History of AI at Edinburgh

МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РЕСПУБЛИКИ КАЗАХСТАН СЕМИПАЛАТИНСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ ИМЕНИ ШАКАРИМА КАФЕДРА ТЕОРИИ И ПРАКТИКИ ПЕРЕВОДА УЧЕБНО-МЕТОДИЧЕСКОЕ ПОСОБИЕ ПО РЕФЕРИРОВАНИЮ И АННОТИРОВАНИЮ ТЕКСТОВ НА АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ Семей - 2010 ИбраеваА.А., Мухатова А.Д. Учебно-методическое пособие реферированию и аннотированию текстов на английском языке. СГУ имени Шакарима. – 2010 г. – 69 с. по Рецензенты: Джамбаева Ж.А., кандидат филологических наук, доцента кафедры русской и иностранной филологии СГПИ Кадыров А.К., кандидат филологических наук, Доцент кафедры казахской филологии Тогузбаева Г.М., старший преподаватель кафедры теории и практики перевода Данное учебно-методическое пособие предназначено для студентов старших курсов специальности «Переводческое дело». Целью пособия является совершенствование навыков информационного свертывания текстов, расширения лексического запаса в области научной терминологии. Предисловие Целью пособия является совершенствование навыков реферирования и перевода. Реферирование иноязычной научной литературы является прекрасным способом обучения, который вырабатывает активный поисковый характер восприятия речи, формирует установку на смысловой анализ содержания, ускоряет темп чтения, воспитывает внимание к языковым средствам текста. Свойственный реферированию способ приема и переработки информации развивает творческие способности, совершенствует навыки самостоятельной работы с научной литературой. Кроме того, реферирование является важным звеном в профессиональной подготовке студентов, поскольку оно имеет большую познавательную и образовательную ценность в углублении знаний по изучаемому предмету, в расширении лексического запаса терминами и конструкциями научного стиля речи, составляющими основу научного текста. Пособие состоит из трех частей. Первая содержит обучающую статью, в которой дается определение реферирования и рекомендации по составлению реферата. Все методы реферирования построены на смысловой компрессии текста, которая предусматривает устранение избыточности в тексте, т. е. элементов, которые дублируют друг друга. Во второй части представлены тексты для реферирования, сопровождаемые вокабуляром, заданиями и образцами реферирования. В зависимости от поставленной перед читающими, цели различают следующие виды чтения: 1.Ознакомительные: а) конспективные, б) реферативные; 2. Просмотровые: а) поисковые, б) обзорные, в) ориентирoвочные; 3. Изучающие: а) филологические; б) критические; в) углубленные. Целью просмотрового чтения является получение общего представления о содержании текста или поиск нужной информации. Полученная в результате такого чтения информация может быть оформлена в виде аннотации. Ознакомительное чтение – это более внимательное чтение текста без словаря (словарь здесь может оказаться нужным только для того, чтобы узнать значение нескольких ключевых слов). Его цель – полностью понять содержание текста, не переводя его. Зафиксированным результатом такого чтения является реферат. Изучающее чтение нацелено на полноценное усвоение прочитанного, на расширение словаря и расшифровку языковых форм текста. Такое чтение может быть оформлено в виде перевода текста со словарем. Третья часть включает аутентичные тексты современной зарубежной периодики, может быть использован как для аудиторной, так и для самостоятельной работы студентов. Оглавление Предисловие.........................................................................................................3 Часть 1. Теоретические основы реферирования и аннотирования......................................................................................................4 Этапы аналитико-интетической переработки информации (АСПИ) …………………………….. ..................................6 Аннотация ...........................................................................................................8 Реферат ………………………………………………………………….............9 Типизация рефератов …………………………………………...........................10 Методика реферирования ………………………………………………….......13 Структура реферата ……………………………………………………………15 Модель реферата научной статьи ……………………………………………..16 Речевые клише для написания рефератов и аннотаций………………………18 Часть 2. Практические задания ……………………………….........................21 Часть 3. Тексты для реферирования …………………………………………58 Использованная литература……………………………………………………………………... 66 ЧАСТЬ I Теоретические основы реферирования и аннотирования В середине ХХ века стало заметно возрастание объема информации, значительно выросли документные потоки и массивы. В развитии общества наступил период, в качестве характеристики которого стали называть информационный взрыв (кризис). Все чётче проявляются противоречия между ограниченными возможностями человека по восприятию и переработке информации и существующими мощными потоками и массивами разнообразных документов. Кроме того, в мире существует большое количество документов, не несущих в себе нового. Так возникают экономические, политические и другие социальные барьеры, препятствующие распространению новых знаний. В данных условиях возрастает значение документов, созданных в результате аналитикосинтетической переработки значительного количества источников. В результате производится новое знание на основе переработки имеющейся информации. Совокупность операций аналитико-синтетической переработки документальной информации, преследующих цель создания вторичных документов, или выражение содержания исходного текста в более экономичной форме при сохранении или некотором уменьшении его информативности в производном тексте, называют информационным свертыванием. Для сферы общения (информационных коммуникаций), в качестве основного средства которой выступает естественный язык, характерны две тенденции – стремление к избыточности (развертыванию), обеспечивающей надежность восприятия сообщений, и стремление к недостаточности, экономии речевых средств (свертыванию), обеспечивающей повышение «пропускной способности» информационных каналов. `Свертывание (развертывание) в сфере информационных коммуникаций рассматривается как информационное свертывание. Оно сводится к определению и использованию необходимого и достаточного объема речевых средств при описании некоторой ситуации, обеспечивающих оптимальные условия общения, т.е. понимание сообщения без его избыточности. Можно сказать и так: свертывание – это процедура определения уровня необходимой и достаточной информативности сообщения в зависимости от стоящей коммуникативной задачи. При этом свертывание сопровождается уменьшением физического объема сообщения, а развертывание – соответственно его увеличением. Информационное свертывание (развертывание) может быть семантическим и лексическим. - Семантическое связано с изменением информативности сообщения. - Лексическое оставляет смысл сообщения без изменений, но преобразует его знаковую форму. Такое деление несколько условно, поскольку семантическое свертывание сопровождается обычно лексическими преобразованиями; с другой стороны, сокращение иногда только одного слова, выступающего в качестве определения, переводит текст на более высокий уровень обобщения. Пример: (рекомендательная) библиография – библиография. Семантическое свертывание в языке – это стихийный процесс терминообразования, в ходе которого возникают понятия более краткие, чем их синонимичные предшественники. Пример: компьютер > электронно-вычислительная машина. При лексическом свертывании производится преобразование знаковой формы сообщения при сохранении его информативности. Различают три способа лексического свертывания: 1) опущение, при котором то или иное место в предложении, предназначенное для определенных повторяющихся или не повторяющихся в тексте языковых единиц, остается пустым, но может быть заполнено этими единицами благодаря опоре на сохраняющиеся в предложении элементы; 2) совмещение, при котором два или несколько предложений, некоторые элементы которых тождественны, накладываются друг на друга, образуя сокращенную конструкцию, где тождественный компонент употреблен только однажды, но сохраняет самостоятельные связи с неотождествленными частями совмещенных предложений; 3) замещение, при котором повторяющийся или неповторяющийся отрезок текста замещается другим, более кратким, с сохранением в последнем необходимого уровня смысла первого (например, замена местоимением слова или выражения, применение более кратких синонимичных вариантов). К перечисленным видам лексического свертывания можно добавить также применение аббревиатур, условных сокращений, перевод в иную знаковую систему (употребление формул, графиков, кодов и т.п.). Понятия «свертывание информации» и «свертывание документа» не синонимичны. В случае свертывания (развертывания) информации мы имеем дело с текстом, сообщением, не ограничиваемым рамками определенного документа. Текст преобразуется тем или иным способом с целью уменьшения (или увеличения) его физического объема с оставлением в нем необходимых «смысловых вех». При свертывании (развертывании) документа получается новый документ (в общем случае вторичный). Операция свертывания информации при этом может быть не единственной операцией аналитико-синтетической переработки документа наряду с дословным извлечением (или опущением), сокращением, либо, наоборот, добавлением фраз или фрагментов, изменением логической структуры документа и др. Свертывание в сфере информационного обслуживания является частным случаем информационного свертывания. Специфика лишь в том, что если при информационном свертывании в качестве объекта выступает, как правило, мыслительный образ некоторой непосредственной реальной ситуации, то при свертывании в сфере информационного обслуживания та же ситуация, но опосредованная документом автора (отправителя информации). И в том, и в другом случае рождаются новые тексты. Можно выделить два подхода метаинформативный и информативный. к свертыванию информации: Метаинформативное свертывание предполагает создание ряда документов, основная цель которых в той или иной степени раскрыть тему и содержание других документов. Такой ряд называется библиографическим. К нему относятся не только традиционные виды вторичных документов – библиографические описания, аннотации, библиографические обзоры, но и авторефераты диссертаций, предисловия и введения к книгам, программы учебных курсов, справочные аппараты изданий и др. Во всех этих документах содержится «информация об информации». Информативное свертывание предполагает создание ряда документов, основная цель которых служить непосредственным источником информации при решении определенных задач. Этот ряд называется фактографическим. Он может включать в себя как первичные, так и вторичные документы различного уровня свертывания. Так, ряд фактографических первичных документов образует, например, цепочки: отчет, статья, краткие сообщения, информационный листок; фактографический ряд вторичных документов – рефераты типа экспрессинформация, информационные журналы типа реферативного журнала Всероссийского института научной и технической информации (ВИНИТИ), самостоятельные фрагменты текстов, цитаты, фактографические справки, реферативные обзоры и другие документы, использование которых, как правило, не вызывает для определенной категории потребителей информации необходимости обращения к первоисточнику. Этапы аналитико-синтетической переработки информации (АСПИ). Чтение документа АСПИ начинается с чтения документа и извлечения информации, зафиксированной в нем. Чтение – вид умственной деятельности, который требует своей организации труда. Общепризнанно, что оно включает процессы восприятия, внимания, мышления, памяти. Все кто связан с документами, информацией по роду своей профессиональной деятельности, должны быть профессиональными читателями, обладающими следующими умениями: 1) гностическими или познавательными, т.