traveling, accommodation, safety and security therefore,
when comprehensive services and facilities in international level not be given it causes
sport tourists not to feel comfort. Refusing the quality of reeves and sport teams
decrease motivation of sport tourists because they evaluate level of sport in Iran was low
and donate tend sharing in events should be professional and with a major scheme in
this way Iran can be attracted sport tourists and held international games. This study
supported Chalip (2001) , Braz (2002) David (2009) studies in substructures factor.
Based on tourists attitude natural and unnatural attractiveness are the advantages of
sport tourism factors in Iran. They cause more motivations for participants and
spectators as a sport tourism to traveling to Iran. The tourist liked handicrafts,
traditional food, ceremonies and festival, therefore, it’s a advantage to be as a host
country even for a big events in Iran. Impression of natural and unnatural attractive
nesses is mentioned in Smells' study (2008) as well.
Findings showed that a firm management can attract active sport tourists. So, Iran
potential is very good for tourism and particularly for sport tourism. The other element
which is related to management is providing special safe and security. Security can
make sure the athletes' for performing. Hence, offering services should be noticeable.
Some of the disadvantages factors are: some difficulties for obtaining visa, travelling,
transportation, and so on.
Tourists believed that the rules should be simpler about entry and exit of athletes during
the competitions. The results showed that the sport management in Iran were the same
as Kozacks and Yamagoshes studies Khosravi (2006). Most of participants were happy
Strengths and Weaknesses of Sport Tourism in Iran
85
in terms of hospitalities and it should be considerable points for the managers and
authorities who are policy and decision makers. Whatever is significant is, if don’t pay
attention to culture, it will turn into a disadvantage in sport tourism in Iran. Not good
hospitalities cause to lose motivation of athletes to attend in events. In other words,
peoples bad behavior forms insecurity for them, then they don’t tend to attend in any
events in the country. AS Kim (2009) expressed viewers bad behavior can be received as
a disadvantage by sport tourists point of view.
Tourist's opinions are in this way that suitable political relations to other countries
attract sport tourists, in political issue. The other characters that attract sport tourists are:
existence of security and peace and lack of war and groups of terrorists.
So, for improving of tourism that is formed by international events, political analysis
must be done. Although political factor can be considered as a main factor but it can be
as a disadvantage. Negative propaganda can have feeling of insecurity so athletes don’t
tend to attend in events. It can be removed or reduced this disadvantage with
progressing relationship with other countries and particularly with the media and make
the sure about safety and security of the host country. In this study, also, showed that
media publicity about Iran was difference between point of view of single and married
sport tourists. In terms of culture, participants were happy with hospitalities and
festivals which can be noted by authorities.
There were three differences between point of view of active sport tourists in
management field based on their age. As a result it should be noted that special services
should be improved based on age of tourists. Although, unsuitable sport substructures ,
loss of services and their offering to sport tourists without any paying attention to
demands of them undesirable behavior (untrained volunteer) towards sport tourists are a
number of disadvantages of sport tourism in Iran, but based on table (4) average of point
of view of active sport tourists showed that the advantages of tourism in Iran are
included: use of modern technology for stakeholder and being new and variety of sport
events, adequate nutrition based on tourists taste, security, programs on time, performing
traditional and cultural ceremonies, ancient sites and architecture, handicrafts and finally
significant hospitalities and traditional food and festivals were held by people and
organizers.
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
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88
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Examining Gymnastics Training as a Concentration
Enhancement Exercise
Siu Yin Cheung & Lena Fung
(Hong Kong Baptist University, Hong Kong)
Abstract
The ability to concentrate is an attribute associated with successful athletic
performance (Abernethy, 2001), thus understanding more about concentration is
essential. The aim of this study was to investigate the concentration levels of individuals
with and without gymnastics training. The participants were 194 children aged between
4 and 10 years (M = 7.08, SD = 1.69). As this study was a two-group pre-post test design,
recruitment of participants was from two sources, namely participants of the Gymnastics
Association of Hong Kong gymnastics training courses, and students without
gymnastics training from a primary school. A total of 85 children (Male = 29, Female =
56) received gymnastics training for 10 weeks while 109 children (Male = 60, Female =
49) did not. Two concentration assessment tools were utilized: the Harris Grid Test
(Harris & Harris , 1984) and the WT-Test of Concentration (Huang & Yiu, 2000). The
significant Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) coefficients among the three
concentrations’ performance scores suggested that performance in the Harris Grid Test is
related to performance in the one-minute and the five-minute WT-Test of Concentration.
Significant PPMC coefficients were also obtained between age, and the three test scores
were significant. This suggested that as children get older, they can concentrate better.
The 2 (gender) x 3 (age-group) repeated measures ANOVA results indicated that there
was no significant mean difference on concentration scores for participants with and
without gymnastics training.
Key words: concentration, gymnastics
Introduction
Examining Gymnastics Training as a Concentration Enhancement Exercise
The ability to concentrate is an attribute associated with successful performance in
sport (Gould, Eklund, & Jackson, 1992; Abernethy, 2001). Some writers even suggested
that it is an essential element of the “flow state” (Kimiecik & Stein, 1992), which itself
is said to be a condition producing exceptional performances (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990).
Sport psychologists are of the view that mental attributes associated with athletic
success are “trainable” (Weinberg & Gould, 2003), and that includes concentration
(Burke, 1992). Jones (1995) supported this view by pointing out that athletes can always
learn to be more confident, concentrate better, and be more composed under pressure.
Such arguments are not unique to sport psychologists. Cognitive psychologists, such as
Barlett (1958) and Eysenck (1993), also pointed out that efficient control of focused
attention in complex situations is a skill that can be trained and improved. However,
Examining Gymnastics Training as a Concentration 89
Enhancement Exercise
despite the fact that the ability to concentrate is a valued attribute for sport performance,
research to identify strategies to enhance concentration is sparse.
In the existing literature, a variety of strategies used to improve concentration were
found. Such strategies included asking athletes to practice focusing on an object (Burke,
1992), performing visual search tasks (Hardy & Fazey, 1990), and using an established
routine as a means to maintain or regain concentration (Thomas & Over, 1994).
Although this aspect of research is encouraging, one shortcoming of some studies of
concentration and sports performance is the reliance on using sport performance as an
outcome measure rather than on measuring change in concentration per se. Other
limitations include the lack of empirical study designs (Moran, 1966) and the use of
self-reports in evaluating changes in concentration (Kingston & Hardy, 1997).
In a more recent study, the use of concentration training on concentration performance
was examined by Greenlees, Thelwell, and Holder (2006). They studied the impact of a
9-week concentration grid training on concentration performance in soccer players.
Their results suggested that concentration grid training could not enhance concentration
performance as measured by scores obtained from visual search and video observation
tasks. They further cautioned against the use of the concentration grid as a training tool
in enhancing concentration.
In order to overcome some design limitations of previous studies and to examine the
feasibility of using sport training rather than concentration grid training as a strategy to
improve concentration, we developed this study to assess whether engagement in
gymnastics training could enhance concentration performance. Also, as sport
participation has been attributed to be associated with positive developments in
individuals, it is hoped that, through this research, some evidence on the contribution of
a sport, namely gymnastics, in improving concentration could be established.
The choice of gymnastics as a vehicle to improve concentration is not arbitrary.
Gymnastics is a sport requiring intense concentration. Any lapse in attention could
negatively impact performance or, worst still, result in injury. In addition, recruitment to
gymnastics training typically targets individuals at a young age, commonly referred to as
late-early childhood to middle childhood by developmental psychologists (Flavell,
Miller, & Miller, 1993). At this stage, the individual is described as being cognitively
active and in a condition where cognitive training has been found to be able to take
effect; thus, we feel that the choice of gymnastics is appropriate.
Methodology
Participants
Participants in this study were 194 children aged between 4 and 10 years (M = 7.08,
SD = 1.69). As this study was a two-group pre-post test design, recruitment of
participants was from two sources, namely, participants from the gymnastics for all
training courses organized by the Gymnastics Association of Hong Kong, China, and
students from a primary school who did not receive any gymnastics training. A total of
85 children (Male = 29, Female = 56) received gymnastics training and 109 children
(Male = 60, Female = 49) did not.
Procedures
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Convenience sampling method was used for this research. Through references from
the Gymnastics Association of Hong Kong, China, letters of invitation were sent out to
parents for seeking their approval to allow their children to take part in the study. For the
primary school students, the school head was first invited to be a collaborator and
similar letters were sent to students’ parents through the school. Parents indicating an
interest were invited to attend a briefing session where the purpose and procedures of
the study were again reiterated and their formal consent obtained.
As it was a pre-post test design, there were two sessions of data collection. For the
primary school students, the testing sessions were conducted in the school. The two
testing sessions (pre and post) were conducted within 10 weeks. For participants of the
gymnastics training course, the testing sessions were conducted at the first and last class
of the training course.
The Intervention Program
The Gymnastics for All program (Program), organized by the Gymnastics Association
of Hong Kong, China, was used as the mechanism for concentration training in this
study. The Program was conducted by registered coaches of the Association. The
duration of the Program was 10 weeks and participants met for 2 hours per week. Thus
the total training hours were 20. The class size averaged 15 participants and was
supervised by one coach.
In the Program, participants were taught various gymnastics moves, including
stretching exercises, rolls, jumps, turns and leaps. They were also encouraged to utilize
different stunts to create their own gymnastics routines.
Instruments
Two concentration assessment tools were used in this study: the Harris Grid Test
(Harris & Harris, 1984) and the WT-Test of Concentration (Huang & Yiu, 2000). The
underlying mechanism for both of them is numerical trail making.
The actual test involves asking the individual being assessed to identify a set of
numbers, beginning from the number “1”, by crossing each out in a sequential manner.
When the individual gets out of sequence, he/she would be prompted to stop and resume
again to be locating the right number in the sequence. The score an individual received
from this test was the number of correctly identified numbers within a given time.
In this study, two worksheets were used, one with the numbers embedded in a square,
the Harris Grid Test (1984) and the other in a face-like figure, the WT-Test of
Concentration (2000). Three scores were obtained from participants of this study. They
included the accurately identified numbers in one minute from the Harris Grid Test,
along with the accurately identified numbers in one minute and in five minutes from the
WT-Test of Concentration.
Statistical Analysis
The 2 (gender) x 3 (age-group) factorial analyses of variance (ANOVA) with repeated
measures on concentration scores were utilized to analyze the training effect. The
Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) statistical procedure was used to
investigate the relationship between concentration scores and age. The Statistical
Examining Gymnastics Training as a Concentration 91
