Bio-resource and Stress Management: Summary of lead presentations made during 2nd
International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Mangement, Hyderabad, India
Ratikanta Maiti
Abstract
Key words: Bio-resource, climate change, extension services, NRM, PHM, stress management.
1. Introduction
Increasing global warming owing to an increase of greenhouse gases associated with drought and other
abiotic stresses are endangering the native plant species/trees which in turn affecting crop productivity
under sustaining agriculture. In addition, tremendous increase of human population leads to increased
hunger and poverty. Thus, the conservation of bio-resources and increasing productivity in a suatainable
manner through biotic and well as abiotic stress management is the need of the hour. There is dire need
for the conservation of forests as they save our lives by reducing carbon dioxide through the process of
photosynthesis and storage of carbon in the wood and biomass and at the same time supply oxygen for
our respiration. We are concerned that incessant logging and illegal human activities and expansion of
agriculture, forests are endangered, thereby endangering the security of our life.
With respect to crop productivity, thanks to the breeders, molecular biologists and other crop scientists for
achieving significant progress in breeding crop cultivars with high yield under high input situation, but
these high yielding crop cultivars fail to thrive under low input situations in farmers’ fields. This urges the
necessity for developing low cost technology for mass scale screening and selection of pipe line cultivars
for tolerance to drought, salinity and other abiotic stresses. Selection of crop cultivars tolerant to these
stresses has been successfully accomplished. The resistant or tolerant cultivars of various crops have given
reasonable yield in the farmers’ field under these stress prone areas. The post harvest management of
agricultural commodities especially perishable horticultural produce is another key factor in conservation
and minimizing the stress on the natural resources that are utilized as inputs in agricultural production
systems. The efficacy of new technology is directly dependent on the eccicacy of transfer of the
technology from the lab to the fields. Thus, enhancing the adoption of suitable technologies to increase
crop productivity is the key factor.
The above mentioned issues, their magnitude and management stretegies has been discussed by the
experienced scientists and researchers during the Second International Conference on Bio-resource and
Stress Management held at Hyderabad, India during 7-10 January, 2015. The experiences and view points
shared as lead presentations has been summerised in the succeeding text of this chapter categorized as
naural resource management, climate change, stress management, post harvest management,
socio-economic and institutional factors and extension and support services.
2. Natural Resource Management
2.1. Microirrigation for Sustainable Crop and Water Productivity
The slow application of water on, above, or below the soil by surface drip, subsurface drip, bubbler, and
microsprinkler systems is refred to as microirrigation. Water is applied as discrete or continuous drips, tiny
streams, or miniature spray through emitters or applicators placed along a water delivery line adjacent to
the plant row (ASAE, 2001). This system of irrigation includes drip or trickle (both surface and subsurface),
microsprinklers (spinners and rotators), micro-jets (static and vibrating), micro-sprayers, bubblers. The
surface drip was first used in Arava and Negev deserts of Israel, where adverse conditions of climate, very
sandy alkaline soils, and saline water had produced poor results on crops grown with conventional
irrigation methods. In 1970s, the technology was adopted on large scale (56,000 ha) in Australia, Israel,
Mexico, New Zealand, South Africa, and USA. The adoption of microirrigation progressed continuosly and
increased about 10 folds till 2010 (Reinders, 2000; Rao and Anitha, 2015). The main reasons enumerated by
Bucks, 1993 for choosing microirrigation are:
 higher water and labor costs
 paucity of water
 saline water supply (although periodic leaching was still required)
 difficulty in other irrigation methods
 landscaping or greenhouse irrigation
 fertigation and chemigation
The objectives of the microirrigation systems as listed by Rao and Anitha, 2015 are:
 As a means to save water in irrigated agriculture and avert the water scarcity crises in arid and semi-arid
regions and groundwater irrigated commands,
 To enhance crop and water productivity and crop quality in irrigated agriculture
 To safeguard crops against crop loss or yield reduction due to dry spell or early withdrawal of rain in
humid regions
 As a means to overcome labour shortages and avert productivity decline
 Power saving motives in case of low power supply, well ownership, depth of wells and horse power of
the pumps
 As a strategy to use marginal quality waters viz., saline water or brackish water, effluents from
wastewater treatment plants, effluents from sugar mills etc
 For successful cultivation of fruit crops and Silviculture plantations on marginal and gravel soils
 To obtain uniform nursery seedlings or saplings with high percentage of success rates
 As a strategy to increase income and reduce poverty among the rural poor and
 To enhance the food and nutritional security of rural households.
Andvantages of Microirrigation:
 Reduction in wasteage of water
 Reduction of spread of contaminants to surface water and groundwater.
 Precise application of fertilizers
 Enhance water productivity
 Improve the quality of crop products
The future thrust areas in microirrigation

Developemnt of crop, location and season specific microirrigation schedules

Designing improved microirrigation system design to conserve water resources and enhance crop
productivity.

To develop protocol to combine other inputs like nutrients, growth regulators and pesticides to
increase their productivity.

Educate the end users to increase adoption.
References
ASAE., 2001 ASAE Standard S526.2 JAN01, Soil and water terminology. American Society of Agricultural
Engineers, St. Joseph, Michigan, 21.
Reinders, F.B., 2000. Micro irrigation: A world overview. In: Proc. Sixth International Microirrigation
Congress, October 22 – 27, 2000, Cape Town, South Africa. Paper No. P9.5.,4.
Rao V. Praveen., Anitha, V., 2015. Micro-irrigation Technologies for Water Conservation and Sustainable
Crop Production. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resourceand Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India.,1-9.
2.2. Resource Conservation and Productivity Enhancement by Fertigation
Fertigation is a system of fertilizer application in dissolved form with irrigation water to crops. The
concentration of nutrient an amount of water can be fine tuned as per the requirement of the crop at each
stage of its growth when combined with an efficient irrigation system (like drip method of irrigation).
Advantages of Fertigation (Somen, 2015)
 Increase in yield by 25-30%
 Saving in fertilizer by 25-30%
 Nutrient requirement can be fulfilled as per the physiological demand of the crop at different growth
stages
 Predominantly acidic nature of the water soluble fertilizers helps in neutralizing salts present in water
and soil
 Acidic nature helps in preventing clogging of drippers, as it cleans up the drip system.
 No or less nutrient loss by leaching, fixation and volatilization
 Major & micro nutrients can be applied in one solution
 Fertilizers can be injected as per required concentration
 Saving in time, labour, and energy
Future needs to increase adoption of Fertigation (Somen, 2015)
 Education and training of farmers in the use of the technology
 Demonstration through KVK’s and other public organisation
 In country manufacturing of water soluble fertilizers
 Development of distribution net work for such fertilizers
 Research (see below) into the science of fertigation
 A model of PPP based intervention to make this technology spread among Indian farmers.
References
Soman, P., 2015. Fertigation for High Productivity and Resource Conservation. In: Souvenir, 2nd
International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India., 10-18.
2.3. Protected Cultivation for Sustainable Food Production
Protected cultivation is one of the most promising areas of agriculture in the current context. It is an
upcoming and alternative production system involving high-tech and intensive practices mainly for urban
and export demands of horticultural and ornamental crops for food, nutrition and economic security.
Burgeoning population, fragmentation of land holdings, depletion and erosion of natural resources are all
adversely affecting agricultural productivity (Hasan, 2015).
Protected Structures
Protected cultivation technologies cover the following structure of the crop production systems
 High-tech glasshouses/polyhouses/net-houses,
 naturally-ventilated green/ polyhouses,
 hydroponics,
 aeroponics,
 plasticulture,
 drip irrigation,
 fertigation,
 mulching,
 insect-proof and shade houses,
Advantages
The protected cultivation offers several advantages





Enables to grow high-value crops with improved quality even under unfavourable and marginal
environments.
It has the potential of fulfilling the requirements of small growers as it can increase the yield manifold
per unit area.
The crops can also be grown round the year, including off-season with increased profitability.
Protected cultivation or greenhouse cultivation or controlled environment agriculture is the most
contemporary approach to produce mainly horticultural crops which is highly productive, conservative
of water and land, and also protective to the environment.
It helps in conserving water, energy and other resources used in agricultural production.
References
Hasan, M., 2015. Protected Cultivation and Drip Fertigation Technology for Sustainable Food
Production. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India.,19-24.
2.4. Better Land husbandry
One of the approaches could be better land husbandry (BLH). It is an integrated and synergistic resource
management. Components of BLH are Build up SOM and related biological activity, Integrated plant
nutrition management, Better crop management, Better rainwater management, improved soil structure
for better rooting depth and permeability, adoption of people centred learning approach and community
based participatory approaches (Rao and Padmaja, 2015). It was pointed out that sustainable food
production is feasible through tapping the synergies between crop-tree (Agro-forestry) and crop-tree
livestock production systems. The various systems used for better land husbandry (Rao and Padmaja,
2015).
 Agro-forestry based on Khejri, Alderand other similar species
 Ley farming e.g. growing Sewan grass for 2 years followed by pearlmillet and Stylosahthes for 2 years
followed by sorghum
 Mixed / inter cropping e.g. Cowpea in castor, Pigeonpea in sorghum etc.
 Green leaf manuring using Sesbamia, Subabooletc.
 Green manure crops like Sesbamia
 Micro-organisms e.g. Rhizobia, Azotobactor, Azolla etc.