е. выделять главное в тексте, связи между явлениями, использовать «свернутые» записи (заметки, тезисы, конспекты), библиографические и справочные издания, пользоваться приемами скорочтения, производить анализ, синтез, обобщение на материале изучаемого текста; 2) проектировочными, т.е. формулировать цели чтения, самостоятельной работы, задачи, темп и ритм чтения и т.п.; своей 3) конструктивными, т.е. умениями конспектировать, аннотировать, реферировать, составлять планы, тезисы; 4) коммуникативными, т.е. активно воспринимать устные сообщения, анализировать их и участвовать в обсуждении, высказывать собственное отношение к прочитанному и т.д.; 5) организаторскими, т.е. организовывать свое время и читательскую деятельность, рабочее место, контролировать зрение, движение глаз, утомляемость, организовывать накапливаемую в процессе чтения информацию таким образом, чтобы по окончании чтения ею можно было воспользоваться. Анализ текста документа АСПИ предполагает тщательную работу с текстом документа. Текст – это линейная последовательность знаков, обладающая смыслом. В качестве текста может выступать как отдельное предложение, так и их совокупность, в которой одни предложения выражают предмет речи (текстовый субъект), а другие – информацию об этом предмете (текстовый предикат) (элементы текста II лингвистического уровня), сложные синтаксические целые (элементы текста III лингвистического уровня). Читая документ, следует обращать внимание на его структуру, выделять основные составляющие текста, анализировать содержащуюся в нем информацию. Рабочая запись о прочитанном Восприятие, осмысление и закрепление прочитанного отражаются в соответствующих записях. Записи необходимо вести, чтобы лучше запомнить и усвоить прочитанный документ. Запись способствует лучшему пониманию текста: удлиняется процесс восприятия мыслей автора, как бы повторяя ее, прочнее запоминается. Записи дают возможность быстро восстановить в памяти забытое. Они являются средством поддержания внимания на содержании текста, помогая сосредоточиться, и, наконец, запись текста своими словами развивает письменную речь. Различные варианты записей используются при создании аннотаций, рефератов, обзорной информации. Запись о прочитанном бывает нескольких типов – план, выписки, цитаты, пометки на полях (маргиналии), тезисы, аннотации, резюме. Выбор формы зависит от индивидуальных особенностей человека, его образования, свойств памяти, назначения записи. Тезисы Тезисы – это произведения. сжатое изложение основных мыслей прочитанного Их особенность – утвердительный характер. В переводе с греческого «тезо» значит «утверждаю». В тезисах сосредотачивается наиболее важное из текста, выводы и обобщения. В них, как правило, нет доказательств, иллюстраций и пояснений. Они не повторяют дословно текст, но достаточно близки к нему. При этом можно воспроизводить некоторые характерные выражения автора, в которых отражается ход его мыслей, и которые помогают понять содержание произведения. Тезисы создаются после предварительного ознакомления с текстом или при повторном чтении. Текст разбивают на ряд отрывков и создают план. В каждом фрагменте выделяется главное, уясняется суть и формулируется тезис. Каждый тезис «вытекает» из другого, и в окончательном варианте тезисы могут иметь нумерацию. Часть тезисов может быть записана в виде цитат. Данный метод применяют для сравнения разных точек зрения. Аннотация Аннотация – краткая характеристика документа, раскрывающая его назначение, содержание, форму и другие особенности. Происходит от латинского слова «annotatio» – замечание. Составляется аннотация после прочтения произведения. Аннотирование – процесс аналитико-синтетической переработки информации, целью которого является получение обобщенной характеристики документа, раскрывающей его логическую структуру и наиболее существенные стороны содержания. В результате данного процесса создается аннотация. К аннотации предъявляются следующие требования: - учет характера и тематики аннотируемого документа; - содержательность; - объективность; - полнота; - краткость; - понятность. Информационный работник должен раскрыть в аннотации основные, существенные элементы документа. Она должна быть конкретна и точна в передачи содержания. Аннотация должна отличаться полнотой (представлять сведения о теме документа, особенностях изложения материала, его назначении, идейной направленности и т.п.) и краткостью. Краткость есть сжатое представление сведений в аннотации в пределах заданного объема (объем минимизируется стандартами). Средним объемом считается 500 печатных знаков. С полнотой тесно связано требование объективности изложения информации. Требование содержательности ассоциируется с понятием краткости. Резюме Резюме – сжатое изложение основных положений, выводов какого-либо научного произведения (или доклада) Оно происходит от французского глагола «rezumer» – излагать вкратце. Если аннотация кратко характеризует документ, то резюме характеризует выводы, главные итоги, содержащиеся в данном документе. Данный вид записи используется при анализе именно выводной части, содержащейся в документе. Кроме того, в различных работах создается резюмирующая часть, подводящая итоги исследования. Поэтому знания и умения создания резюме необходимы каждому студенту. С резюме можно столкнуться в научных журналах, где оно выделяется специально и может приводиться на двух языках: русском и, как правило, на английском. Конспект Конспект – наиболее совершенная форма записей. Происходит от латинского слова «conspectus», что означает обзор, изложение. В нем отражается самое основное в изучаемом произведении, сосредоточено внимание на наиболее существенном; в кратких, четких формулировках обобщены важнейшие теоретические положения. Составление конспекта требует вдумчивой работы, затраты времени и усилий. Конспектирование способствует глубокому пониманию и усвоению изучаемых источников, помогает вырабатывать навыки правильного изложения в письменной форме и умения четко формулировать и ясно излагать. Конспектирование считается одним из эффективных способов использования литературы. Конспект – многофункционален: он заменяет сам источник; выступает как дополнительный блок памяти – накопитель наиболее ценных фактов; является фрагментом будущего произведения (например, обзора). При конспектировании больших трудов или книг, сложных для восприятия, сначала составляют план (конспекты содержат не только основные положения и выводы, но и факты доказательства, примеры, иллюстрации). Реферат Реферирование является одним из важнейших видов аналитикосинтетической переработки информации, заключающийся в анализе первичного документа и извлечении из него наиболее важных в смысловом отношении сведений, основных положений, фактических данных, результатов, выводов. Реферирование представляет собой сложный процесс, сопряженный со значительными интеллектуальными и временными затратами. Цель реферирования – сокращение физического объема первичного документа при сохранении его основного смыслового содержания. Реферат - краткое точное изложение содержания документа, включающее основные фактические сведения и выводы, без дополнительной интерпретации или критических замечаний автора реферата. Реферат выступает в качестве объекта стандартизации ОСТа 29-130-97 «Издания. Термины и определения», где он определяется как «произведение, содержащее краткое изложение содержания какого-либо произведения или издания (его части) с основными фактическими сведениями и выводами». Если в аннотации приводится лишь краткий перечень вопросов, рассматриваемых в документе, то в реферате излагается сущность вопросов, приводятся фактические данные и важнейшие выводы. Рефераты применяются в издательской, библиографической, научноинформационной деятельности, связанной с оповещением о выходе различных публикаций, с поиском, передачей и использованием информации. Они помещаются в реферативных журналах, сборниках и т.д. Реферат часто служит основным исходным документом в автоматизированных информационных системах. Реферат отвечает на вопрос: «Что именно сообщается в первичном документе». Главное его свойство – информативность – способность кратко передать смысл первичного документа. Информативность является наиболее существенной и отличительной чертой реферата, важная задача которого состоит в передаче информации фактографического характера (о реальных событиях, изделиях, материалах, технологических процессах, конкретном производственном опыте) или концептографического характера (о теориях, гипотезах, методах). Объектами реферирования являются научные статьи (теоретические, экспериментальные, методические, описательные и т.д.), главы из книг (монографий, сборников депонированные рукописи. трудов и т.д.), патентные документы, Не подлежат реферированию: стандарты, технические условия, инструкции, прейскуранты, каталоги оборудования, справочные, информационные и библиографические издания, тезаурусы, классификационные схемы и т.