Enhancement Exercise
package for the Social Sciences (SPSS 16) was used and the level of significance for the
entire treatment of data was .05.
Results
The total number of participants in the study was 194. As there was a wide age-range,
the impact of age on test performance was assessed by means of the Pearson Product
Moment Correlation (PPMC) statistical procedure. PPMC coefficients were obtained
between age and the three test scores. The obtained results are presented in Table 1.
With all coefficients being significant, the need to perform separate analysis for different
age-groups is evident if we wish to understand the intervention effect of gymnastics
training on concentration more clearly. Also, the significant coefficients among the three
concentration performance scores suggested that performance in the Harris Grid Test is
related to performance in the one-minute and the five-minutes WT-Test of
Concentration.
Table 1 PPMC coefficients between age and pre-training concentration performance scores (n = 194)
Variable
Age
Harris Grid Test
(one minute)
WT-Test of
Concentration
(one minute)
Age
Harris Grid Test
(one minute)
1
.41*
1
WT-Test of Concentration
(one minute)
.50*
.38*
1
WT-Test of Concentration
(five minutes)
.59*
.44*
.68*
WT-Test of
Concentration
(five minutes)
1
* p < .05
To create appropriate age-groups, a series of correlations were performed. The
purpose of these analyses was to identify the age cut-off points where the impact of age
is minimal. Subsequent to this procedure, three age-groups were created as follows: 4-5
years old (n = 39), 6-7 years old (n = 70), and the 8-10 years old (n = 85).
As this study is predominantly a two-group (Gym group versus Control group)
pre-post design, the similarity of performance between the Gym and Control groups
prior to the intervention program was needed to be established. A series of ANOVAs
were conducted. Results indicated that the F-ratios for the main effect of the grouping of
Gym versus Control were not significant. The pre-post performance scores for each
sub-group are presented in Table 2.
Table 2 Means and standard deviations of the pre- and post-training concentration performance scores for
each sub-group
HG
(1 min)
Before
Training
WT
(1 min)
WT
(5 Mins)
HG
(1 min)
After
Training
WT
(1 min)
WT
(5 Mins)
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Gym
Age 4-5
Age 6-7
Age 8-10
Control
Age 4-5
Age 6-7
Age 8-10
3.05
(1.35)
4.81
(2.62)
4.57
(1.98)
6.26
(2.64)
16.33
(3.99)
20.39
(6.60)
2.71
(1.52)
5.87
(4.66)
5.76
(2.54)
8.13
(3.86)
17.90
(5.63)
23.23
(7.46)
7.04
(3.30)
8.52
(2.66)
29.70
(4.80)
7.48
(3.95)
10.60
(3.35)
32.39
(8.02)
3.00
(2.13)
5.34
(3.30)
4.83
(2.32)
7.21
(2.74)
16.92
(5.40)
24.69
(7.00)
2.92
(2.02)
7.17
(3.27)
5.50
(3.06)
9.14
(4.28)
18.25
(3.95)
27.31
(7.70)
6.25
(2.79)
8.80
(3.01)
29.55
(8.51)
7.80
(3.49)
9.95
(3.41)
32.59
(6.60)
Following the above procedure, 2 x 3 repeated measures ANOVA were separately
conducted for each of the performance scores. Results suggested that the concentration
scores for children with and without gymnastics training were similar. A summary of
results is presented in Table 3.
Table 3 Summary of the 2 x 3 repeated measures ANOVAs for main effects of Groups (Gym Group versus
Control Group), Age, and Group by Age interaction
Wilks’ Lambda
Associated F-ratio
.99
.97
.99
1.071
2.024
.114
WT (One minute)
Groups
Age
Groups X Age
.99
.99
.99
.863
.399
.127
WT (Five minutes)
Groups
Age
Groups X Age
1.00
.99
.99
.006
.477
.049
Variable and Effects
Harris Grid Test
Groups
Age
Groups X Age
Conclusion and Discussion
This study employed a two-group, pre-post test design to explore whether
gymnastics could be used as a strategy to enhance concentration. The pre-post
concentration test scores were not significantly different and thus led to the statistical
conclusion that gymnastics was not a valid strategy for concentration training in this
study, further researches on the learning effects of the concentration tests on both
experimental and control groups and the number of hours of training in gymnastics per
week would be recommended.
However, a strong and positive relationship between
concentration scores and age was found. From a pedagogical perspective, this finding
has a practical relevance for coaches who need to handle very young gymnasts. Taking
Examining Gymnastics Training as a Concentration 93
Enhancement Exercise
into consideration that the youngest gymnasts who aged 4 to 5 years old could have
poorer concentration, coaches should consider using more verbal cues and different
teaching methods to encourage them to stay focused and pay attention to time spent on
each task when designing training contents. In addition, this study utilized two different
instruments for measuring concentration.
Results suggested that the scores from the Harris Grid test and the WT-test of
concentration (one minute and five minutes) were related. As the Harris Grid test is a
much simpler test and could be completed in a shorter time, perhaps future research
could further investigate the usefulness of the WT-test as an alternative tool for
assessing concentration, particularly when there is a need to test for a concentration time
span that exceeds the time that one normally takes to complete the Harris Grid test.
References
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(Eds.), Handbook of Sport Psychology (pp. 53-85). New York: Wiley.
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[4] Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New
York: Harper & Row.
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Erlbaum Associates Ltd.
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Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
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excellence: Mental preparation, precompetitive cognition and affect. The Sport
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concentration grid exercise as a concentration enhancement exercise. Psychology of
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& A. Lees (Eds.), Science and racket sports (pp. 203-211). London: E. & F.N.
Spon.
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[15]Moran, A.P. (1996). The psychology of concentration in sport: A cognitive analysis.
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Analysis and Study of Domestic and Foreign Social Sports 95
Professional Training Objectives and Curriculum Content
Analysis and Study of Domestic and Foreign Social
Sports Professional Training Objectives and Curriculum
Content
Deng Zhen & Gao Li
(North China Institute of Science and Technology, China)
Abstract
Determine training objectives of social sports provide theoretical support of
curriculum content for the national university. According to the actual situation in
schools by elaboration and contrast on the domestic and international social sport
training objective, curriculum analysis, this research aims to find out the difference of
social sports training objectives, curriculum content at home and abroad. Through
elaboration and comparison of social sports specialty’s cultivating aim and curriculum in
domestic and foreign universities, we can conclude that the cultivating aim and
curriculum in our country is ambiguous and is short of pertinence. Thus this situation
also is not able to construct curriculum based on college’s actual situation. Most
general universities’ curriculum in our country is being set up according to the PE
specialty, which leads to the lack of pertinence and the common phenomena of courses’
reconstruction .
Key words: home and abroad, social sports, training objectives, courses
There are few research on the social sports training objectives and curriculum content
at home and abroad at present. The scholars generally explain the overall national
training objectives and curriculum content, but the research on determining the training
objectives and content of curriculum according to the actual situation in schools is
seldom.
Introduction
In order to meet changes of demand for sports talents, Japanese social sports colleges
also gradually changed the main objective from training physical education teachers to
sports instructors, the focus has turned from the Physical Education for the whole of
society services, in order to be able to train the sports director who can meet the all
sectors of society and various fields.
In the United States, the major with closer relationship with the social sports is sports
science and sports management professionals. The target of Physical Science majors is
to take charge as a sports expert in the sports sector companies, hospitals, health clubs,
cardiac rehabilitation departments and public or private sports organizations and as
testers as sports technology, sports specialists, physical planners and fitness guide after
through examination by American College of Sports Medicine. These people can engage
in treatment, surgery and sports medicine work before orthopedic and enter the graduate
96
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
school for the further learning and scientific research. Sports management training goal
is to develop a fitness and sports department manager or director, sports equipment,
merchandise sales and information staff, sports administrators, the state administrator of
public entertainment and management personnel of city recreation departments and the
factories and enterprises entertainment sector .
As the development of social sports and the rise of professional sports, the British
high social sport education center to train PE teachers gradually shift to training a
variety of sports talent who can meet the needs of the society. Especially in recent
years as the rapid development of entertainment, sports related industries, training
various sports talents who can meet the needs of social development has become the key
training objectives of British sports training professional education. For example, the
famous University of Manchester Centre for Physical Education and Recreation set of
entertainment management training goal is: graduate students can go to work at the arts,
entertainment, sports and leisure centers, theaters, travel agencies, and can be engaged in
entertainment-related planning, management, marketing , consulting, etc. and The
University of Birmingham School of Sport and Exercise Sciences is focused on the
relationship between the science, sports and sports-related health problems and make the
students as for the national team, local and university athletes services expertise through
sports practice.
In Korea, the state of professional training goals are not uniform mandatory, but the
same professional training goals in different schools are roughly same , social sports
training goal is to train the senior specialists who can engage in sports , leisure guide
and Associated theoretical research. Health management training goal is to cultivate
senior specialized personnel who can devise scientific exercise program ,raise public
health and conduct health problems research and health education
Domestic Social Sports Training Goal
Ministry of Education promulgated in 1998 "University undergraduate course
catalog" provides the professional training of social sports goal is: training the senior
specialists who possess the basic theory of social sports, knowledge and skills, and can
engage in mass sports organization and management, counseling, business opening, and
teaching and research and other work in social sport field
"National Universities Social Sports Specialty Course Program" Formed in 2007
interpret the social sports training goal. The goal is to foster expertise who possess the
basic knowledge and skills of social sports, and be competent the guidance of social
sports, sports business management and other social sports-related work..
These objectives are relatively broad and not targeted. However, the common
problem of training objectives of Chinese universities is moving the social sports
training objectives and requirements which is regulated by the "University
undergraduate course catalog" into the teaching plans, this practice often make the
Academic curriculum and the Course System experience in a blind experience because
of the absence of direct evidence directly and affect the relevance, effectiveness and
scientific of teaching programs. This may be related to the short running time of social
sports. many institutions lacks a lot of practice experience in the professional building
and recommends the institutions to develop appropriate training objectives according to
Analysis and Study of Domestic and Foreign Social Sports 97
Professional Training Objectives and Curriculum Content
the actual school situation. The goal is the program of action, of course, this also needs
perfect in the constant practice.
Curriculum of Social sports
Foreign Curriculum of Social sports
After a series of reforms since the 1980s, the common features of foreign sports
departments curriculum, first manifested as further strength of the basic education
curriculum and professional courses basic theory. For example, the Japanese sports
university general education curriculum increased from 15 of 1987 to 20 in 1995, in
which the compulsory increased from the 9 to 12. Osaka University of the Basic
Education Curriculum Physical Education increased from 2l to 28. Such programs are
composed of the humanities, social and natural sciences component, aims to ensure that
students acquire the necessary basic knowledge. Second, the proportion of elective
increased substantially. In the traditional Japanese sports major, the proportion of
compulsory courses in the whole course is large, generally about 70%. After reforming,
the Sports Department adjust the curriculum by leaps and bounds and increased the
proportion of elective courses according to the actual situation