 Livestock based farming to supplement soil with manure and FYM e.g. 10 cents fish pond + 20 fowls, 3
bovines + 2 calves, 20 small ruminants under deep litter system
 Integrated farming systems and nutrient management
Reference
Rao, P. Chandrasekhar., Padmaja, G., 2015 Soil Quality and Enhanced Productivity Through Soil
Organic Matter. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India., 25-28.
2.5. Organic Farming
Keeping in view the ever increasing negative impacts on human health and ecology due to present
commercial farming systems following intensive usage of synthetic inputs, researches and policy makers
are forced to find out alternative way of farming (Ramanjaneyulu et al., 2013). Organic farming is one such
system which provides healthy and safe food without ecological harm. There are several researchable
issues and more are likely to emerge as researchers begin to explore it (Gopinath et al., 2015). Some of
these include:
 Eco-friendly and economical organic packages in various crops
 Multidisciplinary research approach for development of organic packages
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


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Delineation of the potential areas for organic farming
Survey, documentation and critical evaluation of ITK on organic farming.
Selection of suitable germplasm for optimum productivity under organic production.
Understand the nutrient release patterns of different organic sources in combination and alone.
Development of cost effective and self-sustaining technologies for on-farm organic manure production
of compost using domestic and agricultural wastes.
 Development of appropriate machine/bullock driven devices for organic farming operations.
 Developing adequate scientific database on yield, quality, economics of organic production system
 Study the role organic agriculture in mitigating the climate change and the potential of organic farming
to adapt to climate change
 Developing methods which link production systems to product quality and onwards into both livestock
and human health and well-being.
References
Ramanjaneyulu, A.V., Sarkar, N.C., Thakur, A.K., Maiti, R.K. 2013. Organic farming - A perspective.
International Journal of Bio-resource and Stress Management 4(3), i-ii.
Gopinath, K.A., Rao, Ch. Srinivasa., Ramanjaneyulu, A.V., Chary G. Ravindra., Venkatesh, G., 2015.
Organic Farming Research in India: Present Status and Way Forward. In: Souvenir, 2nd
International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India.,
29-33.
2.6. Management Strategies for Birds and Wild Animals in Organic Crop Production
Through intensive field research designed and developed cost effective, eco friendly and environmentally
safe management methods across different agro climatic zones on various crops to reduce crop losses by
depredatory birds and wild animals by AINP on Agricultural Ornithology (Rao, 2000 and Rao, 2008, 2013).
The following are the sum of such methods which are being recommended through AINP on Agricultural
Ornithology (Rao, 2015).
Eco friendly bird management methods
1. Seed treatment during sowing with copper oxychloride 3 g kg-1 seed will reduces the damage caused
by birds after sowing
2. Reflective ribbons with a shining metallic coating with red on one side and silver on the other.
3. Screen crop e.g. Thick planting of sorghum (fodder crop) as well as of maize significantly reduced
parakeet damage to minimize crop grown for grain production.
4. Fixing of coconut rope around the field, during sowing stage, coconut rope is fixed parallel to the
crop at 1 ft height above the ground at 5 m intervals in the entire field using bamboo poles reduces
peafowl entry.
5. Reflective paper plates
6. Wrapping maize cobs with adjacent green leaves around them reduced the damage to a negligible
level by parakeets and crows.
7. Spraying of egg solution @ 25 ml lt-1 of water was very effective in control of bird damage in
Safflower, Maize, Sunflower, Sorghum, Bajra, and other food crops.
8. Pyrotechnic, a sound producing device which works continuously for a whole day with 1 kg of
calcium carbide and water.
9. Bio-acoustics equipment consists of 1 stereo tape recorder with 30 w amplifier, 2 speakers and one 12 v
battery. Pre-recorded tapes of distress calls of birds are played.
10. Habitat manipulation
Eco friendly wild animal management methods
11. Spraying of egg solution @ 20 ml/l of water was capable of successfully making the natural odour of
the crop and thereby reducing the wild boar damage.
12. Four rows of castor or safflower around the crop as border crop around ground nut found to be most
promising in preventing the damage by wild boar.
13. Planting of Karanda (Carrissa carandus) around the crop as bio fence does prevent effectively the
entry of wild boars into the cropped area owing the thorny nature.
14. Barbed wire fence
15. Circular blade wire fence
16. Chain link fence
References
Samsunder Rao, P., 2000. Research accomplishments agricultural ornithology, All India Network Project on
Agricultural Ornithology. Technical Bulletin II.
Vasudeva Rao, V., 2013. Wild boar management in agricultural eco system. University press, Acharya N.G
Ranga Agricultural Univeristy.
Vasudeva Rao, V., 2008. Tenth plan research highlights of AINP on agricultural ornithology.
Rao, V.Vasudeva., 2015. Management Strategies for Birds and Wild Animals in Organic Crop
Production. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India., 34-41.
2.7. Agronomic Biofortification in Alleviating Malnutrition
Introduction of high yielding crop varieties in mid sixties brought a stirring ‘Green Revolution’ that
remarkably enhanced the agricultural production and made country self sufficient in food grain production.
But in the process, it caused a greater depletion of soil fertility and soon deficiency of micronutrients
especially that of zinc (Zn) and iron (Fe) cropped up in many areas. This led to Zn and Fe deficiencies in
human and animal health and also an important soil constraint to efficient crop production. Generally,
there is a close geographical overlap between soil deficiency and human deficiency of Zn and Fe, indicating
a high requirement for increasing concentrations of micronutrients in food crops. Breeding new plant
genotypes for high grain concentrations of Fe and Zn (genetic biofortification) is the most cost-effective
strategy to address the problem; but, this strategy is a long-term process. A rapid and complementary
approach is therefore required for biofortification of food crops with Zn and Fe in the short-term. In this
regard, a fertilizer strategy (agronomic biofortification) represents an effective way for biofortification of
food crops. In this review paper, several examples are presented showing that application of Zn fertilizers
greatly contribute to biofortification of cereal and pulse grains with Zn to alleviate this micronutrient
deficiency from the human population.
Agronomic biofortification is the easiest and fastest way for biofortification of cereals and pulses grains
with Fe, Zn, or other micro mineral nutrients in developing Asian and African countries, where cereals are
the staple food. Agronomic biofortification is the only way to reach the poorest of the poor rural masses,
who will never have money to buy mineral supplements nor can afford to improve the components of their
diet by incorporating animal products. From the biofortification viewpoint, foliar application is better and
requires lesser amount of Fe and Zn fertilizers than their soil application. Agronomic biofortification will
certainly help to overcome the malnutrition from the rural populace in India (Shivay, 2015).
Shivay, Y.S., 2015. Role of Agronomic Bio-fortification in Alleviating Malnutrition. In: Souvenir, 2nd
International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India.,
42-49.
2.8. Biofortification of Pulses: Strategies and Challenges
Biofortification, the process of integrating nutrients into food crops, provides a sustainable and economic
way of increasing the density of minerals/micronutrients in important staple crops. This approach will help
to control the volume of malnourished people worldwide. Moreover, biofortification presents an easily
accessible means especially concerned to the malnourished population in rural areas who normally have
either no or very poor accessibility to market places. Therefore, biofortification strategy aims to
incorporate the nutrient accumulation and related plant attributes in those commercially accepted and
superior cultivars that are already in food chain due to their good agronomic performances, primarily the
seed yield. Marketed surpluses of these crops may make their way into retail outlets, reaching consumers
in first rural and then urban areas, in contrast to complementary interventions, such as fortification and
supplementation, that begin in urban centres (UNSCN, 2004). Although biofortified food developed from
crop biofortication may not be able to supply the level of minerals/vitamins per day as is usually achieved
through supplements/fortified foods, yet these can indeed facilitate increasing the daily adequacy of
micronutrient intakes among resources-poor individuals (Bouis et al., 2011).
Nutritional enrichment of pulse crops could be accomplished by several ways. Some of these potential
ways are outlined here (Singh et al., 2015):
Agronomic interventions
The possible agronomic interventions include the following approaches.
 Foliar fertilization
 Seed priming
 Soil application of fertilizers
 Seed coating
Breeding approaches
The breeding strategies include:
 2.2.1. Conventional plant breeding approaches
 2.2.2. Mutation breeding
 2.2.3. Molecular breeding or marker assisted breeding
 2.3. Genetic modification
Microbiological approaches
Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) include beneficial bacteria that colonize plant roots and
augment plant growth by ample variety of mechanisms. Application of PGPR in the soil have multifaceted
advantages which reduces the use of fertilizers and other agrochemicals in agriculture (Rana et al., 2012).
AM Fungi associated with pulses improves uptake of nutrients from the soil. Thereby concentration of
mineral elements are improved in the grain. However, role of mycorrhizas on element biofortification may
be piloted through improved agricultural practices. Mycorrhizas can potentially offer a more effective and
sustainable element biofortification to curb global human malnutrition (Wang and Qiu, 2006).
3. Challenges in biofortification
 Antinutrients
 Consumer preference-due to colour changes (e.g. golden rice) biofortified crops may not be preferred
by the consumers.
 Production of crops for human nutrition with increased iron concentration. Detailed knowledge on
mechanisms regulating iron compartmentalisation in various plant organs will offer a major
contribution for reaching such goal.
 Extending research on prebiotics and micronutrient absorption.