п. Текст реферата должен отличаться: - ясностью; - конкретностью; - четкостью; - лаконизмом. Основные функции реферата: - информативная, - поисковая. Реферат представляет информацию о документе и устраняет необходимость чтения полного текста в случае, если он представляет для читателя второстепенный интерес. Он используется в информационнопоисковых, в том числе автоматизированных системах, для поиска документов и информации. Типизация рефератов По признаку принадлежности к определенной области знания можно выделить рефераты по общественным, гуманитарным, естественным, точным, техническим и прикладным наукам; отраслям экономики. По способу характеристики первичного документа различают общие рефераты или рефераты-конспекты, последовательно излагающие в общем виде содержание всего первичного документа; специализированные или проблемно-ориентированные рефераты, акцентирующие внимание читателя на отдельных темах или проблемах первичного документа. По признаку составительства различают авторский реферат, где приводится обобщенная характеристика содержания статьи, указываются основные аспекты, излагаются результаты, референтский составленный специалистом, редакторский, машинный и др. реферат, По количеству источников реферирования выделяют монографические (составленные на один первичный документ), рефератыфрагменты (составленные на отдельную часть первичного документа), обзорные или сводные, групповые рефераты. По форме изложения это текстовые, табличные, иллюстративные или смешанные рефераты. По объему или глубине свертывания – краткие (не более 850 печатных знаков) и расширенные рефераты (объем может составлять 10-15% от объема первичного документа) в зависимости от его ценности, новизны и доступности. По степени формализации реферирования рефераты дифференцируют на интеллектуальные (составленные человеком на основе его интуитивных представлений о значимости содержащейся в первичном документе информации) и формализованные (составленные на основе формализованных методик). По функции и глубине отражения содержания источника различают индикативные и информативные рефераты. Из данной классификации наиболее часто используется последний вариант. Индикативный (указательный) реферат указывает на основные аспекты содержания первичного документа. Он дает, как правило, четкое представление об объекте документа, об основных вопросах, рассматриваемых в документе, о полученных результатах, выводах. Основная цель индикативного реферата - уведомить потребителя о появлении соответствующей информации, дать потребителю возможность решить, представляет ли данный документ для него ценность или интерес. Индикативный реферат (как промежуточный вторичный документ между аннотацией и информативным рефератом) используется в некоторых информационных службах. Обращение к нему диктуется рядом причин: отсутствием кадров референтов требуемой специальности и квалификации; специфическими особенностями некоторых видов первичных документов монографий, учебников, сборников статей, указателей литературы и др. Часто индикативный реферат представляет собой перечисление основных объектов, рассмотренных в первичном документе. Своеобразная разновидность индикативного реферата сложилась в рамках автоматизированных ИПС. Такие рефераты характеризуются четкой структурой, включающей в себя три основных элемента: библиографическое описание, список ключевых слов, индикативные признаки. Список ключевых слов – это перечень слов или словосочетаний на естественном языке, выражающих основное смысловое содержание первичного документа и извлекаемых, в основном, из текста самого документа. Индикативные признаки – это сжатый текст, являющийся дополнением к библиографическому описанию и списку ключевых слов и имеющий целью раскрыть наиболее важные формальные и содержательные аспекты первичного документа. Индикативные рефераты, которые составляются на вводимые в систему документы, фигурируют многократно: из них формируется информационный массив, они вводятся в машину и определенные их части (ключевые слова) образуют поисковый массив; они же по завершению поиска выводятся из машины и распечатываются в виде индивидуальных списков, адресуемых конкретным потребителям. Информативные рефераты – наиболее распространенная и наиболее изученная форма рефератов. Информативный реферат доносит до потребителя конкретную информацию, извлеченную из документа, в нем наиболее полно отражается содержание первичного документа, основные идеи и фактические данные. В них излагаются основные цели исследования или разработки, исходные данные, выводы, полученные результаты. Сфера применения информативных рефератов – это главным образом реферативные журналы. Ориентация именно на этот тип рефератов в РЖ вызывается многими соображениями, среди которых наиболее существенны следующие: 1) такие рефераты позволяют донести до читателя информацию из документов, хранящихся у разных, а иногда и единичных держателей; 2) информативные рефераты – одно из средств снижения потерь информации, связанных с рассеянием публикаций; 3) такие рефераты являются средством преодоления языковых барьеров; 4) публикации информативных рефератов – средство значительного повышения оперативности донесения информации до потребителя. Подготовка информативного реферата достаточно сложный и трудоемкий процесс, который требует от референта глубокого смыслового анализа текста, дифференцированного подхода к различным составным частям первичного документа и квалифицированного синтеза информации в новом, вторичном документе. Информативный реферат составляется по следующему плану: - тема, предмет исследования, характер и цель работы; - методы проведения работы; - конкретные результаты работы; - выводы (оценки, предложения), принятые и отвергнутые гипотезы, описанные в первичном документе; - область применения. Одна из сложностей реферирования состоит в том, что, анализируя текст, референт не всегда может синтезировать важную информацию, строго следуя тому плану, по которому составлен первичный документ. Это возможно лишь при условии, что первичный документ имеет отработанную структуру (например, автореферат диссертации). Чаще же референт должен составлять новый план изложения, полностью перестраивая структуру первичного документа. Методика реферирования Методика реферирования представляет собой своеобразную технологию анализа и обобщения, систему способов, правил и приемов, используемых при составлении реферата. Процесс реферирования начинается с анализа, оценки и отбора информации. Затем следует обобщение выявленных сведений и, наконец, сжатое концентрированное изложение информации в виде текста реферата. Изучение первичного документа следует начинать со знакомства с заглавием, рубрикацией, выводами и резюме. Это позволяет четко представить содержание документа в целом, получить сведения оценочного характера. Необходимо установить фактическое соответствие содержания рассмотренного круга вопросов и выводов заглавию документа (особенно для зарубежного источника). При повторном чтении рекомендуется в тексте выделять абзацы или другие логически акцентированные части, содержащие сведения, соответствующие запросу. В результате анализа первоисточника референт должен получить четкое представление об объекте работы, его свойствах, преимуществах и недостатках; цели работы; методах; основных результатах и выводах автора; реализации и области применения сведений из первоисточника. После просмотра первоисточника референт должен принять решение о виде реферата, который необходимо составить. Одна из серьезных задач референта – суметь правильно начать реферат, а именно с изложения сущности работы; заглавие и сведения, имеющиеся в библиографическом описании, не должны повторяться в тексте. Реферат должен давать верное отражение смыслового содержания оригинала; недопустимо, чтобы второстепенные вопросы освещались в реферате наравне с главными. Все, что в первичном документе не заслуживает внимания потребителя, должно быть опущено. В реферат НЕ включаются: - общие выводы, не вытекающие из полученных результатов; - информация, не понятная без обращения к первоисточнику; - общеизвестные сведения; - второстепенные детали, избыточные рассуждения; - исторические справки; - детальные описания экспериментов и методик; - сведения о ранее опубликованных документах и т.д. Содержание реферата должно передаваться объективно. Как правило, референту не следует давать собственную оценку материала или вступать в полемику с автором реферируемого источника. (Рефераты по общественным наукам могут содержать критическую оценку содержания источника). Все названные приемы составления реферата позволяют обеспечить соблюдение основных методических принципов реферирования - адекватность, информативность, краткость и достоверность. Процесс составления реферата включает шесть этапов: 1 этап. Ознакомительное реферируемого документа. чтение и предварительный анализ 2 этап. Внимательное чтение и углубленный анализ. Цель – исключение несущественных сведений или сведений, не относящихся к основному содержанию документа. В результате референт должен получить четкое представление об объекте работы, его свойствах, преимуществах и недостатках, о цели работы, применявшихся методах, об основных результатах и выводах автора, о степени реализации и области применения сведений из первоисточника. Необходимо отметить противоречивые и недоказанные положения, высказанные автором первичного документа. В ходе анализа текста первичного документа осуществляется оценка значимости составляющих его элементов с точки зрения целесообразности отражения их в реферате. Выделяются: - элементы, которые обязательно должны быть отражены в реферате; - новые идеи и гипотезы, экспериментальные данные, новые методики, оригинальные конструкции машин и механизмов, качественно новые явления, процессы и т.д.; - сведения, не являющиеся принципиально новыми: традиционные методы, формульный, цифровой материал и т.п. (отражаются в реферате избирательно); - аргументы, пояснения, примеры и другая информация разъяснительноиллюстративного характера (как правило, либо не включается в реферат, либо представляется в аннотированном виде). 3 этап. Определение вида реферата – расширенный или краткий, общий или специализированный. Выбор вида реферата зависит от вида реферируемого произведения, целей и задач процедуры свертывания. 4 этап. Определение структуры реферата в зависимости от его вида, выбор соответствующих языковых и стилистических средств. 5 этап. Синтез информации, компоновка текста в соответствии с требованиями к структуре и стилю реферата. В ходе синтеза обеспечивается последовательное краткое изложение основного смыслового содержания первичного документа, достигается связность и логичность представления информации. С этой целью проводится процедура редактирования текста реферата. 