American professional social sports attaches great importance to the curriculum of
basic course. Basic courses’ categories are various. The credits are relatively large and
involve the humanities, social and natural sciences. Characteristics of the formation of
course, have gone through the three aspects of change: First, turning from the previous
emphasis on physical and motor skills to improving the quality of life, health, life-long
education campaign; Second, turning from emphasis on Sports Technology Teaching
to the theory , the ratio of the two equally divided by the past, turn to the emphasis on
theory. Such as the credits of Social Sports Courses in the SUNY Cortland Campus,
Springfield College and the University of Utah School is more than 70% of total credits
(excluding elective), the proportion of technical courses campaign only 9% of the total
credits. Third, the shift from the study of guidance method to the learning and research
of the basic science of humanity.
The variety and comprehensiveness of elective courses is another distinguishing
feature of Social sports specialty’s curriculum setting in America. Most sports major are
practicing minor and core course system. Students not only attend their compulsory
courses, professional courses, college also set up some courses for students which has
no relationship with their major .There are many kinds of elective technical courses, the
classification is profound too. Besides, physical education major in America has
consistently establishing some new majors, also , courses which correspond with these
new majors .For example, the rise of leisure, entertainment and marketing in varying
degree .The concerning teaching plan and course system are also shaped and established.
This development provides the graduates a wide field that they can go and enable them
can be competent in more fields. Meanwhile, it guarantee a wider and broader
development space for athletic sports .
There are several features of Social sports specialty’s curriculum setting in general
college of England. First , in order to Lay a solid foundation for their students , they lay
emphasis on the basic courses.
Second, they placed the leisure, entertainment, and
travel subject in a prominent position, which can ensure the students’ skill can closely
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
meet the needs of society. Third, they also pay attention to the physical education for
the Disabled. Fourth, they give consideration to borderline subjects while emphasis
the core courses in curriculum setting. In summation, the curriculum setting of
England physical education institute fully considerate the characteristics of western
countries, which guarantees their students’ skill can meet the needs of their society.
curriculum setting also in accordance with the market economy regulations .More than 8
kind of courses concerning about entertainment and leisure has been set up. The content
of these courses involve all kinds of leisure and pleasure. This kind of curriculum
setting enable the career of graduates from England colleagues will not just be
limited in teaching field but expand to the whole society and market ,even ,to the whole
European Union. These graduates can gain their own place though the competition is
fierce in market economy .
《scheme of undergraduate curriculum of social sports major for National general
College》regulates that students major in physical education must take 2600～2800 class
hours courses which include 720 class hours of public courses ,other specialized courses
should be arranged according to the standard of 1800～1980class hours，100～110
credits. Specialized courses include three parts . The first part is compulsory
courses(1080class hours、60creidts). Each college can set up or construct their own
course system, but there are eight subjects are backbone courses ,it includes
Conspectus of Physical Education, Social Sports Science, Sports Economics, Sports
Management Science, Psychology of physical Education, Sports Anatomy, Sports
physiology ,The Theory and Practice of the major sports .these are back bone subjects .
The second part is elective courses (900 class hours、50creidts), students must take at
least 540 class hours and thirty credits of restrictive elective courses. Besides 360 class
hours and 20 credits Voluntary elective courses. The third part is practical step. It
includes social practice, professional practice and scientific research practice.
Most general universities’ curriculum in our country is setting up according to the
Physical Education specialty, which leads to the lack of pertinence and the common
phenomenon of courses’ reconstruction .
Though Cheng, Zhang-Yu and other partners’ research on 25 colleges, they find out
that, at present time, the curriculum of public courses have some defects. Firstly,
theoretical courses of ideological education repeated and not standardized the subjects
of education and humanities subject are excessive but the methodological and natural
science subjects are insufficient. Secondly, on the curriculum of major required
subjects matter, some school open eighty percent compulsory courses which reflect that
the singleness of graduates’ skill. Feng, Xiao-Li points out that the teaching evaluation
method of social sports major still staying a stage of taking exams in class .This kind of
monotonous method of evaluation not only may cover students’ difference in their
knowledge ,skill and interests but also can’t fully reflect the teaching effectiveness.
Yang, Dao-Jun points out that the students who major in social sports not only should
take required elective courses but also can choose to take courses Voluntary according to
their own sports specialty’s needs. The aim is broadening their knowledge and make
them a competent person who can make contribution to society .When it comes to
practical courses period , students from most domestic colleague has only one third of
American colleges’ practical period . So we suggest that we can take the interests form,
Analysis and Study of Domestic and Foreign Social Sports 99
Professional Training Objectives and Curriculum Content
let students make full use of part time to organize competitions between classes and
departments. At the same time, we should teach and guide students to go to fitness
center, enterprises, public institutions and communities for internship in seven summer
and winter holidays in college period. Cao, Ji-Hong and her partners point out that we
should pay more attention to the practical effectiveness and establish Specific
assessment criteria and evaluation method and take the quality of practical courses to a
high standard rather than being ritualized.
Conclusion
Through elaboration and comparison of social sports specialty’s cultivating aim and
curriculum in domestic and foreign universities, we can conclude that the cultivating
aim and curriculum in our country is ambiguous and is short of pertinence. Thus this
situation also is not able to construct curriculum based on college’s actual situation.
Most general universities’ curriculum in our country is being set up according to the PE
specialty, which leads to the lack of pertinence and the common phenomena of courses’
reconstruction .
References
[1] Mhang, Xi-Qian. Comparative Study Of Social Sports Specialty In General
Colleges In China, Japan America And England [J]．Journal of Guang Dong
Education Institute，2005，25(2)：20~25．
[2] Min, Jian and Others. School Status Quo And Revelation of Social Sports Specialty
in South Korea’ University [J]．Journal of Cheng Du Physical Education Institute ,
2003，29(4)：70～73．
[3] Feng, Xiao-Li. Research of Status Quo of Social Sports Specialty’ Curriculum in
Physical Education Institutes[J]. Jorunal of Physical Education Institute of Shan
Xi Normal University. 2004，19(1)：34～36．
[4] Cheng, Zhang-Yu. Investigation and Analysis of Social Sports Specialty’
Curriculum of General Universities of China.[J] Journal of Xian Physical
Education Institute, 2007，24(2)：109～113．
[5] Feng, Xiao-Li. Study on the Influencing Factors of Social Sports Specialty in
Physical Educational Institutes’Course Systerm Reform[J]．Sichuan Sports
Science，2003，6：72～73．
[6] Yang, Dao-Jun and Others. Construction of Social Sports Specialty’
Curriculum[J]．Sports Sciences，1998，18(4)： 10～13．
[7] Cao, Ji-Hong, Xu, Da-Iin, Zhang, Wen-Jian. Application Research of Construction
in Minor Curriculum System of Social Spots Major[J]．Journal of Shenyang
Institute of Physical Education, 2000：20～21．
Survey of Postural Characteristics among Selected 101
Age Group of Different School Children
Survey of Postural Characteristics among Selected Age
Group of Different School Children
Praveen Kumar Singh (KNIPSS, India)
Vishal Thakur (Punjab Institute of Engg. and Applied Research, India)
Abstract
In the present study, an attempt has been made to survey postural characteristics
among selected age group of different school-children. The study was carried out on
about 400 children, taking 200 each from public & Govt. School from Indian state Uttar
Pradesh. The data was collected by the use of Iowa posture test. Within limitation of
study, it is found that unsatisfactory posture is found in foot mechanics sitting, standing,
walking, ascending and descending stairs is only low while the satisfactory posture is
quit high.
Key word: posture, deformities, percentile, reveals
Introduction
Posture disorder impairs the health and quality of life of millions of people. Low back
pain alone is a major problem in today society. It has been estimated that 8 out of 10
people will suffer from low back pain alone at one time or other in their life. The cost of
medical care and lost job time is estimated to be in the billions of dollars annually.
Furthermore a significant number of student from the public schools and government
schools are reaching colleges and universities with postural deformities, nearly half are
unaware of these problems.
“As a twig is bent the tree is inclined” these words of Alexander pope should be
remembered always by every school teacher. They should have special significance for
the teacher of physical education & Health. Privileged to influence the physical
development and the performance of the children, beside their social and emotional
development.
Physical activity programme that includes exercises to strengthen and stretch postural
muscles helps prevent problem in later life. We use formal exercise for remedial and
therapeutic benefit have on part of the recorded history exercise is to develop the body
and to alleviate, Improve or correct certain type of physical education was recognized as
a formal discipline. In U.S.A. formal exercise were applied in 1800’s as a definite phase.
Physical education is in order to improve posture and to provide desirable movement
and sports activities.
Objective of the Study
The purpose of study was to survey postural characteristics among selected age
groups of different school children.
102
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Procedure
The whole population was eight to twelve years boys from fourth and fifth classes of
primary section of public and government school of Sultanpur (U.P) India.
Public and Government Schools of Sultanpur district were selected randomly by non
proportional random sampling technique and 50 subjects were randomly selected from
each schools. 200 subjects from Public and 200 subjects from Govt. School. Total
sample size was 400. Iowa Posture Test was employed for this study because through
this test one can measure status as well as dynamic posture of the students. The other
reason was to select this test because it was inexpensive, takes less time for
administration and it does not require any expensive equipment. Percentile analysis was
made on the data collected from selected age group boys of government and public
school.
Findings and Discussion
Findings
The criterion for the evaluation of posture of boys in the public and government
schools is presented in Table No. 1, 2, 3 and 4. The details of the survey of postural
characteristics are described as follows:
Table 1 - Performance of Public School Boys in IOWA posture test
Postural standards
Number
%
S. No.
1.
Boys with satisfactory posture
163
81.5
2.
Boys with poor posture
37
18.5
From Table -1 it is evident that out of 200 boys students, 37 students (18.5%) have
poor posture while the boys with satisfactory posture are 163 (81.5%) of public schools
of Sultanpur District, U.P.
The boys having satisfactory and unsatisfactory posture in different items of IOWA
Posture test have been depicted in Fig 1 and Fig. 2.
Number of Boys
250
200
150
100
50
0
WD
DF
SP
WAL
SIT
STO
Items of IOWA Posture Test
ASC
DESC
Fig. 1- Distribution of Boys of public school having satisfactory posture in different
items of IOWA Posture Test.
Survey of Postural Characteristics among Selected 103
Age Group of Different School Children
Number of Boys
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
WD
DF
SP
WAL
SIT
STO
ASC
DESC
Items of IOWA Posture Test
Fig. 2- Distribution of Boys of public school having unsatisfactory posture in different
items of IOWA Posture Test.
S. No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Table 2 - Performance of Public School Boys in IOWA posture test
Specific Postural item
Boys with
Boys with poor
satisfactory posture
posture
Number
%
Number
%
Foot Mechanic
(i) Weight distribution
(ii) Direction of feet
192
167
96
83.5
8
33
4
16.5
Standing
194
97
6
3
Walking
197
98.5
3
1.5
Sitting
181
90.5
19
9.5
Stopping
119
59.5
81
40.5
Ascending & Descending stains
(i) Ascending
(ii) Descending
182
192
91
96
18
8
9
4
Table 2 reveals that a total of 192 (96%) of public school boys had satisfactory weight
distribution pattern where as 8 (4%) of boys had unsatisfactory weight distribution
pattern in foot mechanic test.