 Promoting large-scale prospective studies on assessing the effects of nutrient enhancement in major
crops in relieving malnutrition and other associated health problems
 Improving the efficiency with which minerals are mobilized in the soil
 Enhancing the mineral uptake efficiency of the important crops
 Expanding the understanding of mineral accumulation and the transport within the plant body
5. References
Bouis, H. E., Hotz, C., McClafferty, B., Meenakshi, J.V., Pfeiffer, W.H., 2011.
“Biofortification: A new tool to reduce micronutrient malnutrition.” Food and Nutrition Bulletin 32
(Supplement 1), 31S-40S.
Rana, A., Joshi, M., Prasanna, R., Shivay, Y.S., Nain, L., 2012. Biofortification of wheat
through inoculation of plant growth promoting rhizobacteria and cyanobacteria. European Journal
of Soil Biology 50, 118-126.
UNSCN, 2004. 5th Report on the world nutrition situation.Nutrition for improved development
outcomes. United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition, Geneva, Switzerland.
Wang, B., Qiu, Y.L., 2006. Phylogenetic distribution and evolution of mycorrhizas in land
plants. Mycorrhiza 16, 299–363.
Singh, U., Praharaj, C.S., Singh, S.S., Bohra, A., Shivay, Y.S., 2015. Bio-fortification of Pulses:
Strategies and Challenges. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and
Stress Management, Hyderabad, India., 50-55.
2.9. Weed Management in Conservation Agriculture Systems
There is a need to gain understanding on weed management as it is the major hindrance in Conservation
Agriculture (CA)-based crop production systems. Weed control in CA is a greater challenge than in
conventional agriculture because there is no weed seed burial by tillage operations. The behaviour of
weeds and their interaction with crops under CA tend to be complex and not fully understood. CA often
causes weed shift resulting in increase in the density of certain weeds. The weed species in which
germination is stimulated by light are likely to be more problematic in CA. In addition, in the absence of
tillage, perennial weeds may also become more challenging in this system. Hence, effective weed control
techniques are required to manage weeds successfully. In the past, attempts to implement CA have often
caused a yield penalty because reduced tillage failed to control weed interference. However, the recent
development of post-emergence broad-spectrum herbicides provides an opportunity to control weeds in
CA.Various approaches being employed to successfully manageweeds in CA systems include: preventive
measures, cultural practice (tillage, crop residue as mulches, intercropping, cover cropping, competitive
crop cultivars, planting geometry, sowing time, nutrient management etc.), use of herbicide-tolerant
cultivars, and herbicides (Sharma and Singh, 2015).
Preventive measures
Preventive measures are first and the most important steps to be taken to manage weeds in general and
especially under CA as the presence of even a small quantity of weed seeds may cause a serious infestation
in the forthcoming seasons. The various preventive measures include:
 using weed-free crop seed,
 preventing the dissemination of weed seeds/ propagules from one area to another,
 using well-decomposed manure/ compost so that it does not contain any viable weed seeds,
 inspecting nursery stock/transplants to prevent transplanting of weed seedlings from nursery to main
field,
 removing weeds near irrigation ditches and fence rowsprior to flowering,
 mechanically cutting the reproductive part of weeds prior to seed setting, and
 Implementing stringent Weed Quarantine Laws to prevent the entry of alien invasive and obnoxious
weed seeds/ propagules in the region.
Cultural practices
A long-term goal of sustainable and successful weed management is not to merely control weeds in a crop
field, rather to create a system that reduces weed establishment and minimizes weed competition with
crops.Further, since environmental protection is a global concern, the age-old weed management
practices, viz.
 tillage,
 intercultivation,
 intercropping,
 mulching, cover crops,
 crop rotation/diversification and
 other agro-techniques, which were once labeled as uneconomical or impractical should be relooked and
be given due emphasis in managing weeds under CA.
Chemical weed control
Herbicides are an integral part of weed management in CA. Use of herbicides for managing weeds is
becoming popular as it is cheaper than traditional weeding methods, requires less labour even to tackle
difficult-to-control weeds, and allows flexibility in weed management. However, for the sustenance of CA
systems, herbicide rotation and/or integration of weed management practices is preferable as continuous
use of a single herbicide over a long period of time may result in the development of resistant biotypes,
shifts in weed flora, and negative effects on the succeeding crop and environment. In CA, the diverse weed
flora that came up in the field after harvesting of preceding crop must be killed by using non-selective
herbicides like glyphosate, paraquat, or ammonium-glufosinate.Non-selective burn-down herbicides can be
applied before or after crop planting but prior to crop emergence in order to minimize further weed
emergence.
Integrated weed management
Considering the diversity of weed problems, no single method of weed control, viz. cultural, mechanical or
chemical, could provide the desired level of weed control efficiency under CA. Therefore, a combination of
different weed management strategies should be evaluated for widening the weed control spectrum and
efficacy for sustainable crop production. Integrated weed management system is basically an integration
of effective, dependable and workable weed management practices that can be used economically by the
producers as a part of sound farm management system. This approach takes into account the need to
increase agricultural production, reduce economic losses, risk to human health and potential damage to
flora and fauna, besides improving the safety and quality of the environment.
Reference
Sharma, A.R., Singh, V.P., 2015. Weed Management in Conservation Agriculture Systems. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India., 56-61.
2.10. Bioremediation of Aquatic Environment Using Weeds
The eco-friendly means of eliminating these metallic contaminants from the polluted lake water using
natural biofilters is very important (Tiwari et al., 2007). Bioremediation is one such technique that exploits
the natural capability of living organisms to clean environment. It aids in transformation and degradation
of contaminants into non-hazardous or less hazardous substances.Effective in mitigating hydrocarbons,
halogenated organic solvents, halogenated organic compounds, non-chlorinated pesticides and herbicides,
nitrogen compounds, metals (lead, mercury, chromium) and radionuclides. If the living organism used in
bioremediation is plant the process is termed as phytoremediation.
Different phytoremediation processes (Vamerali et al., 2010)
 Phytoextraction is uptake/absorption and translocation of contaminants by plant roots into
harvestable root and shoot tissue. This process is applicable for metals (Ag, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Mn, Mo,
Ni, Pb, Zn), metalloids (As, Se), radionuclides (90 Sr, 137 Cs, 234 U, 238 U), non-metals (B, Mg) and
organic contaminants present in soils, sediments and sludges (Brooks, 1998).
 Phytostabilization involves the use of plants to immobilize the contaminants in the soil and
groundwater through absorption and accumulation in plant tissues, adsorption onto roots or
precipitation within the root zone preventing their migration in soil, thereby reducing their
bioavailability. This process is suitable for organic contaminants and metals present in soils, sediments
and sludges.
 Rhizofiltration (Phytofiltration) is the removal of contaminants in surface water by plant roots. It
involves adsorption or precipitation onto plant roots or absorption followed bysequestration in the
roots. This process is applicable for removal of metals (Pb, Cd, Cu, Fe, Ni,Mn, Zn, Cr), excess nutrients
and radionuclide( 90Sr, 137 Cs, 238 U, 236 U) present in groundwater, surface water and wastewater
(Dushenkov et al.,1995).
 Phytovolatilization is plant’s ability to absorb, metabolize and subsequently volatilize the contaminant
into the atmosphere. Growing treesand other plants take up water along with the contaminants, pass
them through the plantsleaves and volatilize into the atmosphere at comparatively low
concentrations. This processis used for removing metal contaminants present in groundwater, soils,
sediments and sludge medium.
 Phytodegradation (Phyto-transformation) is the metabolization and degradation of contaminants
within the plant or the degradationof contaminants in the soil, sediments, sludges, groundwater or
surface water by enzymes produced and released by the plant. Organic compounds such as munitions
(trinitrotoluene), chlorinated solvents, herbicides, insecticides and inorganic nutrients are reported to
be removed bythis technique (Campos et al., 2008).
Advantages
 The cost of the phytoremediation is lower than that of traditional processes both in situ and ex situ
 The plants can be easily monitored
 The possibility of the recovery and re-use of valuable metals (by companies specializing in “phyto
mining”
 It is potentially the least harmful method because it uses naturally occurring organisms and preserves
the environment in a more natural state.
Limitations
 Phytoremediation is limited to the surface area and depth occupied by the roots.
 Slow growth and low biomass require a long-term commitment
 With plant-based systems of remediation, it is not possible to completely prevent the leaching of
contaminants into the ground water (without the complete removal of the contaminated ground,
which in itself does not resolve the problem of contamination)
 The survival of the plants is affected by the toxicity of the contaminated land and the general condition
of the soil.
 Bio-accumulation of contaminants, especially metals, into the plants which then pass into the food
chain, from primary level consumers upwards or requires the safe disposal of the affected plant
material.
Plant species used in phytoremediation
Lemna, Eichhornia, Pistia, Salvinia, Azolla, Spirodela, Potamogeton, Ceratophyllum Myriophyllum, Typha,
Elodea, Phragmites, Scirpus, Eichhornea crassipes, Phragmites australis, Lemna minor.
Raju et al. (2015 summarised that phytoremediation technology is still in its infancy inspite of identification
of several hyperaccumulators of metal ions. Public awareness and government initiatives are needed.
References
Brooks, R.R., 1998. Plants that hyperaccumulate heavy metals: their role in phytoremediation,
microbiology, archaeology, mineral exploration and phytomining.CAB International, Oxford.
Campos, M., Merino, I., Casado, R., Pacios, L.F., Gómez, L., 2008. Review. Phytoremediation of organic
pollutants. Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 6 (Special issue), 38–47.