14 6 этап. Оформление реферата в соответствии с требованиями ГОСТ 7.9-95. Структура реферата Независимо от вида реферат состоит из трех основных частей: 1. заголовочной части, 2. собственно реферативной части 3. справочного аппарата. Заголовочная часть реферата - это заглавие реферата и библиографическое описание документа, составленное в соответствии с требованиями ГОСТ 7.1-2003, ГОСТ 7.80-2000, ГОСТ 7.82-2001 и ГОСТ 7.9-95. При работе с заголовочной частью приходится уделять основное внимание заглавию реферата. По-видимому, ни в одном документе заглавие не играет такой большой роли и не имеет специфических особенностей, как в реферате, где оно является по существу органическим элементом текста и вместе с тем способно самостоятельно выполнять часть функций реферата. С семантической точки зрения заглавие обязано адекватно передавать содержание реферата (как, впрочем, и всякого документа). Наряду с этим, оно должно отвечать требованию удобного, быстрого и безошибочного документального информационного поиска по предметным признакам. Поэтому в заглавии нужно стремиться полнее отражать основные смысловые аспекты содержания документа. Заглавие также выполняет адресную функцию. Однако самостоятельно оно не в состоянии решать такую задачу целиком, так как полными адресными признаками обладает лишь вся заголовочная часть. Практикой подтверждается, что с точки зрения потребителя заглавие реферата выполняет прежде всего сигнальную и информативную функции. Вместе с тем оно служит сокращенным поисковым образом документа, и, по-видимому, нигде так не проявляются смысловые аспекты, отраженные в заглавии, и его семантическая адекватность и эквивалентность содержанию документа, как в процессе информационного поиска. Эксперименты по машинному поиску научно-технических документов, поисковые образы которых были составлены на основе заглавий, говорят о том, что точность поиска в таких случаях равняется 20-25%. Было также выявлено, что в зависимости от характера запросов потребителей информации, от объема и тематики фонда поисковый образ документа целесообразно составлять либо только по заглавию, либо по заглавию и начальной части реферата, либо по реферату в целом. Строго говоря, заглавие не должно было бы содержать неключевых слов, так как сами по себе они не отражают смысловых аспектов. Но поскольку заглавие является связанным текстом, неключевых слов в нем не избежать, следовательно, реальная задача состоит в том, чтобы свести их количество к минимуму. При объединении в единое целое выявленной в ходе анализа первичного документа информации рекомендуется использовать основные способы реферативного изложения текста, а именно: - цитирование, т.е. дословное воспроизведение фрагментов первичного документа; - перефразирование, которое предполагает частичное изменение (сокращение, объединение, замену, группировку и т.п. процедуры) отдельных фрагментов текста первичного документа; - замещение – замену фрагмента текста (предложения в целом, его части, словосочетания или слова). Модель реферата научной статьи 1. Вводная часть реферата В статье "...", помещенной в журнале "..." №... за ... год, рассматриваются вопросы (проблемы, пути, методы) Автор статьи - известный ученый... Статья называется (носит название..., под названием..., озаглавлена..., под заголовком.., опубликована в...) 2. Тема статьи, ее общая характеристика Тема статьи -... ( Статья на тему..., Статья посвящена теме (проблеме, вопросу)...)... Статья представляет собой обобщение (изложение, описание, анализ, обзор). 3. Проблема статьи В статье речь идет... (о чем?), (говорится (о чем?), рассматривается (что?), дается оценка (чему?, чего?), анализ (чего?), изложение (чего?). Сущность проблемы сводится... (к чему?), заключается (в чем?), состоит (в чем?). 4. Композиция статьи Статья делится на … части (-ей) (состоит из ... частей, начинается (с чего?), заканчивается (чем?)...). 5. Описание основного содержания статьи Во введении формулируется ...(что?) (дается определение ...(чего?) ) В начале статьи определяются (излагаются) цель(цели, задачи)... Далее дается общая характеристика проблемы (глав, частей), исследования, статьи... В статье автор ставит(затрагивает, освещает) следующие проблемы, (останавливается (на чем?) касается (чего?)...) В основной части излагается (что?), приводится аргументация ( в пользу чего? против чего?), дается обобщение (чего?) (научное описание (чего?)... В статье также затронуты такие вопросы, как... 6. Иллюстрация автором своих положений Автор приводит (ссылается на) пример(ы) (факты, цифры, данные), подтверждающие, иллюстрирующие его положения... В статье приводится, дается... 7. Заключение, выводы автора Автор приходит к выводу(заключению), что... (подводит нас к..., делает вывод, подводит итог) В конце статьи подводятся итоги (чего?) В заключение автор говорит, что, (утверждает, что)... В заключение говорится, что... (о чем?) Сущность вышеизложенного сводится к (следующему)... 8. Выводы и оценки референта В итоге можно (необходимо, хотелось бы) сказать (подчеркнуть, отметить)... Таким образом, в статье нашло отражение... (убедительно доказано..., получили исчерпывающее освещение...)... Оценивая работу в целом, можно утверждать... Безусловной заслугой автора является... Заслуга автора состоит (заключается) (в чем ?)... Основная ценность работы состоит (заключается) (в чем ?)... Достоинством работы является... Недостатком работы является... К достоинствам (недостаткам) работы относятся... С теоретической (практической) точки зрения важно (существенно)... Вызывают возражения (сомнения)... Нельзя (не) согласиться с... Существенным недостатком работы можно считать... В статье под заглавием "...", помещенной в журнале "...", № ... за ... год, излагаются взгляды (проблемы, вопросы)... Предлагаемая вниманию читателей статья (книга, монография) представляет собой детальное (общее) изложение вопросов... Рассматриваемая статья посвящена теме (проблеме, вопросу...) В статье рассматриваются вопросы, имеющие важное значение для... Актуальность рассматриваемой проблемы, по словам автора, определяется тем, что... Тема статьи (вопросы, рассматриваемые в статье) представляет большой интерес... Основная тема статьи отвечает задачам... Выбор темы статьи (исследования) закономерен, не случаен... В начале статьи автор дает обоснование актуальности темы (проблемы, вопроса, идеи)... Затем дается характеристика целей и задач исследования (статьи). Рассматриваемая статья состоит из двух (трех) частей. Автор дает определение (сравнительную характеристику, обзор, анализ)... Затем автор останавливается на таких проблемах, как (касается следующих проблем, ставит вопрос о том, что...) ... Автор подробно останавливается на истории возникновения (зарождения, появления, становления)... Автор излагает в хронологической последовательности историю... Автор подробно (кратко) описывает (классифицирует, характеризует) факты... Автор доказывает справедливость (опровергает что-либо)... Автор приводит доказательства справедливости своей точки зрения. Далее в статье приводится целый ряд примеров, доказывающих (иллюстрирующих) правильность (справедливость)... В статье дается обобщение ..., приводятся хорошо аргументированные доказательства... В заключение автор говорит о том, что... Изложенные (рассмотренные) в статье вопросы (проблемы) представляют интерес не только для..., но и для... Надо заметить (подчеркнуть), что... Несомненный интерес представляют выводы автора о том, что... Наиболее важными из выводов автора представляются следующие... Это, во-первых..., во-вторых..., в-третьих..., и, наконец... Речевые клише для написания рефератов и аннотаций Большое внимание следует уделить обработке специальных клише, характерных для жанра реферата и аннотации. Клише – это речевой стереотип, готовый воспроизводимого оборот, используемый в качестве легко в определенных условиях и контекстах стандарта. В научном изложении имеется ряд подобных речевых стереотипов. Они облегчают процесс коммуникации, реферанта- экономят усилия, мыслительную энергию и время переводчика и его адресата. Для выработки автоматизма у реферантапереводчика необходима классификация основных клише. Удобная классификация построена на понятийной основе. В соответствии с ней клише группируются в зависимости от общего понятия с ним связанного, внутри которого рассматриваются более мелкие группировки. Например, на английском языке: 1. Общая характеристика статьи: Thepaper (article) underdiscussion (consideration) is intended (aims) to describe (explain, examine, survey) … 2. Задачи, поставленныеавтором: The author outlines (points out, reviews, analyses)… 3. Оценка полученных результатов исследования: Theresultsobtainedconfirm (lead to, show)… 4. Подведениеитогов, выводовпоработе: The paper summarizes, in summing up to author, at the end of the article the author sums up... Образцы клишированных аннотаций на английском языке The article deals with … As the title implies the article describes ... The paper is concerned with… It is known that… It should be noted about… The fact that … is stressed. A mention should be made about … It is spoken in detail about… It is reported that … The text gives valuable information on… Much attention is given to… It is shown that… The following conclusions are drawn… The paper looks at recent research dealing with… The main idea of the article is… It gives a detailed analysis of… It draws our attention to… It is stressed that… The article is of great help to … The article is of interest to … ….. is/are noted, examined, discussed in detail, stressed, reported, considered. Образцы клишированных рефератов на английском языке The paper is devoted to (is concerned with) …. The paper deals with …. The investigation (the research) is carried out …. The experiment (analysis) is made …. The measurements (calculations) are made …. The research includes (covers, consists of) …. The data (the results of …) are presented (given, analyzed, compared with, collected) …. The results agree well with the theory …. The results proved to be interesting (reliable) …. The new theory (technique) is developed (worked out, proposed, suggested, advanced) …. The new method (technique) is discussed (tested, described, shown) …. This method (theory) is based on …. This method is now generally accepted …. The purpose of the experiment is to show …. The purpose of the research is to prove (test, develop, summarize, find) …. Special attention is paid (given) to …. Some factors are taken into consideration (account) …. Some factors are omitted (neglected) …. The scientists conclude (come to conclusion) …. The paper (instrument) is designed for …. The instrument is widely used …. A brief account is given of …. The author refers to … Reference is made to …. The author gives a review of …. There are several solutions of the problem …. There is some interesting information in the paper …. It is expected (observed) that …. It is reported (known, demonstrated) that …. It appears (seems, proves) that …. 