A total of 167 (83.5%) of boys had satisfactory direction of the feet where as
33(16.5%) of boys had unsatisfactory direction of the feet in foot mechanics
test.
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E

194 (97%) of boys had satisfactory standing posture while 6(3%) of boys had
unsatisfactory standing posture.

Total of 197(98.5%) of boys has satisfactory walking habit where as 3 (15%) of
boys had unsatisfactory Walking habit.

181 (90.5%) of boys has satisfactory sitting habit where as 19 (9.5%) of boys
had unsatisfactory sitting habit.

119 (59.5%) of boys adopts satisfactory ways of stooping to pick up light
object while 81(40.5%) of boys had unsatisfactory ways of stooping to pick up
light object.

182 (91%) of boys adopt satisfactory posture while ascending stairs while 88
(9%) adopts unsatisfactory posture to ascend stairs.

192 (96%) of boys adopts satisfactory means of posture in descending while 90
(11.45%) adopt poor posture while descending.

The percentage of boys having satisfactory and poor posture in different
item
98.5
IOWA Posture Test is shown in Fig 3 (A to D) & Fig 3 (E to H).
96
97
83.5
4
3
1.5
16.5
1
1
1
2
2
2
83.5
96
A
B
A – Weight distribution
C- Standing Position Test
98.5
97
C
D
1B -2 Direction
of Foot
D – Walking Test
Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
91
Fig 3 - (A to90.5
D)
96
59.5
percentage of public school’s boys performance in specific items of IOWA Posture Test.
9
4
9.5
40.5
1
1
1
2
2
2
59.5
90.5
91
96
1
2
Survey of Postural Characteristics among Selected 105
Age Group of Different School Children
E
F
G
H
E – Sitting test
F – Stooping to pickup light object
G- Ascending Stair test H – Descending Stair test
Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Fig 3 (E to H)
percentage of public school’s boys performance in specific items of IOWA Posture Test.
Table 3 - Performance of Government School Boys in IOWA posture test
S. No.
Postural standards
Number
%
1.
Boys with satisfactory posture
165
82.5
2.
Boys with poor posture
35
17.5
From Table -3 it is evident that out of 200 boys students, 35 students (17.5) have poor
posture while the boys with satisfactory posture are 165 (82.5) of government schools of
Sultanpur District, U.P.
The boys having satisfactory and unsatisfactory posture in different items of IOWA
Posture test have been depicted in Fig 4 and Fig. 5.
Number of Students
250
200
150
100
50
0
WD
DF
SP
WAL
SIT
STO
ASC
DESC
Items of IOWA Posture Test
Fig. 4 –
Distribution of Boys of government school having satisfactory posture in different items of
IOWA Posture Test.
106
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
40
Number of Boys
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
WD
DF
SP
WAL
SIT
STO
ASC
DESC
Items of IOWA Posture Test
Fig.5 –
Distribution of Boys of government school having unsatisfactory posture in different items of
IOWA Posture Test.
Table 4 - Performance of Government School Boys in IOWA posture test
Boys with satisfactory
posture
Boys with poor posture
S. No.
Specific Postural item
Number
%
Number
%
1.
Foot Mechanic
(i) Weight distribution
(ii) Direction of feet
180
181
90
90.5
20
19
10
9.5
2.
Standing
190
95
10
5
3.
Walking
188
94
12
6
4.
Sitting
178
89
22
11
5.
Stopping
125
62.5
75
37.5
6.
Ascending & Descending stains
(i) Ascending
(ii) Descending
193
184
96.5
92
7
16
3.5
8
Table 4 reveals that a total of 180 (90%) of government school boys had satisfactory
weight distribution pattern where 20 (10%) of boys had unsatisfactory weight
distribution pattern in foot mechanic test.


A total of 181 (90.5%) of boys had satisfactory direction of the feet whereas
19(9.5%) of boys had unsatisfactory direction of the feet in foot mechanics test.
190 (95%) of boys had satisfactory standing posture while 10(5%) of boys had
unsatisfactory standing posture.
Survey of Postural Characteristics among Selected 107
Age Group of Different School Children






Total of 188 (94%) of boys has satisfactory walking habit where as 12 (6%) of
boys had unsatisfactory Walking habit.
178 (89%) of boys has satisfactory sitting habit where as 22 (11%) of boys had
unsatisfactory sitting habit.
125 (625%) of boys adopts satisfactory ways of stooping to pick up light object
while 75(37.5%) of boys had unsatisfactory ways of stooping to pick up light
object.
193 (96.5%) of boys adopts satisfactory means of posture in descending while
7 (3.5%) adopt poor posture while ascending.
184 (92%) of boys adopts satisfactory means of posture in descending while 16
(8%) adopt poor posture while descending.
The percentage of boys having satisfactory and
190 item
188 poor posture in different
180
IOWA Posture Test is181
shown in Fig 6 (A to D) & Fig 6 (E to H).
20
1
1
1
2
2
2
181
180
A
10
12
19
B
188
190
C
D
A – weight distribution
B - Direction of Foot
C- Standing Position Test
D – Walking Test
Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Fig 6 –
(A to D) percentage of government school’s boys performance in specific items of IOWA Posture
Test.
108
Pan-Asian
178 Journal of Sports & P.E
125
193
184
7
22
16
75
1
1
2
2
1
2
125
193
178
E
E – Sitting test
F
F – Stooping to pickup light object
G- Ascending Stair test
H – Descending Stair test
184
G
H
Satisfactory
Unsatisfactory
Fig 6 (E to H) percentage of government school’s boys performance in specific items of IOWA Posture
Test.
Discussion of Findings
It was noticed that large number of male students have adopted wrong habits in foot
mechanics, standings, walking, sitting, stooping to pick up a light object and in
ascending and descending of stairs.
The total number of male students of public and government schools of Sultanpur
district were 400 out of which 328 had satisfactory posture while 72 had unsatisfactory
posture in the items of IOWA Posture Test.
The unsatisfactory posture may be due to many of the factors such as –

Lack of guidance - Improper habit while walking, sitting, standing, stooping
to pick up object from the ground, in ascending and descending stairs.

Poor quality of foot wears – They are not aware regarding right selection of
footwear which have proper shape and size because of this they were getting
foot deformities.

Lack of strength in muscles and body parts because they are not participating in
any type of strength activities. And due to lack of strength in back and
abdominal muscles they are getting kyphosis and lordosis or knock knee, bow
leg due to less strength in thigh muscles.

Malnutrition – They are taking meals with lack of protein, carbohydrate and
minerals. Therefore, they are getting postural deformities.

Mental condition of children is affecting their posture. When the child is under
depression then he is not able to pay attention on his posture.
Survey of Postural Characteristics among Selected 109
Age Group of Different School Children

Diseases – who suffered from any serious disease after that he is not able to
overcome developing postural deformity.

Lack of stretching exercises – children’s are not involved in stretching type of
exercise. Therefore, they are developing postural deformities. If stretching is not
done then some specific muscles get shorter such as shortening of back muscles
causes lordosis, shortening of abdominal muscles causes kyphosis and
shortening of side oblique muscle cause scoliosis.

Fitness – They are not having total body fitness, physically and mentally.
Therefore, they are developing bad posture.