Dushenkov, V., Kumar, P.B.A.N., Motto, H., Raskin, I., 1995. Rhizofiltration: the use of plants to remove
heavy metals from aqueous streams. Environmetnal Science and Technology 29, 1239–1245.
Tiwari, S., Savita Dixit and, NeelamVerma, 2007. An Effective Means of Biofiltration of Heavy Metal
Contaminated Water Bodies Using Aquatic Weed Eichhornia crassipes. Environmental
Monitoring and Assessment 129(1-3), 253-256.
Vamerali, T., Bandiera, M., Mosca, G., 2010. Field crops for phytoremediation of metal-contaminated land -A
review. Environmenatl Chemistry. Letters 8, 1–17.
Raju, N.T.Yadu., Madhavi, M., Ram Prakash, T., 2015. Bioremediation of Aquatic Environment
Using Weeds. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India., 62-68.
2.11. Space Technology for Agricultural Development
Space technology is based on satellite communications, close weather watch and the earth observations. It
plays a significant role towards national development including agricultural developments. One of the main
advantages of the space technology is its compatibility with various other emerging technologies such as
GIS, GPS, mobile phones, computing systems and instrumentation for collection of observations from
different platforms. Geospatial technologies that encompass the overall gamut of contemporary
developments in remote sensing, GIS, GPS, photogrammetry, mobiles, data collections from aerial
platforms and geo-portals, etc. could synergize the developments in the field of crop management (Sai,
2015).
Reference
Sai, M.V.R.Sesha, 2015. Space Technology for Agricultural Development. In: Souvenir, 2nd
International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India.,
69-73.
2.12. Geographical Information System (GIS) Approach for Plant Genetic Resources
Management with Special Reference to Oilseeds
A geographic information system (GIS) integrates hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing,
analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS allows us to view,
understand, question, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and
trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts (www.esri.com). Thus, GIS is a database
management system that can simultaneously handle data representing spatial objects and their attribute
data. GIS can be effectively used in PGR management particularly in the areas namely a) inventorisation/
mapping, b) collection strategies, c) conservation strategies and d) crop expansion strategies.
The analysis of genetic variation within and among elite breeding materials is of fundamental interest to
plant breeders. It contributes to monitoring of germplasm and can also be used to predict potential
genetic gains. Thus, GIS play a role in assessing diversity exists among various oilseed crops. Some of the
research oilseed crops where GIS could be successfully incorporated are Castor for gap analysis, collection
and exploitation of wild perennial castor for the farming and non-farming communities as a source of
income. High omega-3 richness and quality fibre traits of linseed need to be mapped improving and
expanding area under linseed in idnetified areas. High oleic oil, early and high yielding traits
need to be mapped in Safflower and area expansion based on length of growing period
based on soil moisture and fertility mapping would be a priority area. Highest productivity in sesame is
being recorded in Eastern India particulalry in summer crop, hence GIS approach need to be exploited for
nontraditional areas focusing on export oriented white seeded types. GIS can be effectively used in several
areas of PGR management including managing oilseed genetic resources. In-situ on-farm and field
conservation of sesame, safflower, niger, castor, linseed and other minor oil bearing tree species could be
effectively handled using GIS approaches. Attempts are being made to introduce exotic species of Olive
and other crops into various agro-climatic regions India after thorough analysis using GIS for crop
suitability. The crop improvement programmes in oilseeds would be benefitted immensely if we
successfully integrate GIS component in the research programmes (Varaprasad and Sivaraj, 2015)
Reference
Varaprasad, K.S., Sivaraj, N., 2015. Geographical Information System (GIS) Approach for Plant Genetic
Resources Management with Special Reference to Oilseeds. In: Souvenir, 2nd International
Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India.,74-81.
www.esri.com
Jankiram , T., 2015. Advances in Urban Landscaping. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on
Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India.,187-192.
Anjulo, A., Chauhan, R., Hooda, M.S., 2015. Bio-resource conservation and land use in Ethiopia. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India.,193-200.
Kumar, C.V.S., Singh, I.P., Patil, S.B., Mula, M.G., Kumar, R.V., Saxena, R.K., Varshney, R.K., 2015. Recent
Advances in Pigeonpea [cajanus cajan (l.) millspaugh) Research. In: Souvenir, 2nd International
Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India., 201-205.
Prasad, T.N.V.K.V., 2015. Agri-Nanotechnology - A Prosperous Approach to Indian Agriculture. In: Souvenir,
2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India.,
212-213.
Gajula, M.N.V.P., Kumar, A., Siddiq, E.A., Polumetla, A.K., 2015. Role of Bioinformatics in Agriculture. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India., 230-235.
Roy, T.N., 2015. Access to Improved Seed for Small and Marginal Farmers in India - Emerging Challenges
and Policy Support. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India., 243-250.
Dilta, B.S., Negi, N., Sharma, B.P., Thapa, S., 2015. Interiorscaping : An Essence for Enhancement of Indoor
Environment. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India., 264-269.
Mir, M.S., 2015. Scope of Expansion of Exotic and Indigenous Temperate Fruits: A Case Study of Apricots in
Ladakh, India. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India., 270-273.
3. Climate change and sustainable agriculture
3.1. Climate Change Impact on Agriculture in India
Climate change or global warming is caused by the release of ‘greenhouse’ gases into the atmosphere.
These gases accumulate in the atmosphere and increase the effect of radiative forcing on the climate,
resulting in a warming of the atmosphere. The changes in greenhouse gas concentrations are projected to
lead to regional and global changes in climate and weather parameters such as temperature, precipitation,
soil moisture, and sea level. Agriculture is one sector that is important to consider in terms of climate
change. The agriculture sector contributes both to climate change, as well as will be affected by the
changing climate. Climate change will have an economic impact on agriculture, including changes in farm
profitability, prices, supply, demand and trade (Reddy and Sreenivas, 2015).
Human influence on the climate system is clear, and recent anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases
are the highest in history (IPCC Synthesis report, 2014). Recent climate changes have had widespread
impacts on human and natural systems. Warming of the climate system is unequivocal, and since the 1950s,
many of the observed changes are unprecedented over decades to millennia. The atmosphere and ocean
have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished, and sea level has risen. The key point to
remember is that these effects of climate change on agriculture could proceed to dangerous levels,
beyond the capacity of meaningful adaptation to such changes, if the emission of greenhouse gases
continues unchecked. Beyond a 2°C rise in temperature, there is increasing damage to agriculture.
Unchecked temperature rise of 3–4°C would lead to severe consequences. Such consequences cannot be
considered in the sector of agriculture alone; we would need to consider a range of geophysical and
biophysical effects, the combined effects of which would be very serious. Rainfall is projected to increase
for India as a whole, while, it is projected to decrease for the drought-prone areas of Andhra Pradesh.
This decrease is 5% to 20% during the critical monsoon season with a 5% increase during the dry March-May
period. The number of rainy days appears to decrease by about 5 to 10%. Rainfall intensity (mm rain per
wet day) appears to remain roughly constant over the year but there may be seasonal changes that do not
show up in the published data (World Bank Report, 2006).
Climate Change: Impact on agriculture
 Increase in temperature (1.4-6.1oC), IPCC, 2007
 Change in precipitation and storm activity
 Widespread runoff
 Reduction in first water availability
 Droughts
 Permanent changes in pest distributions following extreme events
 Adverse impact on coastal agriculture due to rise in sea levels (17.5-57.5cm) and sea-water intrusion by
2100 and another 10-20cm rise if ploar ice melting continues, IPCC, 2007
Strategies for facing the challenge
Specific measures can only provide a successful adaptive response if they are adopted in appropriate
situations. A variety of issues need to be considered, including land-use planning, watershed management,
disaster vulnerability assessment, consideration of port and rail adequacy, trade policy, and the various
programmes countries use to encourage or control production, limit food prices, and manage resource
inputs to agriculture. Important strategies for improving the ability of agriculture to respond to diverse
demands and pressures include:
 Improved training and general education of populations dependent on agriculture to cope up with
extreme weather events.
 Research on new variety development, incorporating various traits such as heat and drought tolerant,
salt and pest resistant should be given prime importance.
 Food programmes and other social security programmes, to provide insurance against local supply
changes.


Infrastructure facilities like transportation, distribution and market need to be improved.
Existing policies may limit efficient response to climate change. Changes in policies such as crop
subsidy schemes, land tenure systems, water pricing and allocation, and international trade barriers
could increase the adaptive capability of agriculture.
Strategic research issues
 Identification of areas prone for climate change / variability in different agro-eco regions
 Assessing the impacts of climate change in regions of horticultural production system experiencing
climate variability

Impacts of climatic variability on agricultural /horticultural crops in relation to variations in rainfall and
thermal regimes; and soil carbon storage and land use
 Studies on pattern of drought intensity and development of region-specific management strategies
 Development of genotypes to withstand higher ranges of climate parameters.
 Improving seasonal climate forecasts
 A re-look at crop improvement and water management strategies in relation to climatic variability.
 Develop production systems suitable for changed climates.
 Studies on climate change impacts on pests/diseases
References
IPCC Fifth Assessment Synthesis Report 2014.
World Bank Report, 2006. Reducing vulnerability of Agriculture to drought in eight drought prone districts.
In: Overcoming drought, Adaptation strategies for Andhra Pradesh, India. 31-49.