19 It is likely (certain, sure) …. It is possible to obtain …. It is important to verify …. It is necessary to introduce …. It is impossible to account for …. It should be remembered (noted, mentioned) …. ЧАСТЬ II Практические задания SINGLE WORDS A single word can sometimes replace a phrase. For example, the sentence in 1 can be written as 2. He has a high opinion of himself. He is conceited. TASK 1 Find single words for the phrases in italics and rewrite the sentences making appropriate changes where necessary. To help you with this task, the first letter of the word has been given. The first one has been done for you. 1 He is never late and always arrives on time. (p__ __ __ __ __ __ __) 2 When the bus started skidding, the woman started screaming with uncontrollable emotion and fear. (h__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __) 3 My cousin is someone who is very social and enjoys the company of other people. (g __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __) 4 The company buys compressors from other countries. (i __ __ __ __ __ __) 5 A camel is often used to cross a great stretch of dry, sandy land. (d __ __ __ __ __) 6 Do you think he is incapable of making a mistake? (i__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __) Finally, even people who thought the worst would happen, were convinced that they would survive. (p__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __) 8 Scrooge never thought of treating his clerk with kindness and sympathy. (c__ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __ __) ADJECTIVES and ADVERBS Often, an adjectival or adverbial phrase can be replaced with a single adjective or adverb. Study the sentence 1a and lb. 1a. He wore a hat made of fur. 1b. He wore a fur hat. The phrase made of fur has been replaced with the adjective fur. Similarly, the phrase at any time in your life in sentence 2a below can be replaced with the adverb ever in sentence 2b. 2a. Have you been to New York at any time in your life? 2b. Have you ever been to New York. TASK 2 Replace the phrases in italics with a single word ; {adjective or adverb) and rewrite the sentences making appropriate changes. 1 In ancient times barbers usually wore aprons that had stripes on them. _____________________________________ 2 Amitabh Bachchan normally uses his left hand.. _____________________________________ 3 I have seen him in the park many times before. ______________________________________ 4 He could believe that he had finally been chosen for the University team only with difficulty. _______________________________________ 5 We got a vacation that lasted for two months. _______________________________________ CLASS WORDS At times, we can avoid long lists by using class words or generic terms. Study the sentences 1 a and 1b here. 1a. There were many tables, chairs, beds and dressers in the room. 1 b. There was a lot of furniture in the room. Notice that furniture is a generic term or a class word that helps to make the sentences brief. TASK 3 Choose the generic term/class word for the sets of words in 1-10. fish, virtues, public institutions, epics cutlery, diseases, weapons, linen crockery, mammals 1 diphtheria, typhoid, cholera, chickenpox. 2 schools, hospitals, courts, prisons 3 gun, sword, spear, lance 4 Iliad, Ramayana, Mahabharata 5 cup, saucer, plate, bowl 6 salmon, trout, plaice, sturgeon 7 spoon, knife, fork 8 elephant, whale, bear, monkey 9 sheet, pillow-case, tablecloth, napkins 10 honesty, kindness, sincerity, modesty Focus ON FACTS (FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE) Writers at times use figurative language to make a description or narration more vivid. However, while summarizing we focus on the fact behind the figurative language. For example, 1a. It is as plain as the nose on your face that they are in love. 1 b. It is obvious that they are in love. 2a. I'm feeling a bit out of sorts today. 2b. I'm not feeling very well today. The message expressed using figurative language in 1a and 2a is conveyed in plain language in 1b and 2b. TASK 4 Shorten the sentences below by replacing the phrases in italics with an appropriate phrase or word and rewrite them. 1 Miss Mason looked as if she had seen a ghost. ……………………………………………………………………….. 2 Sajad was black and blue all over after he fell off his bike. ……………………………………………………………….. 3 The Director gave Mohsin the cold shoulder at the party. ………………………………………………………………. 4 After the bell rang, the children entered the class like a stampeding herd of elephants. ……………………………………………………………………………….. 5 We'll need to get a move on if we don't want to miss our bus. ………………………………………………………………….. 6 After his son's death, he felt there was no point in going on living. ……………………………………………………………………………….. 7 There were no clouds in the sky and the sun beat down pitilessly. ……………………………………………………………………………….. 8 Mr Darcy could have bitten his tongue off for making those remarks. ………………………………………………………………………… Summarizing Paragraphs To summarize a paragraph, we need to identify the topic sentence or the main point of the paragraph. Study the paragraph below. What do you think is the main idea? Everyone is in a great hurry nowadays. Cars speed down roads, trains whizz past stations and jets roar across continents and seas. Their speed keeps increasing. Why? Because people are in a tearing hurry to reach their destination. The main idea which is expanded with examples in the paragraph is: Everyone is in a hurry nowadays. Sometimes, the main idea is not very obvious. You then need to read this paragraph carefully to arrive at the main idea. TASK 5 Read the paragraph below. Then determine which of the four options summarizes the paragraph the best. For years Indians lived by the weatherproof maxim of Rahim:' Tloatbepaonpasariyejitti iambi saur (Stretch your legs such that your legs don't stick out of the blanket). Very simply, Akbar's poet-minister advocated living within means. So India had among the highest savings rates, conspicuous spending was frowned upon and assets were created either out of savings or inheritance. Would-be grooms were, and still are, screened on the basis of personal habits and personal debt. To be in debt, in short, was to mortgage the future - among the worst curses one could invite. For many, it also meant the good things in life either came too late or never happened, leaving them longing wistfully for that dream home, that car ride or that home theatre system. IndiaToday 17 November 2003 a. Indian society has disapproved the credit culture. b. Indians have always spent money carefully. c. Indians live by the maxims of wise men. d. Many Indians cannot afford luxuries. Note: Newspaper headlines generally summarize the article that follows. Study the news item here and determine whether the headline truly conveys the content. Man swallows 99 nails, dies A man who swallowed 99 nails to ward off evil spirit died in a hospital in Rourkela on Saturday. Akliyay Kumar Mohanry, 40, who was admitted to Ispat General Hospital here after he complained of severe stomach ache, told surgeons that he had swallowed 99 nails to ward off evil spirit. Nails four inches each in length were found in Mohanty's stomach, duodenum and colon. Occam Herald . Sunday, 22 February 2004 TASK 6 Given below is another extract. Write a headline that summarizes the news item. Seven tropical community groups, including one from India, have been awarded prizes by the United Nations for their work to reduce poverty and conserve biological wealth, PTI reports from United Nations. The Genetic Research, Energy, Ecology and Nutrition (GREEN) Foundation of India, which works with agricultural communities, especially women in Karnataka, is among the seven groups which have been awarded the prestigious United Nations Equator Prize for 2004. The winners were announced at an awards ceremony in the Malaysian capital of Kuala Lumpur on Thursday. Decern Herald Saturday, 21 February 2004 Types of Summaries There are two types of summaries - whole passage summary or precis, and selective summary. In a precis, the passage is usually reduced to one-third its length. In selective summaries, on the other hand, only such details that are asked for or needed are taken from the passage and summarized. TASK 7 The passage below presents the process of digestion. Read the whole passage and write a summary of the process of digestion in not more than forty words. Food and digestion Digestion is when food is broken down into smaller particles. This happens so that food can be absorbed into the bloodstream. Dr. Beaumont proved that part of this process happens in the stomach. The food in the stomach is mixed with gastric juice. This is very acidic. It contains lots of hydrochloric acid. Gastric juice helps the enzymes in the stomach to break down the food. Dr Beaumont also found that the digestive enzymes work best at body temperature, which is 37° C. They still work at lower temperatures, but they work more slowly. ………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………….. ………………………………………………………………………………….. …………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………… Answer to Task 7 Digestion happens in the stomach. Digestion is breaking down food into simpler substances that can be absorbed into the blood. The food is broken down by gastric juices. Digestive enzymes work best at body temperature. (35 words) TASK 8 Here is a passage about oil and gas. Read it carefully and then write a summary in not more than forty words on one of the two topics. Give your summary an appropriate heading. Ұ The uses of crude oil Ұ The growing need for fossil fuel Oil and Gas Petroleum is the proper name for 'crude oil' that is found underground. There is more petroleum on Earth than any other liquid, except for water. Crude oil and | natural gas are often found together. The natural gas is dissolved in the liquid oil. Crude oil provides two-thirds of the world's energy supplies. Oil and gas are non¬renewable sources. Our use of these has increased so much that we worry about how long they will last. The supplies will probably run out this century. Crude oil is not a pure substance. It contains many different materials. Petrol, paraffin, kerosene (for aeroplane fuel), diesel fuel, engine oil and bitumen (road tar) are all found in crude oil. People have used substances from crude oil for thousands of years. Some oil finds its way naturally up to the Earth's surface. Here it evaporates and leaves behind bitumen - the tarry part of the crude oil. This has been used for thousands of years as a waterproofing agent for plumbing, boat building and brickwork. The history books talk about bitumen being used as a coating for Moses' basket. Noah's Ark was waterproofed inside and out with it. The Native Americans