Socio-economic condition – They are not having good socio-economical
condition so that they could not buy good footwear and not taking meals with
proper nutrients. Parents of these children also are not well educated. Therefore,
they are not having knowledge to guide their children.

Lack of Special Programme for Posture – There is no any physical education
programme to improve basic fundamental moments like walking, standing,
sitting, running, jumping, catching, throwing etc.

Hereditary problems – Due to the heredity arthritis disease occur from parents to
off spring and children’s get the bad posture.
Conclusion
Under the circumstances and within the limitation of this study the following
conclusion were drawn:
1. Almost 18.5 percent of boys had unsatisfactory posture at public schools of
Sultanpur district.
2. Almost 17.5 percent of boys had unsatisfactory posture at Government schools
of Sultanpur district
3. A small number had unsatisfactory posture in foot mechanics sitting, standing,
walking, ascending and descending stairs in government and public schools of
Sultanpur district.
4. 81 boys of public schools had unsatisfactory posture in stooping to pick up a
light object.
5. 75 boys of government schools had unsatisfactory posture in stooping to pick up
a light object.
References
[1] Arnheim, Auxier and Crowe, Principles and methods of Adapted Physical
Education and Recreation (U.S.A.: The C.V. Mosby Company, 1977).
[2] Auxter David, Jean Pyfer & Huetting Carlo, Principles and Methods Adapted
Physical Education and Recreation U S A Mosby, Year Book Inc. 1993.
[3] Balague F, Troussier B, Salminen JJ. Non-specific low back pain in children and
adolescents: risk factors. Eur Spine J. 1999
110
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
[4] Clarke H.H. Clarke D.H., Application of Measurement to health and to Physical
Education (USA-Prentice Hall, Inc. Engle wood cliffs, 1987)
[5] Day Harry, Practical Yoga for the Businessman (London: Pelham Books, 1986).
[6] Olsen TL, Anderson RL, Dearwater SR, Kriska AM, Cauley JA, Aaron DJ, LaPorte
RE.
The epidemiology of low back pain in an adolescent population. Am J Public
Health. 1992
[7] Taimela S, Kujala UM, Salminen JJ, Viljanen T. The prevalence of low back pain
among children and adolescents. A nationwide, cohort-based questionnaire survey
in Finland. Spine. 1997
Comparison of Integrated and Traditional Physical Education on
University Students' Scores in Physical Fitness
111
Comparison of Integrated and Traditional
Physical Education on University Students' Scores
in Physical Fitness
Rasool Nazari (Islamic Azad University, Naein Branch, Iran)
Mohammad Ehsani (Tarbiat Modares University, Iran)
Abstract
The current research tries to compare two methods of Traditional and Integrated
training on the university students’ function improving in physical training course. The
Integrated method is a modern method to teach public physical training and it can
develop the students and politicians’ opinion about this course. On the other side, the
applied method in this research is the common one in the all universities and institutions.
This research was tested in second half of 2008-2009 educational years on 120 students
of Naein University. 60 people took part in 40 separate classes of Integrated training and
60 other people took part in 40 separate classes of the Traditional training. There were
12 sessions and every session was 90 minutes. In this period, the main factors such as sit
and down, push up, 1200 m run, body flexibility, vertical jump and general agility were
trained. The results of this research indicate that there is an increase in the mean mark of
pre-test and post-test for both groups ‘Integrated and Traditional’. The Integrated
training method had more effect on the students’ marks improving in physical training
course in comparison with the Traditional training method. The Integrated training
method had more effect on the student’s physical fitness marks in their public physical
training in comparison with the Traditional training method.
Key words: physical training, traditional, integrated
Introduction
Human begins learning via moving and lack of movement, dynamism and
dynamic-tangible connection with the world decreases his on the environment and
increase his disability. This also removes beauty and mirth from his life. Today, physical
training and sport isn’t supposed as a single side but as a general science which via
applying the dynamic mental, emotional and cognitive aspects has made a dynamic and
attractive environment for the students in several countries. The Integrated activities are
a new method to increase the coaches’ cooperation and also the student’s motivation.
The Integrated activity can increase learning in different studying areas and create a
close relation between different courses and training in the best situation. The
Traditional method is now a common method in the universities in which the teachers
don’t pay attention to the emotional and cognitive concepts and there is confusion in
regarding to teach this course. The correct function of physical education and sport
should help the person to adapt him/her self with the society and his/her teammates. In
this way he/she can be able to keep the necessary social balance. The correct
performance of the movements and activities in physical education plan can create the
112
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
best opportunity and situations for such social adaption but it depends on a correct
management . The public physical education one and two were performed as an extra
program activity before 1350. After 1352, physical education was trained at the
universities in 2 forms: individual and group.
After the Cultural Revolution, in 1359, physical education was divided in two parts.
In the first one, a physical fitness and in the second one a special sport course was
trained. Kang in a research(2000)‘sport education plan model for physical education
training in south Korea’ supposed that a sport competition can be attractive, amazing
and leads to several training advantages. There were 180 subjects in this research and
the researchers concluded that this sport educational model can able the students to have
more contact with their classmates. Besides this model create more opportunities for
group learning and responsibility. Tam Brown (2001) had a research titled as ‘comparing
Rugby training via Integrated and Traditional methods’. The aim of this research was to
study the effect of these two methods in students’ learning. The results of this study
indicated that both of the groups had a significance development in the data and skills.
Besides those who were in the sport training groups, received more learning and played
better. Ken Alexander (2001) presented a research as ‘the Australian teacher’s
conception and applying the sport training plan model’. The aim of this study was to
recognize if the new model leads to a better result as compared with the Traditional plan
and how much are the students successful in accepting their responsibility to educate
themselves.
The results indicated that the existing view about sport education led to putting away
the Traditional physical education and also the sport education leads to more and better
equality in training. In the recent two decades, we have had several educational and
scientific efforts in the sport and physical education areas which are led to some
valuable improvements in these areas.
We see teaching of several lessons in different areas such as the basic principles of
physical education teachers study, but unfortunately we see that a few of the existing
lessons in the university plans frame create initiative in the professors and teachers
during planning and training sport and physical education. It is mentionable that the
existing lessons don’t have enough functional aspects. The composing physical
education lesson leads to motivation in students and as a result to a better learning. It
was a special attention to sport and physical education in most of the countries recently
and the reason is their dynamic nature in composing with other lessons. Physical
education one, as a university course, is designed to increase the students’ physical
power and sport skills. The need of physical activities and movement are two necessary
items in studying period by which the students can achieve their suitable physical and
mental power.
Methodology
The current research is semi-experimental and median. The statistical society involves
the male students on Naein University who had physical education two in the second
half of educational year (87-88). They were totally 120 subjects; 60 of them were in the
Integrated group and other 60 ones were in Traditional group. They were selected
randomly and divided in 4 classes. They participated in 12 sessions and each session
Comparison of Integrated and Traditional Physical Education on 113
University Students' Scores in Physical Fitness
toke 90 minutes. The studied items in these classes were sit and down, Swedish
swimming, 1200 m run, body flexibility, vertical jump and public agility. The data were
collected by median method and via three steps. These three steps are as follows:
1- Primary test at the beginning of the period in which two groups (Integrated and
Traditional) were tested practically.
2- A period of physical fitness exercises and teaching the dynamic-mental,
emotional and cognitive ranges in 12 sessions (one session per week and per
session 90 minutes). In this period, both of the groups were trained by the
researchers.
3- The tests at the end of period by which both of the groups participated in the
practical tests.
Table (1) Daily general plan for Integrated training group and Traditional training group
Integrated training group
Traditional training group
Free
Activity
Daily
General
plan
Warmup
Cooling
Free
activity
Mentaldynamic
area
Emotional
area
Cognitive
area
Warmup
35 min
45 min
10 min
5 min
15 min
10 min
10 min
10 min
10 min
Total time: 90 minute in 12
weeks
Total time : 90 minute in 12 weeks
The independent variables are two methods of training including Integrated and
Traditional and the dependant variables are physical fitness parts including:
cordial-respiratory education, stomach, shoulder belt muscular endurance, foot muscle
endurance, body flexibility, general agility which are tested by 1200 m run, laying bar
fix, sit and down, vertical jump, scaled board, Agility test respectively. The necessary
instruments are Stopwatch for 1200 meters run, Agility test, scaled board for vertical
jump, flexibility board for waist muscle flexibility measuring and mattress.
In the statistical tests, we used descriptive statistic to calculate the abundances,
Traditional deviation, mean and for the inference statistic, the independent and
dependant t tests were used.
114
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Results
Fig (1) data of the participant's number and age
The number of participants in each group was 60 and the average age for the
Integrated group and Traditional group was 20.5 and 21 respectively.
Significance level table (2) the data of Integrated group with post- test
Index Content
Mean
Standard
deviation
Integrated training method
3.05
2.02
Traditional training method
2.5
2.34
df
t
84
number
2.618
sig
0.010
Two training method , Integrated and Traditional , didn’t have the same effect on the
student's physical fitness increases but the Integrated method in Comparison with
Traditional method had more effect on the student's physical fitness.(p = 0.010)
Table(3) the data of Traditional group with pre and post test
Hypothesis
Hypothesis 1
Hypothesis 2
Hypothesis 3
Index content
Mean
SD
1200 m run pre- test
5.55
1.65
1200 m run post- test