Reddy, D.Raji., Sreenivas, G., 2015. Climate Change Impact on Agriculture in India. In: Souvenir, 2nd
International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India.,
82-86.
3.2. Climate Change and Food Security
Food Security in India in context of global warming and climate change, it is reported that the food grain
production will fall by 10 per cent by the year 2050 A.D. The weather related disasters viz., droughts, floods,
heat and cold waves and cyclones adversely affected the world’s food grain production to a considerable
extent since last one-and-a-half decades as seen in the case of our country. The global climate projection
models also indicate that the frequency of such weather related disasters is likely to increase in ensuing
decades. Therefore, the global economy is likely to be under threat in global warming and climate change
scenario due to decline in foodgrains and thereby escalation in food price. It is also observed that the
atmospheric heat load is likely to influence the quality of produce in field and fruit crops. In view of the
above, the small farm holders’ farming and family farming gain momentum to maintain food and
nutritional security. It reveals that the occurrence of floods and droughts and heat and cold waves are
common across the world. The adverse impact of weather calamities on world economy is tremendous in
the form of food insecurity and increase in food prices. It is more so in India as our economy is more
dependent on Agriculture.
Interestingly, weather extremes of opposite in nature like cold and heat
waves and floods and droughts are noticed within the same year over the same region or in different
regions across the Country. Reports indicate that they are likely to increase in ensuing decades and food
insecurity is likely world-over. Therefore, there should be a determined effort from developed and
developing countries to make industrialisation environment-friendly by reducing greenhouse gases
pumping into the atmosphere. Awareness programmes on climate change and its effects on various
sectors viz., food security, health, infrastructure, water, forestry, land and ocean biodiversity and sea level
and the role played by human interventions in climate change need to be taken up on priority. In the
process, lifestyles of people should also be changed so as not to harm earth-atmosphere continuum by
pumping greenhouse gases and CFCs into the atmosphere. Finally, we have to foresee the weather
extreme events and prepare ahead to combat them so that the losses can be minimised. Therefore,
strategies on mitigation and adaptation against weather extremes are to be chalked out on war-footing.
Similarly attempts are to be made to forewarn local weather systems and weather extremes so as to
minimise the human and crop losses. In addition, weather insurance package to the farmers against
weather related disasters should be made compulsory and operational in an event of their occurrence.
It will help to maintain their livelihood in an event of weather extremes those who depend solely on the
income of Agriculture including Animal Agriculture. It is the phenomenon even world over and thus there
should be a mechanism to sustain food security against climate variability/climate change (Rao, 2015).
Reference
Rao, G.S.L.H.V. Prasada., 2015. Climate Change and Food Security. In: Souvenir, 2nd International
Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India., 87-88.
3.3. Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Agriculture
Climate changes in coastal regions as enumerated by Geethalakshmi et al. (2015) are as follows:
 In the eastern coast, the rainfall is likely to range between 858±85.8mm to 1280± 204.8mm in the
2030s. The increase in the 2030s with respect to the 1970s is estimated to range between 0.2% to 4.4%.
Projections for the western coast indicate a variation from 935±185.33mm to 1794±247mm, which is an
increase of 6%–8% with respect to the1970s.
 In the eastern coastal region, the mean annual air temperature is likely to rise from 28.7± 0.6 oC to
29.3±0.7oC. The rise in temperature with respect to the 1970s is around 1.6oC to 2.1oC. In the western
coastal region, mean annual temperatures are likely to increase to 26.8±0.4 oC to 27.5±0.4oC in the
2030s. The rise in temperature with respect to the 1970s will be between 1.7oC and 1.8oC.
 The rise in minimum temperatures along the eastern coastal regions is likely to be lower than in the
western coastal region. The change in minimum temperatures along the eastern costal region is
projected to range from 2.0oC to 4.5oC, the higher end of the change being limited to Tamil Nadu. The
change in maximum temperature in the 2030s with respect to 1970s ranges between 1 oC and 3.5oC.
 The western coast experiences similar extremes in temperature as the Western Ghats. In the eastern
coast, the numbers of rainy days are likely to decrease by 1–5 days, with a slight increase along the
Orissa coast. The intensity of rainfall is likely to increase between 1mm/day and 4mm/day.
 Since 1986, a decreasing frequency in cyclones along the eastern coast surrounded by the Bay of
Bengal and the northern Indian Ocean have been observed. Also, no trend is seen in the western coast
for the same period which is along the Arabian Sea. The projected number of cyclonic disturbances
along both the coasts in the 2030s is estimated to decrease with respect to the 1970s. However,
cyclonic systems might be more intense in the future.
 Storm surge1 return periods could only be estimated at a 100 year time scale. It is found that all
locations along the eastern coast of India, that are north of Visakhapatnam, except Sagar and Kolkata,
show an increase in 100-year return periods of storm surges by 15% to 20 % with respect to the 1970s.
Geethalakshmi et al. (2015) assessed the various thteats owing to different climate as well as
socio-economic changes (Table 1).
Table 1. Major Threats to Coastal Environment due to Climate Change in India (Geethalakshmi et al., 2015)
Sector
Climate Change threat
Other human threats
Coral reef and coastal Loss of coral reefs from coral Bleaching; Intense coastal development and
Ecosystem
Loss or Migration of coastal ecosystem; habitat loss; Pollution and marine
Coastal erosion and sedimentation; deadzones; Conversion of mangroves
Change in the distribution of marine and wetland for mariculture; Damage
species; Increased spread of exotic and to sea grass beds; Coral mining and
invasive species
oil spills; Spread of invasive species
Fisheries
Overall decline in ocean Productivity; Over harvesting; Destructive fishing
Eutrophication and coralmortality; Loss practices; Land based source of
of shift in critical fish habitat; pollution; Sedimentation of coastal
Temperature shift causing migration of system from land based sources
fishes; Extreme events, temperature
increase and oxygen depletion; Ocean
acidification
Mariculture
Increase in water temperature could Overexploitation of juveniles and
result in unpredictable changes in larvae seedstock for fish farm; Loss of
cultural productivity; Increase stress and protective habitats from improper
Vulnerability to pathogens; Changes in sitting for mariculture facilities
weather pattern and extreme weather
events
Freshwater Resource
Storms, erosion and precipitation Discharge of untreated sewage and
damaging infrastructure and causing chemical contamination of coastal
losses to beaches; Compromised water water;
Unregulated
freshwater
quality and increasing beach closures; extraction and withdrawal of
Increases in tourism insurance
groundwater;
Upstream
dams;
costs; Saltwater intrusion of freshwater Enlargement and dredging of
sources; Encroachment of saltwater into waterways
estuaries and coastal rivers; Waves and
storm surges reaching further inland,
increasing coastal inundation and
flooding;
Decreased
precipitation,
Enhancing saltwater intrusion and
exacerbating water supply problem
Human Settlement
Coastal
inundation;
Infrastructure Inappropriate
sitting
of
damage; Sea level rise during storm infrastructure; Habitat conservation
surge; Reduced clearance under bridges; and biodiversity loss
Overtopping
of
coastal
defence
structure; Degradation of natural coastal
region
It can therefore be concluded that coastal region of India is highly vulnerable by extreme events and
climate change risk, which need to focus for sustainable development and adaptation.
1. References
IPCC, 2007. Summary for Policy Makers. In: Climate Change. 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contributing
of Working Group I to the Fourth assessment Report of the Inter govermental Panel on climate
Changee. Solomon S., Qin D., Manning M., Chen Z., Marquis M., Averyt K.B., Tignor, M ., Miller H.L.
(eds). Cambridge University Press, UK.
Geethalakshmi, V., Manikandan, N., Sumathi, S., Bhuvaneswari, K., Gowtham, R., Pannerselvam,
S., 2015. Impact of Climate Change on Coastal Agriculture. In: Souvenir, 2nd International
Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India., 89-93.
3.4. Climate Change and Carbon Sequestration
Soil organic matter (SOM) in soils is a strong determinant of soil quality and controls the physico-chemical
and biological soil processes. A warming climate and decreasing soil moisture limits the soil functions. One
of the important climate smart agricultural practices is reduction of CO 2 emission by restoring soil organic
carbon (SOC) pool and improving soil quality which can address both the problems of food security and
climate change. Most agricultural soils in India are reported for their low SOC stocks. Changing and
uncertain climate may further exacerbate risks of soil degradation by accelerated erosion, secondary
salinization, depletion of SOC stock, elemental imbalance and the overall decline in soil quality and
productivity. Current database shows that around 121 M ha land has been degraded in the country, of
which 68% is due to water erosion, 20% by chemical and 10% by wind erosion. In rainfed situation, long
fallow periods, uneven distribution of rainfall, and mono-cropping are the main factors responsible for
broader yield gaps. Therefore, maintaining SOC concentration above the threshold level is essential to
climate resilient agriculture.
Strategies to increase carbon sequestration
 The recommended management practices (RMPs) are the conversion, conservation, alters cropping
systems, improved varieties with high biomass production, recycling organic waste, judicious use of
chemical fertilizers and use of bio-amendment, improved soil and water management for irrigation and
drainage. These practices contributes not only towards soil conservation and water quality goals but also
enhance the amount of SOC and reduce CO2 emissions (Follett et al., 2009) as well as maintain a steady
state of SOC for longer term (Govaerts et al., 2009).