collected crude oil to use in medicines. The American settlers learned to collect it to use as fuel in their lamps. Crude oil became valuable in the nineteenth century. The whaling industry did not provide enough whale oil to light the lamps of the world and a new source was needed. The first oil well was drilled in August 1859. The uses for oil increased as the supply grew. The car engine meant that the petrol from the oil mixture was needed for transport. Then the invention of aeroplanes needed more inch which had to be supplied form oil. In the 1940s man-made materials (such as nylon and polythene) made from oil were invented. It is no wonder that oil was called 'black gold' and that discovery of oil and gas could mean riches beyond belief. Oil is a fossil fuel. When we burn it we are releasing energy captured from the Sun millions of years ago by prehistoric plants and animals - the remains of these microscopic plants and tiny animals settled on the seabed. They were buried by sand the years went by. I he layers built up and the living things turned into oil. Some of this oil was trapped underground, not as a 'lake' but in the sandy rock itself. An oil well is drilled to look for pockets of porous rock that contains crude oil. When a pocket is found, water is pumped down to push the oil to the surface. "I he crude oil is then taken to a refinery. At the refinery, oil is separated into its parts by fractional distillation. (Heslop et al Hodder Science Gold (Pupils Book B) Hodder Murray 2002) TASK 9 Given below is a passage from James Forbes'book Oriental Memories that was written in the nineteenth century. Read Hand write a thirty-word summary on Kashmiri shawls in the nineteenth century. Give a title to your summary. Surat is also a considerable market for shawls, one of the most delicate fabrics vet brought from the loom: they are not indeed manufactured at Surat, not m any of the southern provinces, being chiefly the produce of Cachemire, that 'paradise nations,' where Acber, and many of the imperial princes retired from the cares of government: encircled by their favourite courtiers, and in the bosom of their family, they enjoyed in that mild climate the picturesque scenery of the surrounding mountains, and the rural beauties of the delicious valley, watered by the celebrated Hydaspes, and refreshed by many other streams from its lofty boundaries. The shawls manufactured in Cachemire, from the delicate silky wool of a goat peculiar to Thibet, are an elegant article of luxury, too well known in Europe, to need a particular description: this manufacture is not confined to Cachemire, but all others are deemed of an inferior quality: their prime cost is from twenty to five hundred rupees a shawl, according to j the size, texture, and pattern: some, perhaps, may be more valuable. (written in 1812) Summarizing Longer Passages To summarize longer passages or full chapters, we follow the same techniques we used to summarize paragraphs - we make a note of all the main points. TASK 10 Read the passage below from Bom Free by Joy Adamson. In not more than fifty words state how the truck was taken across. We packed up camp and arrived early in the morning at the ford to find that the water had risen considerably during the night and was still going up; we decided that it was still just fordable by cars. George unhitched the trailer from the Landrover and removed the fan belt to prevent water from splashing over the ignition system, then it crept into the river and crossed successfully. Next my truck entered with Elsa, as usual, sitting in the back. The water rushed past at alarming speed, carrying debris. The truck got bravely into the middle, then the engine spluttered and died. Nothing would make it start again. We released Elsa at once; she plunged into the water, splashed about and tried to retrieve the drift-wood, as though we had arranged all this for her amusement. Indeed she had such fun ducking the men I who were wading shoulder-high carrying { the loads across that we were finally obliged to tie her up. When at last the truck was empty, we tried to tow it, but it leant alarmingly to one side and the chains we had brought with us were not I long enough, so we had rapidly to improvise extensions with buffalo hide. Eventually, all hands pushing and I pulling, and applauded by the ever- present baboons, we managed to get it across. Camp had to be pitched on the spot, as it took all the rest of the day to dry out our kit, medicines, ammunition, books, foods, the engine of the truck, car spares, bedding rolls and tents. Elsa spent her time sniffing the still life, including George's tobacco which made her grimace in disgust. Born Free by Joy Adamson William Collin Sons & CO. Summarizing Stories While summarizing stories, we should look for the main incidents and ignore details that are not important. We should also avoid repeating the figurative language the author may have used. A technique that can be used is to note down the main idea in each paragraph and then put them together to make a summary. TASK 11 Read the story and write a summary in not more than 120 words. Give your summary a title. 1 Tired after a long day's travel through desert land, Ibrahim Bin Adham pitched his tent on the sands and went to sleep. For some hours he enjoyed a deep and dreamless sleep. 2 Then suddenly in the middle of the night he was woken by a bright light shining inside his tent. At first he wondered if it was already broad daylight. But sitting up, he saw a remarkable sight: a man wearing radiant white robes stood in one corner of his little tent! He had a golden book in his hands. The man had wings on his back and Ibrahim guessed that he was an angel. 3 Ibrahim quietly watched to see what the angel would do. The shining stranger lifted one arm and instantly a pen appeared in his hand. He concentrated on writing something in the golden book. Ibrahim could not contain his curiosity any longer. Although half afraid that the vision would disappear into thin air if he made it known that he was awake, he very respectfully asked the stranger who he was. 4 The shining man showed no surprise that Ibrahim was talking to him. He said: "I am the angel Gabriel, one of God's servants." 5 Ibrahim asked him what he was writing in his golden book. "In this book I am writing down the names of those men, women and children who are friends of God," explained Gabriel. 6 "Is mine one of the names you are writing in your book?" asked Ibrahim. 7 "Oh no, Ibrabim ," said the angel in a pitying voice. "You are not one of the friends of God." 8 "Yes," agreed Ibrahim humbly. "But Gabriel, have you another book in which to list the names of people who, like myself, are friends of those who are the friends of God?" 9 Gabriel shook his head. He looked at Ibrahim for a long moment. At last he said, holding up the open book: "Ibrahim, a friend of man is a friend of God. Look, though I have not written your name, God Himself has written it in this book!" 10 Sure enough. Right at the top of the page, in letters of shining gold, were the words: "Ibrahim Bin Adham" DebjaniChatterjee: Sufi Stories HarperCollins Publishers, India, 1997 Notes Para 1: tired -journey - thro' a desert - Ibrahim Bin Adham slept-tent. Para 2: woken up - light - shining from angel. Para 3: Summarizing Spoken Texts We are constantly summarizing conversations in real life. Read the telephone conversation in the box and then read the summary about Shirin's son that follows. Telephone Conversation Shirin: Hello, may I speak to Ayesha? Ayesha: Ayesha speaking. Is chat Shirin? ShirinrYes. How are you Ayesha? Ayesha: Fine, thank you. How are you? Shirin: Fine, too! Ayesha: How's your son? I heard that he's in hospital Shirin: Yes. He was in an accident. He broke his leg. Ayesha: Oh, dear! How long will he be in hospital? Shirin: He'll be discharged on Friday, I hope! Ayesha: I'll come over on Saturday. Is that OK? Shirin: It's fine. See you on Saturday. Ayesha: See you. 'Bye. Take care Shirin: You too. 'Bye. SUMMARY: Shirin's son broke his leg in an accident. He's in hospital and will be home on Friday. TASK 12 Here is a piece of conversation taken from a short story. Read it and do one of the summaries. Ұ Summarize the whole passage in about forty words. Ұ Summarize the cures proposed for a cold in 30 words. -"What are you doing for your cold and fever?" -"Well, my doctor has prescribed a course of antibiotics. He says that's the only way I can manage to take classes." -"Antibiotics? Oh no! That's the last thing to have. Have you tried drinking a glass of warm milk with a pinch of haldi? It really helps." -"The best remedy is ginger. Nothing like ginger. Just soak some whole ginger in a glass of water and strain it and then..." -"I think honey is much better. A spoonful of honey in lime juice, every morning." -"My sister-in-law had a very interesting cure for blocked noses. She used to burn one end of a turmeric root and take in the fumes. It worked each time, she said." -"I think some positive thinking can work wonders. Just tell yourself you are absolutely fine and you will be." PoileSengupts: Roll Call Rupa& Co., 2003 Summarizing Speeches Speeches are easier to summarize as the speakers usually prepare speeches carefully. However, you might notice that since it is in the spoken form, speakers often repeat a phrase or ideas, expand a single idea with many examples and at times use sentences that will catch the attention of the listener. Remember to identify the main idea(s) conveyed in the speech. Then combine the main ideas to arrive at the identity summary of the speech. TASK 13 Given below is an extract from a talk that was broadcast on the BBC. Read it and identify the topic in each section. All our courses will be for honours. Most English universities have a pass course which is less rigorous than the honours course, and is followed mainly by students who, at the end of their first year, are thought not to be of honours caliber. It is primarily a course for casualties. Often it consists of bits and pieces taken in several departments and lacks cohesion as well as depth. In Essex, all students will read for honours, although someone who, in the final examination, is not good enough to be awarded third class nor bad enough to be failed outright may be awarded a pass. There will obviously be an occasional student who will find the course too demanding and will not complete it. But the advantage for the weaker students of continuing with the honours course is that, as well as following an integrated scheme, they are working together with all their original