1200 m run post- test
1200 m run post- test
Sit-down pre – test
4.45
38.58
45.41
37.86
1.24
7.04
6.51
10.36
Number
df
Significance
level
42
0.000
6.8
1.32
7.81
Comparison of Integrated and Traditional Physical Education on 115
University Students' Scores in Physical Fitness
Hypothesis 4
Hypothesis 5
Hypothesis 6
1200 m run post- test
44.34
10.72
Pres test
Post test
Vertical jump pre- test
Vertical jump pre- test
Agility run pre- test
Vertical jump pre- test
22
27
270
274
17.5
16
12.40
15.14
0.100
0.104
2.1
1.5
7.41
11.204
11.204
There was a significant difference between the increase in cordial and respiratory
endurance, waist flexibility, shoulder belt muscle endurance, stomach muscle endurance
and agility in movement in the compared training group in pre-test and post-test. (p≤
0/05)
Table (4) the data of Traditional group with pre- post tests
Hypothesis
Hypothesis 7
Hypothesis 8
Hypothesis 9
Hypothesis 10
Hypothesis 11
Hypothesis 12
Index content
Mean
SD
1200 m run pre- test
1200 m run post- test
1200 m run post- test
1200 m run post- test
Sit-down pre – test
1200 m run post- test
Pres test
Post test
Vertical jump pre- test
Vertical jump pre- test
Agility run pre- test
Vertical jump pre- test
5.58
4.55
35.11
37.25
36
39
19
22
269
272
17.50
17.20
1.23
1.28
8.02
8.14
8.82
8.27
12.40
15.14
0.100
0.104
2.1
1.5
Number
df
Significance
level
42
0.000
4.06
6.79
4.88
8.20
6.18
6.78
There was a significant difference between the increase in cordial and respiratory
endurance, stomach muscle endurance and agility in movement in the Traditional
training group in pre-test and post- test. (p≤ 0/05)
Discussion and conclusion
In this research, the studies on six important factors including cordial and respiratory
endurance, waist flexibility, shoulder belt muscle endurance, stomach muscle endurance,
general agility and body muscles flexibility indicated a significant difference between
the subjects in both methods. In both training groups, Integrated and Traditional, we
recognized the major effect of physical fitness exercise in two factors exercises on two
factors. In this research, we recognized a significant increase in physical fitness of two
groups, that is, the physical activities have a noticeable effect on their cordial-respiratory
endurance. After comparing the marks of pre-test and post-test, we concluded that
students achieve this ability in their general physical education classes.
The results of this study indicated the Integrated method in compare with
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
Traditional method has more effect on physical fitness. These findings mean the
Integrated training method can have more effect on improving the respiratory system
and heart in compare with Traditional method.
The reason of this effect is creating wisely and thoughtful thought in dynamic-mental,
emotional and cognitive areas. But regarding to students’ marks in pre and post test, this
improvement is related to compose training. The findings of this research show that
these two methods are effective in students’ physical fitness improvement. But after
increase in Integrated training method mean (M=3.05) in compare with Traditional
training method (M=2.5), we can say pre-test Integrated method can effect on students’
physical fitness.
The findings of this research which indicate that the Integrated method is more
effective than Traditional one is the same as Fahim Dovin (2003) and Khazae’s findings
(2008). In this study the Integrated method was introduced as the efficient method to
improve learning. On the other side, some researches (Bent and Hasti,1997) (Alexander
and Lakman, 2001) indicated that general physical fitness training can improve the level
of motivation in sport activities and learning. Regarding to the achieved results, we can
conclude that the difference between two training groups (Integrated and Traditional) is
because of the applied method to train the subjects. On the other side, the final mean
difference between two groups is the result of using the extra training instruments and
creating mental motivation in the Integrated subjects and all of these lead to feeling the
need of exercise and sport among the students. This need is less in the importance of
sport activities in compare with Integrated group. After all, the findings of this study
introduce the Integrated method as a more effective one in compare with the Traditional
method.
References
[1] Kang. S. moon. H.J and Kim, B. J (2000). A sport education curriculum model for
teaching physical education in a Korean secondary school. JOPER
[2] Ken Alexander and John luck man (2001). Australian Teachers Perceptions and use
for the Sport Education Curriculum Model. Human kinetics. P63-204-205
[3] Paul. T. Williams (2003). The illusion of improve physical fitness Reduced
mortality , sport Exerc.No5, 740
[4] The cooper institute (2008). Physical Fitness Special Course and Certification.
[5] Tom. Browne, Teresa (2001). A comparison in traditional and sport education
format. European physical education Review 10. 199
Effectiveness of the Tactical Approach: A Review
117
Effectiveness of the Tactical Approach: A Review
Wang Lijuan (Shanghai University of Sports, China)
Wang Min (Shanghai University of Finance and Economics)
Abstract
This literature review aims to investigate studies on the effectiveness of the tactical
approach. Twelve articles were selected systematically through database search and
examined using content analysis. A number of important findings emerged from the
analysis of reviewed articles. First, the research findings of the studies are inconsistent,
and this may be attributed to the varying research design types used. Second, findings of
the review revealed that the tactical approach improved students’ skills, knowledge,
game play, and affect significantly. Third, though majority of the studies reported that
the tactical approach proved superior in improving student knowledge compared with
the technical approach, no significant difference was observed between the two in terms
of student skills, knowledge and affect. This implies that there is no best way to teach
physical education.
Key words: review, effectiveness, the tactical approach
Introduction
Physical Education (PE) curriculum has been reformed in most countries across the
world for decades. The innovated PE curriculum focused on multiple dimensions like
skills, knowledge, and understanding (Penney & Jess, 2004). Furthermore,
problem-solving, lifelong learning, and health issues have become the major concerns of
the PE curricula in some countries like the United States and England (Cothran, 2001;
Penney, 2008; Penney & Jess, 2004). However, it is evident that the traditional
technique-based approach to teach games is hard to meet the requirement of new PE
curriculum due to the following characteristics: (a) the approach concentrates on
specific motor responses and failing to take account of the contextual nature of games;
(b) students achieved little success due to the emphasis on performance;(c) students
possessed inflexible techniques and poor decision making capacity; (d) students have
understood little about game; and (e) the approach allows little room for creativity for
learner empowerment (Bunke & Thorpe, 1982; Butler & McCahan, 2006).
Under this circumstance, the tactical approach was initially developed by Bunker and
Thorpe (1982) as a learner- and game-centered approach to sport-related games learning
with strong ties to a constructivist approach to learning. Different from the skill-based
approach, learning in TGfU model takes place within the context of modified games.
Lessons are designed to teach the tactical elements of game play andequip students with
the ability to match game conditions with appropriate responses. The tactical approach
highly values the role of the teacher as the facilitator and the role of the learner as active
and involved in the learning process.
A number of studies have been conducted to examine the effectiveness of the tactical
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
approach, comparing effects on student learning between tactical and technical
approaches (e.g., Blomqvist, Luhtanen & Laakso., 2001; French, Werner, Rink, Taylor
& Hussey, 1996; French, Werner, Taylor, Hussey & Jones, 1996; Harrison et al., 2004;
Turner, 1996; Turner & Martinek, 1992). However, there is no study which summarized
the relevant research findings. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to review studies
on the effectiveness of the tactical approach in a systematic manner. This review is
expected to provide evidence-based support for the application of tactical approach in
the school setting and offer guidance for future research on tactical approach and student
learning.
Methodology
Systematical computer searches of ERIC, ProQuest, and Sport Discus databases
using the keywords “Tactical Approach”, “Tactical Teaching”, “Teaching Games for
Understanding”, “TGfU” or “Game Concept Approach” were conducted. After
completing the database search, the total number of identified articles from each
database was at 174. The bibliographic details and abstracts of all the initial ‘hits’ were
exported from each database and imported into EndNote, and duplicate references were
removed. After removing duplicates, the count was reduced to 91 studies. Articles
generated from the list were read and included or excluded on the basis of the following
inclusion criteria: (1) the title and abstract of each entry were read; (2) articles written in
English were included, therefore, excluding non-English studies; (3) Studies which
report the original findings are included, thus literature review and professional articles
were excluded; (4) studies must focus on the effectiveness of the tactical approach, thus
articles on other subjects such as teacher perception of the tactical approach and
implementation of the tactical approach were excluded. After trimming, the final
number of articles included in the analysis was down to 12.
As an effective synthesis method of qualitative and quantitative evidence, content
analysis was employed to identify underlying themes or categories in this review. By
summarizing and synthesizing all research findings, the following four major reviewing
themes emerged: (a) effect on student skill development; (b) effect on student
knowledge development; (c) effect on student game performance; and (d) effect on
student affective outcome. Based on research design, findings on each theme were
classified into two parts including comparisons within groups (pre- and post-test) and
between groups. Table 1 describes the nature of 12 studies that has been done in this
area including references, subjects, sports item, intervention, and outcomes.
Results
Effect of the tactical approach on student skill development
Majority of studies (10 studies, 83.3%) focused on student skill development (Allison
& Thorpe, 1997; Blomqvist et al., 2001; French, Werner, Rink et al., 1996; French,
Werner, Taylor et al., 1996; Harrison et al., 2004; McPherson & French, 1991; Mitchell,
Griffin & Oslin, 1995; Turner, 1996; Turner & Martinek, 1992, 1999). Different skill
tests (e.g., the Henry-Friedel field hockey test; Alliance for Health, Physical Education,
Recreation and Dance or AAHPERD set-up, passing, and serving tests) were employed
Effectiveness of the Tactical Approach: A Review
119
to measure the skill level of students.
Nine out of 10 studies assessed psychomotor gains using the tactical approach. Preand post-test comparison revealed that the tactical approach improved student skills
(Allison & Thorpe, 1997; Blomqvist et al., 2001; French, Werner, Rink et al., 1996;
French, Werner, Taylor et al., 1996; Harrison et al., 2004; McPherson & French, 1991;