 Conservation agriculture (CA) has gaining importance day by day as a technology in the context of
increased climatic vulnerability. It has also been recognizing about C storage and sustainable ecosystem
services. CA is based on three main principles (zero or no tillage, permanent organic residue cover on
soils and associated crop rotation). Experts have different opinion about C sequestration under CA
system (Srinivasarao et al. 2015a). Though, adoption of CA worldwide shows a positive C balance in soils
(West and Post, 2002) according to many case studies. It has been estimated that conversion of all
cropland to CA globally could sequestered 25 Gt C for the next 50 years. This might mitigate C emission
to 1833 Mt CO2 eq year-1 (Baker et al., 2007).
 Applications of bio-char or charcoal also have higher GHG mitigation potential than other practice. Many
studies suggest that bio-char is as an effective soil amendment for improving soil conditions and
increasing C sequestration (Sohi et al., 2010)
Agriculture in India shows its low productivity is both the cause and the effect of the climate change.
Moreover, the atmospheric concentration of CO2 at 400 ppm in 2014 is increasing the risk of global
warming. Most soils under rainfed agriculture are severely depleted their soil organic carbon and nutrient
pools because of intensive farming practices. Consequently soils are compelling to degradation. Thus,
restoring the soil and ecosystem carbon pools through recommended management practices is important
for enhancing agronomic productivity, mitigating climate change by off-setting emissions, and adapting to
climate change by reducing risks of intermittent drought. Srinivasrao et al. (2015) emphasized upon the
following policy needs to combat the climate change:
 For increasing C sequestration, adoption of recommended management practices by the resource
poor farmers to small scale farming managers are essential to restore degraded lands. These practices
include use of crop residues as mulch, crop rotations, reduced tillage, and use of integrated nutrient
management, strategies for recycling bio-solids and other co-products.
 There are numerous competing uses of crop residues. It has been estimated that 560 Mt crop residue
are available in the country. Thus interventions are needed that would promote the efficient use of
crop residues without affecting crop livestock systems, animal manure and other by-products as soil
amendments on small scale farming level.
 Additional basic research involving well designed long term field experiments on major soil groups of
principal eco-regions of India is essential to evaluate the threshold value of SOC in the root zone.
 Developing mechanisms of payments to farmers for environmental services as alternative financing for
agriculture transition.
 Emerging carbon market and payment for emissions removals or reductions have attracted much
interest and anticipate such financing as a source for selected agricultural activities and products.
References
Baker, J. M., Ochsner, T. E., Venterea, R.T., Griffis, T. J., 2007. Tillage and soil carbon sequestration – what
do we really know? Agriculture Ecosystem and Environment 118, 1–5.
Follett, R. F., Varvel, G. E., Kimble, J., Vogel, K. P., 2009. No-till corn after brome grass: effect on soil C soil
C and soil aggregates. Agronomy Journal 101, 261–268.
Govaerts, B., Verhulst, N., Navarrete, C., Sayre, A., Dixon, K. D, Dendooven, J. L., 2009. Conservation
agriculture and soil carbon sequestration: between myth and farmer reality. Critical Review in
Plant Sciences 28, 97–122.
Sohi, S.P., Krull, E., Lopez-Capel, E., Bol, R., 2010., A review of biochar and its use and function in soil. In:
Advances in Agronomy, p.47-82, Publisher Elsevier Academic Press Inc., ISSN 0065-2213, San Diego,
CA-92101-4495, USA.
Srinivasarao, Ch., Lal, R., Kundu, S., Thakur, P.B., 2015a. Conservation Agriculture and Soil Carbon
Sequestration. In: Conservation Agriculture (Eds. M. Farooq and K. H. M. Siddique) Part V.
Publisher Springer International, Switzerland. pp 479-524. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-11620-4_19.
West, T.A., Post, W. M., 2002. Soil organic carbon sequestration rates by tillage and crop rotation: A global
data analysis. Soil Science Society of America Journal 66, 1903–1946.
Srinivasarao, Ch., Kundu, S., Thakur, P.B., 2015. Climate Change and Carbon Sequestration. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India.,94-99.
3.5. Impact of Climate Change on Ecosystem Services
Bhardwaj (2015) enumerated the following research areas to understand the response of ecosystem
services to climae change:
 The likely effects of climate change on rates of carbon storage and sequestration in soils and vegetation.
 Impacts of climate change on water quality regulation in freshwater streams and rivers.
 Fishery management in line with changes in climate to maintains harvest and jobs without putting the
resource base at risk
 Impacts of promotion of green energy as a response to climate change on ecosystem services. For
example, how do windmills, solar panel arrays, and land area and water used to create biofuel
feedstocks affect service delivery and their values.
 Evaluation of implementation of specific incentives, regulations, management strategies, or
investments for communities who are performing fishing, farming, timber, agricultural and
aquaculture to adapt to changing and more variable climate conditions.
 Relative cost-effectiveness of engineered versus ecosystem-based approaches to reducing vulnerability
of communities to coastal hazards
 Development and popularization of proper weather forecasts, accurate projections on climate change
and their impacts at local and regional scales for promoting resilience
References
Bhardwaj, S.K., 2015. Impact of Climate Change on Ecosystem Service. In: Souvenir, 2nd International
Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India., 100-106.
3.6. Climate Change Impacts in Livestock Sector
Among the environmental variables, heat stress seems to be the most detrimental factor affecting
livestock production. Heat stress can cause a significant financial burden to livestock producers by
decreasing milk and milk component production, meat production, decreasing reproductive efficiency, and
adversely affecting livestock health. In addition, CC is seen as a major threat to the survival of many
species, ecosystems and the sustainability of livestock production systems in many parts of the world.
Livestock production is thought to be adversely affected by detrimental effects of extreme climatic
conditions. Consequently, adaptation and mitigation of detrimental effects of extreme climates have
played a major role in combating the climatic impact in livestock production. In fact the animals can adapt
to the hot climate, nevertheless the response mechanisms are helpful for survival but are detrimental to
performance. Hence formulating mitigation strategies incorporating all requirements of livestock is the
need of the hour to optimize productivity in livestock farms (Rao and Sejian, 2015).
(Rao and Sejian, 2015) stressed upon that science and technology are lacking in thematic issues,
including those related to climatic adaptation, dissemination of new understandings in rangeland ecology,
and a holistic understanding of pastoral resource management. The key thematic issues on environment
stress and livestock production includes: early warning system, multiple stress research, simultaneously,
simulation models, water experiments, exploitation of genetic potential of native breeds, suitable breeding
programme and nutritional intervention research. Livestock farmers should have key roles in determining
what adaptation and mitigation strategies they support if these have to sustain livestock production in
changing climate. The integration of new technologies into the research and technology transfer systems
potentially offers many opportunities to further the development of CC adaptation strategies.
References
Rao, G.S.L.H.V. Prasada., Sejian, V., 2015. Climate Change Impacts in Livestock Sector. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad,
India.,107-112.
Kumar, K.L.P., Dayakar, P., Sandhya, V., Reddy G.P., 2015. Indigenous Coping Strategies to Climate Change
in Agriculture. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India., 251-260.
Chiranjeevi, T., Rout, S.K., Sreenivas, Y., 2015. Farmer Types and Measuring Capacity for Climate Adaptation.
In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India., 261-263.
4. Sress Management
Singh, T.V.K., Kukanur, V.S., 2015.Insect Resistance to Bt Transgenic crops - Past, Present and
Future. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India., 113-120.
Naik, M.K., Reshma, P., Amaresh, Y.S., Aswathanaraya, D.S., Hosmani, A., 2015. Green Approaches
in Biotic Stress Management of Chilli Using Flourescent Pseudomonas. In: Souvenir, 2nd
International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad,
India.,121-126.
Bohra, A., Das, A., Singh, N.P., 2015. Genomics-Guided Accelerated Improvement of Stress
Tolerance in Grain Legume Crops. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on
Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India., 127-134.
Kumar P.Ananda., 2015. Role of Biotechnology in Biotic Stress Management in Crops. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India.,135-137.
Madhav, M. Sheshu., 2015. Exploration of Novel Genes and Alleles for Effective Biotic Stress
Management in Rice. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India.,138-141.
Srivastava, R.K., 2015. Improving pearl millet using genomics and molecular breeding tools. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India., 142-146.
Singh, T.V.K., Satyanarayana, J., Sunitha, V., 2015. Insecticide Resistant Management of DBM in
India -Past And Future Ahead. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource
and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India., 147-166.
Dixit, A., 2015. Advances in Weed Management to Overcome the Biotic Stress in Crop Production. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India., 206-211.
Bhagat, S., Birah, A., Chattopadhyay, C., 2015. Crop Health Management: Perspectives in IPM. In: Souvenir,
2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India.,
214-217.
Bharat, N.K., 2015. Diversity of AM fungi and Their Exploitation for Disease Management in Horticultural
Crops in N-W Himalayan Region. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and
Stress Management, Hyderabad, India., 218-220.
Kumar, M.V.N., Shankar, V. G., Ramya, V., Vishnu, D., Reddy, V., 2015. Fusarium Wilt Resistance In Castor: An
Overview Of The Recent Advances And Future Strategies For Genetic Improvement. In: Souvenir,
2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad, India.,
221-225.
Biswas, S.K., Prasad, R., 2015. Biological Control to Induced Resistance - A Paradigm Shift in Management of
Plant DiseasesIn: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress
Management, Hyderabad, India., 226-229.