colleagues. They can be helped by contact with them and they do not bear the stigma of inferior status. A word about examinations. Only systematic research can show how far the British system really measures intellect and originally, and not simply the ability to pass examinations. At this stage we propose no radical change. But we shall vary the circumstances under which a student is assessed; have some short examinations and some long, allow students m certain subjects to make use of textbooks and reference books, and take into account research projects. The student of physics, for example, will be required in his final year to study and report on at least one specialized topic, either experimental or theoretical, and the class of his final degree will be determined in part by" this individual research project. It will thus reflect the student's ability to practise science. Albert E. Sloman: ‘A University in the Making' Topic 1:....................................... Topic 2: ....................................... Now write a summary of the talk in about fifty words. TASK 14 Given below is an excerpt from a speech by John Ruskin, delivered more than a hundred years ago at the Working Men's institute at Camberwell. It was subsequently published in The Crown of Wild Olives. Read the first three paragraphs and summarize it in 3 sentences. Make notes as you read. WORK All wise work is mainly threefold in character. It is honest, useful and cheerful. I hardly know anything more strange than that honesty is recognized in play and not in work. In your lightest games you have always some one to see what you call 'fair play'. In boxing, you must hit fair; in racing, strat fair. Your English watchword is fair-play, your English hatred, foul-play. But your prize-merchant gains his match by foul selling, and no one cries out against that. You drive a gambler out of the gambling-room who loads dice, but you leave a tradesman in flourishing business, who loads scales! All dishonest dealing is loading scales. What does it matter whether I get short weight, adulterate substance, or dishonest fabric? The fault in the fabric is incomparably the worse of the two. Give me short measure of food and I only lose by you; but give me adulterated food, and I die by you. Here, then, is the chief duty of all workmen and tradesmen to be true to themselves and to others. Without honesty all these suffrages, all reforms, all free-trade measures and ail institutions of science,, are in vain. It is useless to put your heads together if you can't put your hearts together. No man minds, or ought to mind, his work being hard, if only it comes to something. But when it is hard and comes to nothing, when all his bees' business turns to spiders'; and for honeycomb we have only resultant away by the next breeze, cobweb, blown that is the cruel thing for the worker. Of all wastes, the greatest waste that you can commit is the waste of labour. You perhaps think "to waste the labour of men is not to kill them". Is it not? I should like to know how you could kill them more utterly - kill them with second deaths, seventh deaths, hundredfold deaths? Sentence 1:……………………………………………………………………. Sentence2:……………………………………………………………………… Sentence 3:…………………………………………………………………….. Now do the same for the last three paragraphs. Notice how the first sentence in each paragraph sets out what the speaker's topic is going to be. Wise work is cheerful, as a child's work is. The first character of right childhood is Modesty. A well-bred child does not think I it can teach its parents, or that it knows I everything. It is always asking questions I and wanting to know more. Well, that is the first character of a good and wise man at his work: To know that he knows very little; to perceive that there are many above him wiser than he; and to be always asking questions, wanting to learn, not to teach. The second character of right childhood is Faith. Perceiving that its father knows best what is good for it, when it has tried its own way against his, that he was right and it was wrong, a noble child trusts him at last wholly, gives him its hand, and will walk blindfold with him, if he bids it. And that is the true character of all good men also, as obedient workers, or soldiers under captains. They must trust their captains; they are bound for their lives to choose none but those whom they can trust. Then, they are not always to be thinking that what seems strange to them, or wrong, is strange or wrong. Without such trust and faith in captainship no great deed, no great salvation is possible to man. The third character of right childhood is to be Loving and Generous. It loves everything near it, would hurt nothing, would give the best it has away, always, if you need it; does not lay plans for getting everything in the house for itself, and delights in helping people. And because of all these characters, the child is Cheerful. Putting its trust in its father, it is careful for nothing - being full of love to every creature, it is happy always, whether in its play or its duty. Well, that's the great worker's character also. Lovely human play is like the play of the Sun. There's a worker for you. He, steady to his time, is set as a strong man to run his course. See how he plays in the morning, with the mists below, and the clouds above, with a ray here and a flash there and a shower of jewels everywherethat’s the Sun’s play, and great human play is like his- all various-all full of light and life, and tender, as the dew of the morning. Sentence 1:..................................................................... Sentence 2:...................................................................... Sentence 3:...................................................................... TASK 15 Now expand each of the sentences above into a paragraph of twenty words. What details will you include ? What details will you exclude? ……………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………….. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………… TASK 16 Read the text and do exercises to it. FOG Fog is simply a cloud on the ground, composed, like any cloud, of tiny droplets of water or, in rare eases, of ice crystals, forming an ice fog. Ice fogs usually occur only in extremely cold climates, because the water drop¬lets in a cloud are so tiny they do not solidify until the air temperature is far below freezing, generally 30 degrees below zero Celsius or lower. The droplets of fog are nearly spherical; they vary in diameter between two and 50 microns and in concentra¬tion between 20 and 500 droplets per cubic centimeter of air. The transparency of a fog depends mainly on the con¬centration of droplets; the more droplets, the denser the fog. A wet sea fog may contain a gram of water per cubic meter. Since water is 800 times denser than air, investigators were long puzzled as to why fogs did not quickly disappear through fallout of the water particles to the ground. To explain the persistence of fogs many early investigators concluded that the droplets must be hollow (that is bubbles). It turns out, however, that the droplets are fully liquid and do fall at the predictable rate, but in fog-creating conditions they either are buoyed up by rising air cur rents or are continually replaced by new droplets condensing from the water vapor in the air. The atmosphere always contains some water vapor, supplied by evaporation from different bodies of water, vegetation and other sources . The droplets condense on tiny particles of dust in the air called condensation nuclei. These are hydroscopic particles which because of their affinity for water vapor, initiate condensation atsubsaturation humilities-sometimes as low as 65 percent. The nucleus on which the water condenses, which may be a soil particle or a grain of sea salt, a combustion product or cosmic dust, usually dissolves in the droplet. Because the saturation point is lower in .solution that it is for pure wafer, the droplets of solution tend to condense more water vapor on them and grow in size. Given suitable conditions of temperature and humidity, the density of a fog and its microphysical properties will depend on the availability of condensation nuclei and their nature. Fogs become particularly dense near certain industrial plants because of the high concentration of hydroscopic combustion particles in the air. WORD-ORDER When WHO who WHAT how act ion what when which where 0 1 2 3 4 Exercises I. Arrange the words to form a sentence. 1. the atmosphere, some water vapor, contains, 2. near industrial plants, fogs, are rare. 3, occur, in cold countri¬es, ice fogs. 4, a cloud, is, fog, on the ground. 5. conden¬se, the droplets, in the air, on tiny particles of dust. 6. become, particularly dense, logs, near industrial plants. II. Answer these questions in short simple sentences. Your answers must follow each other so that all your sentences will form a complete paragraph. Your paragraph wilt be a precis of the piece, 1. What do we call fog? 2 What is the shape of the droplets of fog? ,3. What does the transparency of a fog depend upon? 4. Why does not fog disappear through fal¬lout of the water particles? 5. What is the water vapor of atmosphere supplied by? 6. Where do the droplets con¬dense? 7. What happens with the nucleus on which the water condenses? 8, Why do droplets of solution grow in size? 9. What does the density of a fog depend upon? 10. Where are fogs particularly dense? ///. Explain the meaning of the italicized words and phrases as they are used in the pass age. IV, Join the following sentences using the connecting words in brackets. Omit the words in italics. I. Ice fogs usually occur only in extremely cold cli¬mates. The water droplets in a cloud solidify only if the air temperature is far below freezing, (because). 2. The droplets in fog-creating conditions are buoyed up by ri¬sing air currents. The droplets are continually replaced by new droplets condensing from the water vapor in the air (either ... or). 3. The saturation point is lower in solution than it is for pure water. The droplets of solution tend to condense more water vapor on them and grow in size, (because). 4. Fog is a cloud on the ground composed of tiny droplets of water. Fog is a cloud on the ground, com¬posed of ice crystals, (either ... or). 5. The water droplets in a cloud do not solidify. The airtemperature is far below freezing, (until). 6. Water is 800 times denser than air. The droplets-of wafer fall at the predictable rate, (since). 