Mitchell et al, 1995; Turner, 1996; Turner & Martinek, 1992). Specifically, Allison and
Thorpe (1997) noted that no decline in field hockey technical abilities using TGfU
approach was found. The studies on field hockey (Turner, 1996; Turner & Martinek,
1992) indicated significant increase in skill (dribbling) over time after the tactical
approach was applied. A similar improvement in badminton skill tests was evident as
well for tactical, skill, and combination groups (Blomqvist et al., 2001; French, Werner,
Rink et al., 1996; French, Werner, Taylor et al., 1996). McPherson and French (1991)
observed the forehand and backhand in tennis improved for the technique group,
whereas volley improved in the tactical instruction group. Mitchell et al (1995) found
students demonstrated better control of the ball and passed the ball more effectively by
using the TGfU model. In Harrison et al.’s(2004) study, students in both tactical and
technique models exhibited significantly improved performance from pre-test to
post-test in volleyball skill tests.
Eight studies compared the effect of tactical and technical approaches or other
approaches on student skill outcome. Though two studies (French, Werner, Taylor et al.,
1996; Turner & Martinek, 1999) revealed that the tactical group scored significantly
higher in control and passing execution compared with other groups during game play
and control ability in games, no differences were observed in the remaining 10 studies
between groups taught using the tactical approach, technique-based approach, and other
approaches in terms of student skill performance in badminton (Blomqvist et al., 2001;
French, Werner, Rink et al., 1996), field hockey (Turner & Martinek, 1992; Turner,
1996), volleyball (Harrison et al., 2004), and soccer (Mitchell et al., 1995).
Effect of the tactical approach on student knowledge development
Eight studies (66.7%) emphasized the effectiveness of tactical approach in student
knowledge development (Allison & Thorpe, 1997; Blomqvist et al., 2001; Harrison et
al., 2004; McPherson & French, 1991; Mitchell et al, 1995; Turner & Martinek, 1992;
Turner & Martinek, 1999; Turner, 1996). Written knowledge test was employed as main
source to assess student knowledge development. Three main concepts - declarative (i.e.,
factual information such as rules), procedural knowledge (i.e., how to apply the rules in
the contest and constraints of the game), and game understanding - were measured using
the test.
Six studies assessed the effects of tactical approach on student cognitive development
(Allison & Thorpe, 1997; Blomqvist et al., 2001; McPherson & French, 1991; Mitchell
et al, 1995; Harrison et al., 2004; Turner & Martinek, 1992; Turner, 1996). Research
findings from one study by Turner and Martinek (1992) indicated that the six-lesson
field hockey using tactical approach did not improve student declarative and procedural
knowledge over time. However, the other six studies identified significant increase in
declarative, procedural knowledge, and game understanding. In the study by Harrison et
al. (2004), pre- and post test revealed that student knowledge test in the rules, strategies,
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
and techniques of volleyball improved after the teaching using the tactical approach.
Turner (1996) replicated the field hockey study of Turner and Martinek (1992) with
longer intervention; he observed that the tactical group improved significantly in
declarative knowledge. Using field hockey and basketball, Allison and Thorpe (1997) as
well as McPherson and French (1991) recorded greater increases in knowledge and
understanding tests for the tactical group. Blomqvist et al. (2001) used not only a written
knowledge test but tested Game Understanding (GU) as well in badminton using
problem representation situation. Findings indicated that the tactical group significantly
improved badminton knowledge and game understanding. Mitchell et al (1995)
addressed that soccer teaching using the TGfU approach improved student declarative
and procedural knowledge and student understanding of tactical problems over time
respectively.
Six studies compared the effect of the tactical approach and technique-based approach
or other approaches in terms of student cognitive development (Blomqvist et al., 2001;
Harrison et al., 2004; Mitchell et al, 1995; Turner & Martinek, 1992; Turner & Martinek,
1999; Turner, 1996). By comparing the effects of tactical and technical approaches on
knowledge development, one study by Turner and Martinek (1992) failed to manifest
the superiority of the tactical approach over the technique approach for student
knowledge development. Conversely, in other five studies, declarative and procedural
knowledge (Harrison et al., 2004; Mitchell et al, 1995; Turner & Martinek, 1999; Turner,
1996) as well as game understanding (Blomqvist et al., 2001) were observed to be
significantly higher in the tactical groups compared to the technique and control groups.
Effect of the tactical approach on student game performance
Ten studies (83.3%) focused on student game play (Allison & Thorpe, 1997;
Blomqvist et al., 2004; French, Werner, Rink et al., 1996; French, Werner, Taylor et al.,
1996; Harrison et al., 2004; McPherson & French, 1991; Mitchell et al., 1995; Turner &
Martinek, 1992, 1999; Turner, 1996). Game play protocols and Game Performance
Assessment Instrument (GPAI) were employed as tools for measuring student game
performance, including control, decision-making, and skill execution in games.
Eight studies discussed change in student game performance between pre- and posttests (Allison & Thorpe, 1997; French, Werner, Rink et al., 1996; French, Werner, Taylor
et al., 1996; Harrison et al., 2004; McPherson & French, 1991; Mitchell et al., 1995;
Turner & Martinek, 1992; Turner, 1996). All studies shared similar views; in particular,
students exhibited improved game performance when the tactical approach was used to
teach games. Using game play protocols (e.g., game play observational instrument),
eight studies indicated that students scored significantly higher in passing
decision-making, control, and passing execution in games (Turner & Martinek, 1992),
game play categories like contact decision, contact execution, type of shot performed
(French, Werner, Rink et al., 1996; French, Werner, Taylor et al.,1996), understanding
game concepts in both field hockey and basketball (Allison & Thorpe, 1997; McPherson
& French, 1991), contact execution and decision-making in game play (Turner, 1996),
and successful passes, set, contact, and spike (Harrison et al., 2004). Using the GPAI,
one study likewise observed that the tactical approach was effective in improving
student game play, particularly with respect to off-the-ball movement and decision-
Effectiveness of the Tactical Approach: A Review
121
making (Mitchell et al., 1995).
Seven studies compared the effect of different approaches on student game
performance. Six studies failed to identify significant differences between the tactical
and technique approaches or other control groups in terms of game performance
(Blomqvist et al., 2004; French, Werner, Rink et al., 1996; French, Werner, Taylor et al.,
1996; Harrison et al., 2004; Turner, 1996; Turner & Martinek, 1992). However, Turner
and Martinek (1999) indicated that the group on which the tactical approach was applied
demonstrated better control of the hockey ball, passing the ball more effectively
compared with the other two groups.
Effect of the tactical approach on student affective outcome
Affective outcomes are also espoused for the tactical approach as well. Two studies
(16.7%) compared the effects of both approaches on affective characteristics:
self-efficacy and attitude toward the model and class (Harrison et al., 2004; Tjeerdsma,
Rink & Graham, 1996). Typically, these characteristics were measured using surveys
designed to elicit student perceptions.
Findings of two studies revealed that student self-efficacy and attitude towards the
model and class improved significantly. However, two studies observed no significant
difference between the tactical and technical approach in affective outcome.
Tjeerdsma et al. (1996) compared the effects of three different teaching approaches
(skill, tactical, and combination) on nine-grade students’ attitudes and perception of the
class. The results of this study did not identify any affective superiority for a particular
approach to teaching games. Similarly, Harrison et al. (2004) likewise failed to
demonstrate any difference in university student’s self-efficacy and attitude towards
volleyball and class instruction.
Discussion
In reviewing 12 studies on the effectiveness of tactical approach, conflicts were
observed in a number of research findings. For example, a number of these studies
reported that the tactical approach resulted in improved student skills compared with the
technique-based approach (e.g., French, Werner, Taylor et al., 1996; Turner & Martinek,
1999) whereas others indicated that no significant difference in skill development exists
between the tactical and technical approaches (e.g., Blomqvist et al., 2001; French,
Werner, Rink et al., 1996). Additionally, Turner and Martinek (1992), studying sixth
(11years) and seventh (12 years) grade students playing field hockey, observed no
significant differences in declarative and procedural knowledge or in technique
development in classes instructed using the tactical or technical approach On the
contrary, Turner (1996) in field hockey and Griffin et al. (1995) in volleyball found
declarative knowledge to be significantly higher in tactical groups when compared to
traditional and control groups. This is in line with the findings of Rink et al. (1996), who
summarized six studies that compared the different approaches to teaching games and
sports and noted inconsistencies in previous studies. Table 1 suggests that research
design of studies varied considerably. Specifically, various participants (primary school,
high school, and university students), sports (net/wall games and invasion games), and
length of intervention (e.g., 28 lesson, 15 lessons, or 43 lessons) are involved in these
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Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
studies. Inconsistencies in research findings on the effect of tactical approach possibly
may be explained by the difference in research design among the studies. This
confirmed the report of Rink, French & Tjeerdsma (1996), who stated that research
design including sports, age level of students, length and nature of the intervention, and
variables chosen for the investigation influence the research findings.
Majority of the studies in this review reported that the tactical approach improved
student knowledge, game performance, and affect. This is in line with the nature of the
tactical model, which addresses game knowledge, rules, tactics, and game play, and
focuses on the affective domain (Butler & McCahan, 2005; Griffin, Mitchell & Oslin,
1997; Holt, Strean & Bengoechea, 2002; Kirk & MacPhail, 2002). However, it is
slightly surprising to find that student skill was developed overtime using the tactical
approach. This is in contrast with the common assumption of PE teachers and coaches
that students/players losing skills by playing and excessive number of games (Harvey,
2006). The possible reason may be the misinterpretation of PE teachers and coaches. It
is commonly assumed that students in a tactical game class merely play games with
guidance from the teacher, but this is not the case. In the tactical approach, skill
progression and skill practice are extremely important (Butler & McCahan, 2005;