Patra, P.K., 2015. Water Management Mediated Chemical Kinetics of Soils Influencing Rice Growth. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India., 236-242.
5. Postharvest technology of Agricultural technology
5.1.
Radiation Processing: A Tool for Food Processing and Preservation
Food irradiation is the process of exposing food to waves or rays of energy. This energy travels through the
food killing potentially life-threatening bacteria. The process also is referred to as "cold pasteurization"
because harmful bacteria are destroyed without the use of heat or raising the temperature of the food.
Scientists began food irradiation research in the early 1950's. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
approved the irradiation of wheat in 1963, and potatoes in 1964. Spices, which are the most commonly
irradiated foods, gained FDA approval in 1983. More recently, the FDA has approved the use of irradiation
for pork (1985), poultry (1992), and refrigerated or frozen uncooked red meat in December 1997. For
decades hospitals have used irradiation to sterilize medical devices—everything from baby bottle nipples
to pacemakers and bone replacements. NASA also recognizes the usefulness and safety of irradiation:
foods eaten by U.S. astronauts today are irradiated (Chaturvedi, 2015).
Major Functions Achieved by Irradiation of Food
• Insect disinfestation of stored products
• Inhibition of sprouting in tubers and bulbs and rhizomes
• Delay in fruit ripening
• Destruction of microbes responsible for food spoilage
• Elimination of pathogens and parasites of public health importance
• To overcome quarantine barriers
Table : The various applications of radiation in food
Type of Food
Radiation dose
in kGy
Meat, poultry, fish, shellfish, some
20 – 71
vegetables, baked foods, prepared
foods
Astronauts food
Meat, poultry, fish,
Red meat
Poultry
Shell eggs
Spices and other seasonings
Strawberries and some other fruits
Grain, Rice, Semolina(rawa), Whole
wheat flour (atta) and maida, fruit,
vegetables, and other foods subject to
insect infestation
Bananas, avocados, mangoes, papayas,
guavas, and certain other non-citrus
fruits
Potatoes, onions, garlic, ginger
Dehydrated vegetables, other foods,
Raisins, figs and dried dates
45+
0.1 to 10
4.5 / 7
3
3
Up to a
maximum of
30
1 to 5
0.1 to 2
Maximum 1
0.05 to 0.15
Variable doses
Effect of Treatment
Sterilization. Treated products can be stored
at room temperature without spoilage.
Treated products are safe for hospital
patients who require microbiologically sterile
diets.
Delays spoilage by reducing the number of
microorganisms in the fresh, refrigerated
product. Kills some types of food poisoning
bacteria
and
renders
harmless
disease-causing parasites (e.g., trichinae).
Reduces number of microorganisms and
insects. Replaces chemicals used for this
purpose.
Extends shelf life by delaying mold growth.
Kills insects or prevents them from
reproducing.
Could
partially
replace
post-harvest fumigants used for this
purpose.
Delays ripening
Inhibits sprouting
Desirable changes ( e.g.) reduces rehydration
time
Sprouts seeds
8
Control illness causing microorganisms
*Gray (Gy) is SI unit of energy absorbed (1 Joule/kg) by food from ionizing radiation ; KiloGray (kGy= 1000
Gy)
Positive impact of irriadiation listed by Chaturvedi (2015) are as follows:
 The role of radiation processing in improving food hygiene is being widely recognised.
 The high penetration power of radiation is useful to eliminate radiation-sensitive pathogenic
microorganisms such as Salmonella, Vibrio, Listeria, Campylobacter and Escherichia coli O157: H7 from
pre-packaged foods including poultry, meat and fishery products. Most of these organisms have low
sensitivities to radiation, with D10 values (dose required for 90% killing) of 1 kGy or less.
 Presence of insects and parasites in importing foods has been a cause of great concern with respect to
internationally traded agro-based foods. This has adversely affected export of fruits and vegetables
from Asian to European countries. These foods are currently treated with fumigants such as methyl
bromide, ethylene-di-bromide, ethylene oxide, etc. for disinfestation purposes. This world-wide
practice will be discontinued and could be replaced by radiation processing.
 To prevent entry of this insect into the importing country, grapefruits need to be quarantined and
treated with ethylene di bromide. A study reported that 20 grays for 0.25, 0.5, 1.0, or 100 minutes
reduced adult emergence of Mexican fruit flies from larvae by more than 99%.
 Irradiation can be used to destroy or inactivate organ-isms that cause spoilage and decomposition,
thereby extending the shelf life of foods.
 It is an energy-efficient food preservation method that has several advantages over traditional
canning.
 Irradiation can be used to effectively eliminate food pathogens that cause foodborne illness
byRadiation Pasteurization of pork, beef, hamburger meat, fish and shell fish, milk , strawberries
and mangoes
 Disease-causing bacteria are estimated to be responsible for two thirds of the food borne disease
outbreaks that occur annually throughout the world. Improved food-handling practices could reduce
the number of illnesses from this source; but radiation pasteurization gives us an additional,
complementary tool with which to deal with the problem.
 Radiation Sterilization
 Disinfestation
 Sprout Inhibitionin white potato and garlic
 Delay of Ripening of some fruits, including strawberries, bananas, mangoes, papayas, guavas, cherries,
tomatoes and avocados.
 Physical Improvementsin some foods
Radiation processing technology can therefore, strengthen nation’s food security, improve food safety and
boost export of agricultural commodities. The time is now most favorable to exploit this technology with
initiative to integrate the technology with national mainstream.
References
Chaturvedi, A., 2015. Radiation Processing - A Tool for Food Processing and Preservation. In: Souvenir, 2nd
International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad,
India.,165-169.
5.2.
Marketing of Sustainable Fresh Produce and Food Products
Sustainabile Livelihoods, suatianable lifestyles and sustainable environment are the three major factors
that will determine our ability to imrpove financial condition of people at the bottom of the pyramid,
imrpove health and quality of life of people and stop the deterioration of our ecosystem. Food production
systems and quality of Food consumption will have to play an important role in meeting these goals.
According to Seelam (2015), the megatrends influencing consumer choice towards sustainable products
are:

Increasing affluence and disposable incomes: The income levels are likely to increase by three
times and the consumption will quadrapule. As a result disposable incomes will be much higher.
People will spend on better quality ietms and better quality food will be a major benficiary. This is
an opportunity for goods produced based on sustanability principles.
 Health consciousness: People are looking for healthier options. A market project done by us
shows that people are nostaligic about old values and believe that they could be the foundation
for healthy food alternatives.
 Changing Family structure: From joint families to nuclear families. There is more flexibility in
deciding what people what to eat.
 Changing attitudes: The key factors that are changing the attitude are global exposure, self-denial
to indulgence, trend conscious.
 Millennials: India has the youngest population the world. This young generation is much more
aware and exposed to what is happening around the world and more conscious about what they
eat, what they wear and have different values. This is already evident in the developed countries
where the young generation has distinctly different preferences compared to the old generation.
They prefer organic, sustainable products, prefer not to use cars, stay in smaller houses etc. Similar
trends will catch up as young people in India grow into adults.
 Growth of modern retailing (Supermarkets): This will lead to exploration and easier introduction
of new and innovative sustainable products. Customers can browse learn and buy new products.
Modern retail penetration is only about 7 to 8%. This will substantially increase. This is not only
about supermarket chains but even Kirana stores converting to self-service stores.
The Reforms needed for improving access to healthy, reasonably priced and sustainable food options as
suggested bu Seelam (2015) are:
 Infrastructure: Earlier most of the food particularly fresh produce used to be sourced locally. Most
produce would not travel more than 2 hours to reach the consumer. With increasing urbanization
and high value of land, most food has started travelling longer distances. To ensure that the
wastage is kept to a minimum we require large investments in modern warehouse infrastructure,
cold chains, transportaion etc.
 Procurement system: The APMC acts and other legacy regulations concerning procurement of
food have created lot inefficiencies, local cartels and restricted choices for farmers resulting in
inefficient discovery of price and lower recovery of prices for farmers. Also there are multiple
levels of taxes. Mandi tax, purchase tax, Octroi, VAT (Sales tax). Restrictions on storage which
affects direct procurement from farmers by companies.
 Free Movement of farm goods: There are lot of restrictions on movement of farm produce like
interstate movement of paddy, rice etc. are not allowed and frequent ban of exports. This
depresses the price for the farmers and increases the cost to the consumer. We should look at
integrating and making India one market where production competitiveness is incentivized and
the sole determinant of what is produced in a region. While GST will address some aspects of the
problem lot of other regulations related to agricultural produced has to be changed.
 Input subsidies: Currently inputs like fertilizers are subsidized and routed through fertilizer
companies resulting in distorted pricing and imbalanced use of inputs. Instead if this is routed
directly to farmers and use of organic inputs whether generated on or off farm is encouraged it
will lead to better soil health, higher and sustainable productivity. Similarly instead of giving free
electricity if the money is given directly to farmers and they are encouraged to invest in water
saving technologies it would increase overall production and productivity.
Consumers are interested in buying healthy and quality food, the food retailing system is in place to
encourage exploration and introduction of sustainable and healthy products. For this, to accelerate
investment in infrastructure and changes in subsidy routing and regulations are needed.
References
Seelam, R. R., 2015. Marketing of Sustainable fresh produce and food products. In: Souvenir, 2nd
International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management, Hyderabad,
India.,170-172.
