The Symbolic Meaning of Colour in the Middle Ages
Looking back in time we perceive the middle ages as a dark and grim era, that didn’t know
how to find joy in the sensual aspects of reality. Quite the opposite, it was an époque open for
the beauty of harmony and colour. “What is the beauty of the body? – Asks Saint Augustine –
it is the beauty of the proportions of all the elements, accompanied by the sweetness of
colours”. In the medieval period the colour and its potential of carrying messages was valued
much higher than in antiquity, where the main focus was on proportions and balance
expressed through mathematical harmony.
The beauty of colour was seen as plain, simple and direct – its nature was absolute. The
figurative art of the era, without yet developing knowledge of colour of the upcoming ages,
has revolved mainly among the primary colours, reluctantly making the use of shades and
generally working with vibrant colours. The colours became the source of light instead of the
light changing and defining them through chiaroscuro or making them expand beyond the
figures themselves. Furthermore, colours were associated with certain meanings. The middle
ages believed in a constant co-existence of the supernatural world, the presence of a different,
superior reality. That is why for a medieval art observer the colour was not only beautiful, but
also filled with very specific meanings. We shouldn’t also forget about the importance the
“mystical light” present in the symbolic sphere of every cathedral, which caused the earthy
colours of the Romanesque period to change to the lighter, bright tones of red, blue, yellow
and gold of the Gothic period.
The red colour had a very rich symbolical background. First and foremost it is a symbol of
combat and blood spilled in the defence of faith, that sometimes ended with martyrdom which
indicates active love. It also appears in the Bible in the Song of Songs (5,10), where the
beloved (Christ) is named the “white” and “ruddy” (rubicundus). White – for he is the
brightness of eternal light (Book of Wisdom 7,26) he who is the brightness of God’s glory and
the express image of God’s person. Ruddy – because he is born from God’s love. Red is also
the colour of fire, the fiery tongues which the Holy Spirit took as a form when he descended
upon the Apostoles when they sat at the Cenacle on the Pentecost. This dual theological
interpretation allowed the pope Innocent 3rd to connect this colour with three groups of
holidays and commemorations: with the Descent of the Holy Spirit, with the ceremonies and
celebrations related with the Passion of Christ, but also with the various liturgical ceremonies
in the honour of the Holy Martyrs. In medieval art martyrs are very often pictured in red
robes, like Saint. Adalbert in the illuminated manuscript from Cracov “The Life of St.
Adalbert” dated to the XIII c.
Red was often associated with light and fire. This thought was expressed by PseudoDionysius who claimed that precious stones of that colour symbolize fire. It was later
developed in the Speculum Maius by Vincent of Beauvais, who wrote that red stones are the
most precious because their origin is the closest to the sun. In Byzantium red was described as
the “shady reflection of gold”. Thus red was used for marking the borders of halos on golden
backgrounds, as can be seen in the mosaics of San Marco in Venice (pic. 2), Cefalu (pic. 3) or
San Vitale in Ravenna (pic. 4).
Matthew Paris claimed that red is the colour of life while black is the colour of death, but the
more prevailing opinion of Sicard of Cremen is that the red colour of robes symbolised
mercy. This can be observed in the Przemyślid Master’s work “Saint Agnes Caring for the Ill”
from 1482 where the Saint is pictured wearing a red robe (pic. 5). Another reason behind
showing her in red was the fact that she was a martyr. A more easy to follow correlation
between red colour and mercy was expressed by Ambroggio Lorenzetti in the painting titled
„Maesta di Massa Marittima” (pic. 6).
Red was also associated with valour, prowess and bravery, which made it a fitting colour for
knights, and because of its similarity to scarlet - also for rulers. It finds its uses in heraldry –
for example in the Saga of Didreck the brothers Fasold and Ecke bear the emblem of the red
lion on their shields, which symbolises their lust for battle. Bartolo of Sassoferato, a 12th
century lawyer who established the rules governing the awarding of coats of arms found the
colour red to be the second most noble after gold. This view was shared by Johannes de
Banco who thought that red is a proper colour for a prince as it symbolizes valour and
ferocity. This is adequately pictured by the image of Saint Secundus – a soldier of the legions
(pic. 7) or by the decoration of the city rights of Głubczyce (pic. 8).
Red was also a Christological colour. The reason behind it was the connection with royal
crimson as well as the symbolic meaning of blood spilled for the redemption of sins. Jesus
was very often pictured in red robes, for example in the missal of Erasmus Ciołek (pic. 9, 10),
or on a red background like in the church of Mary Magdalene (pic. 11).
Crimson is also present in mosaics, as a colour of power, exceptional significance and
majesty. St. Agnes of Rome (a mosaic from the basilica of Saint. Agnes Outside the Walls
Basilica di Sant'Agnese fuori le mura). Red symbolizes the eminence of Saint Agnes as a
Saint – her martyrdom. It can be also related to her noble descent.
Medieval treatises never mention a separate name for violet. In the traditional color wheel
used by painters, violet and purple are both placed between red and blue. Purple occupies the
space closer to red, between crimson and violet. Violet is closer to blue, and is usually less
intense and bright than purple. In the middle ages violet was replaced by purple, which could
stand for various different colours. It was perceived as a colour made of both red and blue.