Hopper, 2002). Many researchers reported that individual skill mastery is needed and the
tactical approach focuses on the idea of progressing from tactics to skills, and not tactics
or skills (Butler & McCahan, 2005; Griffin et al., 1997; Thorpe, Bunker & Almond.,
1986).
Majority of the studies in this review indicated that knowledge scores were
significantly higher in the tactical groups compared with the technique and control
groups. The process of game play and group discussion used in the tactical approach
appeared to have stimulated student critical thinking, encouraging them to develop
tactical awareness through which the cognitive aspects of the game were brought to a
conscious level of awareness (Blomqvist et al., 2001). However, majority of findings
from the most studies revealed no significant difference between the tactical and
technical approaches on student development of skill, game performance and affect.
This finding confirmed the report of Metzler (2000), who claimed there is no best way
to teach PE. It suggested that a variety of teaching models, rather than one or two
models, be applied for effective PE teaching; it is unlikely to find a single, definite
answer to the question of which model is best (Rink et al., 1996).
Conclusion
This review provided a summary and discussion on research on effectiveness of the
tactical approach in the past 20 years. By focusing on the four themes (i.e., skills,
knowledge, game play, and affect) in explaining the research results, a number of
important findings emerged from the analysis of reviewed articles. First, research
findings of the studies are inconsistent. This may be attributed to the different
research design types employed. Second, findings of the review revealed that the
tactical approach resulted in improved students’ skills, knowledge, game play, and affect
significantly. Meanwhile, though majority of the studies reported that the tactical
approach resulted in improved student knowledge compared with the technical approach,
the major findings of the present review revealed no significant difference exists
Effectiveness of the Tactical Approach: A Review
123
between the tactical and technical approach in terms of student skills, knowledge and
affect. This implies that there is no best way to teach PE.
By reviewing all studies on the effectiveness of tactical approach, future research is
recommended to address the following issues:
(a) Only two out of 12 studies focus on student affective outcome. Evidently, many
discussions on the tactical approach focus on cognitive and psychomotor learning
outcome, neglecting the affective domain. Future research, including consideration
of learning with respect to affective characteristics, is needed. Meanwhile, with the
exception of self-efficacy and attitude toward the tactical approach and class, other
issues in terms of student perspectives on enjoyment should be addressed as well in
future studies.
(b) Almost all the studies employed the quantitative method to examine the effect of
tactical approach on student learning. The qualitative method, such as interview and
observation, is suggested for future
use in exploring students’ perception of and feeling toward the tactical approach.
(c) Majority of studies compare the effect of tactical approach and technical approaches.
Studies on gender or grade differences regarding the effect of the tactical approach
are also necessary as well.
References
[1] Allison, S., & Thorpe, R. (1997). A comparison of the effectiveness of two
approaches to teaching games within physical education. A skills approach versus a
games for understanding approach. British Journal of Physical Education, 28(3),
9-13.
[2]Blomqvist, M., Luhtanen, P., & Laakso, L.,(2001). Comparison of two types of
instruction in badminton. Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 6(2), 139-155.
[3] Bunker, D., & Thorpe, R. (1982) A model for the teaching of games in the
secondary school,Bulletin of Physical Education, 10, 9-16.
[4] Butler, J. I., & McCahan, B. J. (2005) Teaching games for understanding as a
curriculum model, in: L.L. Griffin, & J. I. Butler, (Eds) Teaching games for
understanding. Theory, research and practice (Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics),
33-55.
[5] Cothran, D. J. (2001) Curricular change in physical education: success stories from
the front line, Sport, Education & Society, 6(1), 67-79.
[6] French, K. E., Werner, P. H., Rink, J. E., Taylor, K., & Hussey, K. (1996). The
effects of a 3-week unit
of tactical, skill, or combined tactical and skill
instruction on badminton performance of ninth-grade students. Journal of Teaching
in Physical Education, 15, 418-438.
[7] French, K. E., Werner, P. H., Taylor, K., Hussey, K., & Jones, J (1996). The effects
of a 6-week unit of
tactical, skill, or combined tactical and skill instruction on
badminton performance of ninth-grade students. Journal of Teaching in Physical
Education, 15, 439-463.
[8] Griffin, L.L., Mitchell, S.A., & Oslin, J. L. (1997). Teaching sport concepts and
124
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
skills: A tacticalgames approach. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
[9] Harrison, J. M., Blakemore, C. L., Richards, R.P., Oliver, J., Winkinson, C., &
Fellingham, G. (2004). The effects of two instructional models – Tactical and skill
teaching – on skill development and game play, knowledge, self-efficacy, and
student perceptions in volleyball. The Physical Educator, 61, 186-199.
[10]Harvey, S. (2006). Effects of teaching games for understanding on game
performance and understanding in middle school physical education. An
unpublished dissertation in the Oregon State University
[11]Holt, N. L., Strean, L., & Bengoechea, W. B. (2002) Expanding the teaching games
for understanding model: New avenues for future research and practice, Journal of
Teaching in Physical Education, 21, 177-192.
[12] Hopper, T. (2002). Teaching games for understanding: The importance of student
emphasis over content emphasis. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation and
Dance, 73(7), 44-48.
[13] Kirk, D., & McPhail, A. (2002) Teaching games for understanding and situated
learning: Re-thinking the Bunker-Thorpe model. Journal of Teaching in Physical
Education, 21, 177-192.
[14] McPherson, S. L., & French J. R. (1991). Relation of knowledge and performance
in boys tennis: Age and expertise. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 48,
190-211.
[15] Metzler, M. W. (2000). Instructional models for physical education. Boston: Allyn
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[16] Mitchell, S., Griffin, L., & Oslin, J. (1995). The effects of two instructional
approaches on game performance. Pedagogy in practice: teaching and coaching in
physical education and sports, 1(1), 36-48.
[17] Penney, D. (2008). Playing a political game and playing for position: policy and
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lifelong approach to curriculum development. Sport, Education and Society, 9(2),
269-287.
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15(4), 399-417.
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Effectiveness of the Tactical Approach: A Review
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Table 1, Subjects, sports item, intervention, and outcome of the studies on effectiveness of the
tactical approach
Referenc
es
subjects
Allison
& Thorpe
(1997)
40 year 9
boys and
56 year 8
girls from
one
secondary
school.
30 college
students in
a teacher
training
program
Blomqvis
t et al.
(2001)
French,
Werner,
Rink et
al. (1996)
French,
Werner,
Taylor et
al. (1996)
Harrison
et al.
(2004)
Sports item
Interventi
on
Outcome
Skill
Field
hockey
Six one
hour
weekly
teaching
sessions
Within-groups:
No significant
difference
Within-gro
up:
Improveme
nt
badminton
28
lessons
Within-group:
Improvement
Inter-groups:
No significant
difference
With-group
:
improveme
nt
Inter-group
s:
significantl
y higher in
the tactical
groups
49
nine-grade
students.
Students
had little
previous
experience
in
badminton
52 students
enrolled in
three
ninth-grade
physical
education
classes
badminton
3-week, 5
days a
week,
15-lesson
Within-group:
improvement
Inter-groups:
No significant
difference
Within-group:
Improvement
Inter-groups:
no significant
difference
Badminton
6-week,
30
lessons, 5
days per
week
Within-group:
Improvement
Inter-groups:
no significant
difference
169 highand
low-skilled
players
Volleyball
Two days
a week
for 16
weeks
Within-group:
improvement
Inter-groups:
the tactical
group scored
significantly
higher on skill
tests than the
techni-approach
Within-group:
improvement
Inter-groups: no
significant
difference
Knowledge
Within-gro
up:
improveme
nt
Inter-group
s:
significantl
y higher in
the tactical
groups
Game
performance
Within-group:
Improvement
Affect
Within-group:
improvement
Inter-groups:
no significant
difference
Within-group:
improvement
Inter-groups:
no significant
difference
Within
group:
Improveme
nt
Between
groups: No
significant
difference
126
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & P.E
McPhers
on &
French
(1991)
17 college
students
Tennis
A period
of 43
classes
Within-group:
improvement
Within-gro
up:
improveme
nt
Within-group:
improvement
Mitchell
et al
(1995)
48 middle
school
students
Soccer
Six one
hour
lessons
Within-group:
Improvement
Inter-groups: no
significant
difference
Within-gro
up:
Improveme
nt
Inter-group
s:
significantl
y higher in
the tactical
groups
Within-group:
Improvement
Inter-groups:
significantly
higher in the
tactical
groups
Tjeerds
ma, et
al.
(1996)
44
nine-grade
students.
badminton
Six
weeks,
30
lessons, 5
days per
week
Turner &
Martinek
(1992)
44 sixth
(11 years)
and
seventh (12
years)
grade
students
Filed
hockey
Six
weeks,
six
classes
Within-group:
improvement
Inter groups: no
differences
Turner &
Martinek
(1999)
71 sixthand
seventh-gr
ade
students,
middle
school
15 lessons
Hockey
Filed
hockey
15
lessons
Inter-groups:
the tactical
group scored
significantly
higher on skill
tests than the
technique-appro
ach
Within-group:
improvement
Inter-groups: no
significant
difference
Turner
(1996)
Within
group:
Improveme
nt
Between
groups: No
significant
difference
Within-gro
up: no
improveme
nt
Inter-grou
ps: no
significant
difference
Inter-group
s:
significantl
y higher in
the tactical
groups
Within-group:
Improvement
Inter-groups:
no significant
difference
Within-gro
up:
Improveme
nt
Inter-group
s:
significantl
y higher in
the tactical
groups
Within-group:
Improvement
Inter-groups:
no significant
difference
Inter-groups:
significantly
higher in the
tactical
groups
Effectiveness of the Tactical Approach: A Review
Pan-Asian Journal of Sports & Physical Education (PAJSPE)
http://www.isdy.net
Editorial Board :
Satoshi Shimizu (Tsukuba University, Japan)
Sundar Urs (Bangalore University, India)
Chen Ning (China West Normal University, China)
Song Ji Xin (Jilin Sport University, China)
Tian Yu Pu (Nanjing Normal University, China)
Zheng Guo Hua (Jiangxi Normal University, China)
Jin Cheng Ji (Lioning Normal University, China)
Cheng Jie (Shanghai University, China)
Lei Qiang (Xian Sports University, China)
Tai Hsia Ling (Taipei Municipal University of Education)
Walter Ho (University of Macau, Chinese Macau)
Jong Lee (University of Suwon, South Korea)
John Saunders (Australian Catholic University, Australia)
Joel Garcia Tubera (Angeles University Foundation, Philippines)
Gilda Uy (University of Philippines, Philippines)
Selina Khoo(University of Malaya, Malaysia)
Wee Eng Ho (University of Technology, Malaysia)
Valery Krasilnikov (Ural State Pedagogical Univ., Russia)
Chuchchai Gomaratut (Chulalongkorn University, Thailand)
Vijit Kanungsukkasem (Chulalongkorn University, Thailand)
Mohammad Ehsani (Tarbiat Modares University, Iran)
127