6. Extension and support services
6.1. Role of Extension in the Changing Agricultural Scenario
The challenges to agriculture and natural resource management are unprecedented in the history of
mankind and this has led to changes in agriculture education, research and extension world over. The
development of sustainable Agriculture in a country will depend largely on the effectiveness of its
Agriculture Extension strategies, its approaches, services delivery, methodology and processes. Farmer
empowerment is the desired outcome of agriculture development and it can be achieved through
engagement, learning and participation in the research and extension processes. Agriculture Extension has
been the cornerstone of the agricultural development in the country rising from a food deficit to a food
export economy in about 30 years. The green revolution has been possible because extension system
succeeded in disseminating appropriate technologies and right cropping practices to the large, widely
scattered and heterogeneous farming community in its villages. The critical role that extension plays is to
expand the horizon of farmers, in terms of their knowledge, skills and attitudes about the management of
natural, economic & social resources at their disposal ; They need understanding of acts, the government
policies and programmes; and the basket of technologies available (production, post-harvest and
marketing) so that they can make informed decisions. This calls for new ways of planning, prioritizing and
executing as modern agriculture is increasingly turning out to be knowledge based and extension system is
required to gain expertise in emerging areas like novel information communication and Transfer of
Technologies. Human development can take place only with skill development. Skilled people to build a
new society and run it efficiently. Ratnakar (2015) suggested the following strategies to have effective
extension education in the changing agricultural scienario:
 Agricultural Extension and Technology Mission in all the States
 Theme based Extension specialization/Promoting Specilisation/expertise in Extension:
 Irrigation Extn, PPP, Ecofarming, Precision farming, Animal husbandry, Horticulture (Fruits, Flowers,
Vegetables, Spices), Ground water Extn, HR, M&E, Ext Research, Post Harvest Extn, Rainfed/dryland
Extn, Marketled Extn Placing Extension Experts at District level – location/district specific
 A data base has to be prepared in terms of physical infrastructure (vehicles, offices, buildings etc) and
information sources for the officials of State Department of Agriculture.
 One AEO per Revenue village for effective guidance to farmers and also to address the unemployment
 Create data base on crops, soils, production technologies, markets, input facility, ToT and Training,
research institutions and Connect all the villages with the database- IT in Extension – technology
mapping and resource mapping
 Strengthening KVKs and DAATT centres for skills development
 Empowerment of Farmer Institutions- FACs, CIGs, FIGs, FFs
 Restructuring Extension: policies, programs, schemes, human power, facilities, coverage, institutions,
infraustructure, networking.
 Convergence in Extension planning and delivery: Development Departments, Private industry, NGOs, PR
institutions, SAUs, ICAR
 Insurance Extension policy
 Capacity building of Extension Professionals, farmers - Focus on Capacity building of women farmers
and farm Labour
 Strengthening Custom hiring centers to promote farm mechanization
 Creation of storage/ godown facilities- post harvest, value addition at Block level leading
extension
References
marketed
Ratnakar, R., 2015. Indian Agriculture: Role of Extension in the Changing Agricultural Scenario. In:
Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India., 173-181.
6.2. New Paradigms in Agricultural Extension – Implications for Bio-resource and Stress Management
According to Reddy (2015) the following paradigm shifts have taken place in Agriculture / Agricultural
Extension Green Revolution to Evergreen Revolution, Commodity approach to Integrated farming
system approach, Mono disciplinary to Inter-disciplinary approach, Technology - crop technology,
eco-technology and Biotechnology, Supply driven approach to demand driven approach, Farm
employment to off-farm and non-farm employment, Self reliance to Self Sufficiency, Agricultural
Development to Sustainable Agriculture Development, Knowledge and Skills to Empowerment, Agriculture
to Agribusiness, Agricultural Development Approaches - Productivity to Profitability, Equity and
Sustainability, Single Extension Approach to Pluralistic Extension Approach, Public Extension to Private –
Public –Partnership
The new methods, methodologies and approaches in agricultural extension emerged are enlisted by Reddy
(2015) are hereunder:
 Farmers Field Schools,
 ICT Kisan Call Centers,
 Farmers Portals,
 Common Service Centers,
 Mobile Telephones,
 Farm Schools,
 Farmer Life Schools,
 Strategic Planning (SREP),
 Tradition Media,
 Community Radio & TV,
 Front line Demonstrations,
 Farming system Approach,
 E- planning & Monitoring,
 Public Private Partnership,
 Convergence,
 Gender main streaming,
The key focused areas of agricultural extension activities are:
 Climate Change
 Global Warming
 Personality Development, Biodiversity
 Traditial knowledge
 Value Addition
 Supply Chain, Decent Work
 Producer Organizations
 Urban Agriculture
 Organic Farming
 Soil & Water Management
 Abiotic and Biotic stress Management
 Bio-Security Entrepreneurship Development
 Sustainable Agriculture
 Integrated Farming Systems
 Natural Resource Management
 Integrated Pest Management
 Participatory Planning & Monitoring,
 Agribusiness
 Contract Farming
 Skill Development
 Food and nutrition security
 Animal Husbandry, Fisheries and
 Horticulture
The Programmes / Schemes / Institutions involved in extension education in India are:
 Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA)
 Krushi Vignana Kendra (KVK)
 State Agricultural Management Extension Training Institute (SAMETI)
 Extension Education Institute (EEI)
 National Agricultural Extension Management Institute (MANAGE)
 State Agricultural University (SAUs)
 Agriclinic and Agribusiness Centres
 Mass Media Support to Agricultural Extension
 Nation e-governence National Livelihood Mission
 Rastriya Krishi Vikas Yojana
 National Food Security Mission
 National Horticultural Mission
 Nation Dairy Mission
 Poultry Development Scheme
 Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF)
 Diploma for Input Dealers (DAESI)
 Nation Skill Development Mission
 National Mission on Agricultural Extension and Technology (NMAET).
While the global forces are shaping future agricultural extension worldwide, national systems are
experiencing institutional reforms. Reddy (2015) focused upon the following challenges that should be
addressed by agricultural extension in making the extension services effective and meaningful for meeting,
the demands of future agricultural development.
 Organizing client system (Farmers and consumers) into groups, associations and federations.
 Creating public awareness on the need for Evergreen Revolution for sustainable agriculture through
multimedia communication strategies.
 Participating in technology development process with focus on R & D
 Transferring the sustainable agricultural technologies (Knowledge and skills) with minimum distortion
through Farmer Field Schools (FFS) and other media.
 Educating and motivating client system to adopt the technology as well as empowering them and to
create spread effect through FFS and other methods/media.
 Initiating interaction among the various technology uptake pathways to rationalize and harmonize
resources
 Ensuring participating and commitment of farmers in agricultural extension process through formation
of Self Help Groups (SHGs), associations and federations.

Participatory monitoring and evaluating with focus to provide feed back to credit, input and
marketing.
 Educating farmers on their rights, WTO, GATT implications, Biodiversity, climate change, Bio-security
and Natural Resource Management.
 Human resources development, which includes training of farmers and extension staff.
 Provision of agri-business and farm management services and playing an advisory role.
 Development of personal efficacy and hope of success among farmers.
 Development of achievement motivation and scheme for competing with standards of excellence
among farmers and extension workers.
 Improving on overall well-being and gross domestic happiness
According to Reddy (2015), a framework of the building blocks that could form the structure of future
strategy could perhaps take the following steps, among others:
 At National / State Level, there is need to develop clear-cut extension policy with all stakeholders.
 The extension system should be participatory, bottom-up, result oriented and demand-driven
 Recognition of the need for re-orientation of the philosophy of extension-farm technology transfer
mode to technology application and empowerment.
 Recognition of the need for private-public partnership in agricultural extension management.
 Extension to be broad-based in its programmes by utilizing group and farming systems approaches.
 Adopting pluralistic extension approaches that explicitly underscore the need for an integrating
mechanism.
 Aggressive privatization of extension systems transiting to a demand-driven and cost sharing mode.
 Promoting agri-entrepreneurship through agri-clinics and agri-business centres
 Recognition of the need for strong research extension-farmer and market and consumer linkages
 An increasingly gender sensitized and social uptake extension strategy
 Providing training infrastructure to develop extension professionalism in a cost-effective manner
 Focused monitoring and evaluation to improve farmer-research-extension-market-consumer linkages.
 An increasingly gender-sensitized and social uptake extension strategy
 Providing training infrastructure to develop extension professionalism in a cost-effective manner
 Focused monitoring and evaluation to improve farmer-research-extension-market-consumer linkages
 Agricultural Technology Management Agency (ATMA) model to be carefully evaluated with some
improved interventions at grassroot level such as Village Level Participatory Approach (VLPA),
Farmer-to-Farmer Extension through Farmer Field Schools and Unified Extension delivery. This could be
done as a Action Research Project under current National Agricultural Extension and Technology
Mission in India.
 Concentrating Extension focus on climate change Bio-diversity, Bio-security, NRM, Echo friendly
Agricultural Practices.
Poverty reduction will be possible only when small and marginal farmers and farmers from rain fed areas
participate fully in economic growth. Extension focus should be on Biodiversity, Bio-resource and stress
management and climate change besides others. Agricultural extension has to play a pivotal role in
meeting these challenges.
Reference
Reddy, S.Venku., 2015.New Paradigms in Agricultural Extension - Implications for Bio-resource and Stress
Management. In: Souvenir, 2nd International Conference on Bio-resource and Stress Management,
Hyderabad, India., 182-186