Similar to violet, purple was a highly valued pigment produced from certain clams, used in
antiquity and later the middle ages to dye the mantles and cloaks of persons of high rank. In
religion, purple symbolises the Passion of Christ. In imperial England it was the only colour
allowed to accompany the hues of grey and black when in mourning. In liturgy, especially on
vestments, black was usually replaced with purple. Apart from mourning and atonement,
purple also symbolizes repentance and humility, mortification, an atmosphere of anticipation
filled with prayer. Purple is used in the Advent and the Lent but it can also be present during
offices and requiem masses.
Purple is already present in the Bible, in the description of clothes worn by the kings defeated
by Israelites, taken as spoils of war. Historically, purple or violet was only available to royalty
or the wealthiest because it was so expensive to make. Psychologically purple communicates
spiritual reflection and connection. Purple or violet is a combination of the power, energy and
strength of red with the integrity and sincerity of blue. To make the colour purple it took
12,000 murex marine snails to make just one gram of the dye. Given it was so expensive to
create, purple was associated with royalty as they were the only ones who could afford
it. Legend has it the King of Phoenix declared purple to be a royal colour and because only he
was allowed to wear it, purple became a symbol of royalty. It also made the ruling cast easily
identifiable. It has since been associated with wealth, luxury and those of high office such as
in the church or among the very wealthy. From 1900′s purple has been
produced synthetically making it available to everyone and in many varying tones. (fot. 3
prezentacji w PP)
Purple came into being by mixing blue and red so it can be seen as a colour of mediation. The
pure spirituality of blue joins with the earthy and sensual vitality of red. Purple can therefore
represent the equilibrium between Heaven and Earth, the spirit and the senses, the male and
the female particles, between the day and the night. The correct shade of purple may indicate
indecisiveness, obliqueness, illness.
If blue represents that which is divine, ethereal and red that which is human, filled with blood,
than purple gives us a significant unity. Because of this purple is also a colour of the
incarnation of the Man God, Christ who when in suffering is pictured as wearing a purple
cape, because within him finalizes the fusion of what is human and what is divine.
The flower violet, because of its colour was connected with the symbolical meaning of purple.
In Christian symbolism violets were seen as signs of humility because of their delicate scent
and dark purple colour of the flowers. As the first spring flower it was also connected with the
first Christians - after the winter of persecutions the first holy believers blossom within the
Church. It also symbolized those who pray for their oppressors. Later on it was associated
with Mary, as can be seen in the works of Rogier van der Weyden: “Crucifixion Triptych” c.a.
1445 (pic. 8), “Marie Altar” c.a. 1445 (pic. 9). As a symbol of sadness it appears in the
illustrations of the Hours (pic. 13).
The purple colour was also connected with the amethyst, according to Hildegard of Bingen,
when framed in gold and worn by the bishops it symbolized the sacrament of faith. In
Merovingian times it was believed that it protected the graves from robbery, and it could often
be found in burial grounds. Purple was also the symbol of the Passion of Christ and often the
colour of Jesus’ robes.
We can distinguish two different ways of viewing medieval art. An attempt to show
luminosity as the beauty found in reflecting the divine light, the highest beauty. As the Gospel
of St. John says “God is the light and there is no darkness within him”. But also displaying
richness and splendour of materials used, to pay homage to God. The love of claritas and
glimmering brightness resulted in the abundant use of gold in painting. All kinds of materials
that caught, reflected or let light through were utilized - such as ceramic mosaics, precious
metals and stones, glazes and stained glass. The concept responsible for this that the light –
even earthly – is pure and spiritual whereas colour, although associated with light, is far more
sensual and connected with the material world. A medium that allowed colour to go through a
very sophisticated and thought out artistic development is the mosaic. Through mosaics the
medieval artist could operate with symbolic signs and present colour as coherent form that
originated from a common aesthetic basis. This comprised the passion for using intensive
chromatics. But it also gave the artist the ability to express himself in a material that has a
varied surface and that enhances the polychromatic effect. An elevated Christian mosaic,
placed at the most important part of a temple, viewed from different angles and from a
distance has a big influence on shaping the atmosphere of the interior and is not just a
decoration or an image. Such masterful usage of light can be seen in Greek, Sicilian or Italian
churches.
When we look at the San Vitale church in Ravenna, we should focus on the way the golden
colour is used in the scenes with Emperor Justinian and Theodora (pic. 11). It fulfils a double
function of acting as the light and the colour, depending on the placement of the tesserae. On
bigger surfaces the gold works as an area that emits (reflects) light, while when looking at the
details closely we can see that it is also forms an important element of the robes, decorations,
hair and the architecture. Another interesting example for the usage of gold, where it’s main
function is representing the shining luminescence of God’s splendour, can be found at the
chapel of San Zeno in the Basilica of Saint Praxedes in Rome. The Byzantine art viewed gold
simply as the equivalent of light. In later examples of mosaics, as can be witnessed in the apse
of the 6th century Saints Cosma and Damian church in Rome, the whole backgrounds of
scenes could be adorned with gold. Gold could also be a symbol of Christ, whose light pierces
the darkness and chases away the shadows – in the monastery of Osios Lukas, in the frescos
depicting the Nativity Scene, created around the year 1020 the golden rays flow down on to
the Holy Child.
The middle ages have developed a rich system of symbolic meanings concerning colours.
And although this system was very prone to changes and alterations and the meaning of
specific colours could often shift, as some of them were used interchangeably (purple and red,
violet and black), the significance of colour was never so high in any other time period.
Colours weren’t seen as defining characteristics of given objects but were indeed a vehicle for
ideological content. And because of that, without a proper understanding of the symbolic
meanings of colour, it is impossible to fully interpret medieval works of art.