7. The nucleus on which the water condenses may be a soil particle. The nucleus may be a grain of sea salt. (either ... or). V, Instead of saying: Fog is a cloud on the ground which is composed of tiny droplets of water. We can say: Fog is a cloud on the ground composed of tiny droplets of water. Change the following sentences accordingly. 1. The atmosphere contains some water vapor which is supplied by evaporation 33 from different bodies of water. 2. The droplets of water condense on tiny particles of dust us the air which are called condensation nuclei, 3. Ice fog is a cloud on the ground which is composed of ice crys¬tals. Complete the following sentences. 1. A cloud on the ground composed of ... is called fog. 7. Water vapour supplied by ... forms a part of the at¬mosphere. 3. Tiny particles of dust called ... initiate con¬densation at subsaturationhumidities. VI. Study the form of these sentences, 1. The more droplets the denser the fog. 2. The higher the humidity of the air the denser the fog. 3, The lower the temperature the faster the solidification of water droplets. Write sentences using: the more ... the less; the hig¬her ... the slower; the better ... the faster. VII. Explain the meaning of "since" in these sentences. 1. Since water is 800 times denser than air it seemed strange why fogs did not disappear through fallout of the water particle to the ground. 2. Ice fogs occur in cold climates since the water droplets in a cloud solidify only if the air temperature is far below freezing. 3. Fogs have become particularly dense since autumn, VIII. Study the form of this sentence. Given suitable conditions of temperature and humidity the density of a fog will depend on the availability of condensation nuclei and their nature. Complete the following. Given suitable air temperature... Given suitable condi¬tions of atmosphere... Given "suitable conditions of humidity … IX. Write sentences beginning with: It turns out that... X. Instead of saying: the salt of the sea. We can say: sea salt. Change the following in the same way. Particles of combustion; droplets of water; temperature of the air; point of saturation; particles of soil; crystals of ice. TASK 17 Read the text and do exercises to it. TSUNAMIS Exceptional disturbances of ocean water occur during and after earthquakes, landslides or volcanic eruptions in and around the ocean basins. These produce waves several hundreds miles in length, with periods of up to half an hour, precediant velocities of up to 800 km/hr across the deep oceans. They are barely perceptible in mid-ocean but on entering shallow coastal waters they build up into giant "tidal waves" which may attain heights of more than 30 m by the time they reach the coast. The term "tidal waves" is misleading, for they are not tidal in origin, and the scientific term for them is the Japanese word "tsunami". They are most common in the Pacific Ocean, which is bordered by zones of crustal instability, and they are responsible for occasional catastrophic flood¬ing and erosion of Pacific coasts, often with much de¬vastation and loss of life far from the originating disturbance. In April 1946 a tsunami was initialed by an earth¬quake off the Aleutian Islands, and waves travelling south¬wards arrived in the Hawaiian Islands, 3700 km away, in less than five hours, having moved at an average speed of 750 km/hr. The town Hilo in Hawaii was hit by wa¬ves rising 9m, and at one point a wave reached 16.8 m. Beaches were swept away, and the waves carried reef debris, including large blocks of coral, on to the coast, and eroded hollows on hillsides far above normal high tide level. giant waves were recorded at many other places around the Pacific Ocean. It is now realized that tsunamis are not necessarily “dumped down”, by distances; The magnitude of waves received depends, partly on offshore topography, the waves being higher where the offshore zone is gently shelving; and partly on the orientation of a coast, in relation to the source of the disturbance. An earthquake along a fault line is likely to produce higher waves on coasts facing and parallel to the fault than on coasts which run obli¬quely to it; the greatest effects of the I960 tsunami off the coast of Chile were on parts of the Japanese coast pa¬rallel to the line of disturbance of the Chilean earthquake. Wave heights are much reduced where coral reefs border the coast, where there is deep water close inshore, or where the waves have been refracted round reefs, shoals or islands of intricate configuration. Exercises /. Arrange the words to form a sentence. 1. tsunamis, in the Pacific Ocean, are most common. 2. a tsunami, in April 1946, was initiated, off the Aleutian Islands, by an earthquake. 3. carried, the waves, reef debris, on to the coast. 4. were recorded, giant waves, at many places, around the Pacific, 5. are barely perceptible, waves, in mid ocean. //. Answer the questions in short simple sentences. Your paragraph should not exceed 100 words. 1. When do tsunamis occur? 2. When do tsunamis attain exceptional heights? 3. Where are tsunamis most common? 4. What are tsunamis responsible for? . What does the magnitude of waves depend on? G. Where are wave heights reduced? ///. In not more than 10 words describe the 1946 tsuna¬mi. Use your own words as far as possible. IV .Explain the meaning of the italicized- words and phrases as they are used in the passage. V. Join the following sentences using the connecting words in brackets. Omit the words in italics. 1. On entering shallow coastal waters the waves build up into giant "tidal waves". 35 These waves may attain heights of more than 30 m. (which). 2. The term "tidal waves" is misleading. They are not tidal in origin, (for). 3. Tsunamis are most common in the Pacific Ocean. The Pacific Ocean is bordered by zones of crustal instability, (which). 4. Tsunamis occur during and after earthquakes in the ocean basins. Tsunamis occur during and after earthquakes around the ocean basins. (both ... and). 5. Wave heights are much reduced where there is deep water close inshore. Wave heights are much reduced where coral reefs border the coast, (both ... and). VI. Instead of saying: The waves carried reef debris . which included large blocks of coral. We can say: The waves carried reef debris including large blocks of coral. Change the following sentences in the same way. 1. On coasts which face the fault an earthquake .is likely to produce4 higher waves. 2. The town of Hilo in Hawaiian Islands was high by waves which rose 9 m. 3, On. entering shallow coastal waters the waves build up into giant "tidal waves" which attain tremendous heights. 4. Waves which travelled southwards arrived in the Ha¬waiian Islands in less than five hours. 5. An earthquake along the fault line is likely to produce lower waves on coasts which run obliquely to the fault. Complete the following, I. Waves travelling ... arrived in the Hawaiian Islands in less than five hours. 2. Disturbances of ocean wavesoc¬curring ... produce giant waves. 3. Waves entering ... build up info giant "tidal waves". VII. Compare these two sentences. instead of saying: When students turn to the passage they learn that tsunamis are most common in the Pacific Ocean. We can say: On turning to the passage the students learn... Write these sentences again so that each one begins with "On... 1. When the waves arrived in the Hawaiian Islands they hit the town of Hilo. 2. When tsunamis enter shallow coastal waters they build up into giant waves. 3. When tidal waves reach the coastal waters They attain heights of more than 30 in. VIII. Compare these two sentences. Instead of saying: When the students finish the work they go home. We can say: Having finished the work the students go home. Change the following sentences in I he same way, I. When tsunamis attain heights of more than 30 m they hit the coast. 2. When tsunami waves hit the coast they erode hollows far above normal high tide level. 3. When tsunami waves reach the coast they sweep away the beaches. IX. Study the following sentence. An earthquake along the fault line is likely to produce higher waves on coasts facing the fault than on coasts which run obliquely to it. Com plete the following. Waves heights are likely to be reduced where... 2. Tsunamis are likely to occur after,.. 3. Great waves are likely to erode... 4, Tsunamis are likely to be responsible for. TASK 18 Read the text and do exercises to it. Why Italians don’t Make Babies? ONCE upon a time, the Anglo- Saxon cliche held that Italy stood for love and passion; frequent and frenzied sex, without, of course, contraception; and, as a result, big weddings, big families and loads of children. How times – and images – change. Italians have stopped making babies; the nation is ageing fast; and, according to the country's chief statistical body, Italy has the lowest fertility rate in the world. Women now bear 1,2 babies apiece. Only the Spaniards, in Western Europe, are as unproductive. At last count, in 1996, deaths had outpaced births for four years in a row. If Italy's population is slightly up, it is thanks to the 178 000 immigrants who took up legal residence two years ago. Why? No explanation is definitive. Ever more Italian women work, so have less time for bambini. North European women work just as much, but mothers get more help: public nurseries, finance, holidays, husbands who (more often than in Italy) help in the house. But there are anomalies. The region of Emilia Romagna, for instance, has some of the best nurseries in the world but also Italy's lowest baby- making rate. Perhaps the dearth is due to late-coming feminism: the region is also Italy's most left-wing. Ida Magli, an anthropologist, has come up with another reason: childlessness no longer bears a stigma, and the social pressure to marry and have children is much weaker. That applies even in the Mezzogiorno (Italy's poor and ultra-traditional south), where women are choosing to have fewer babies. In any event, the notion that impetuous Italians have unprotected sex is false. It is some time since most Italians, even the good Catholics among them, eschewed contraception. One more possible explanation? Young Italians discovered yuppiedom later than their American or French counterparts. But many of them do now want to go dancing, travel and have a good time for many more years than before. Marriage and babies can wait. And the two are still more closely linked than in most other countries in Europe: only6 % of Italian babies are born out of wedlock. But less than a third of women now become mothers before they are 28. One Italian habit still survives, and may also inhibit baby- making: the, "mammoni-phenomenon". A lot of young adults – perhaps even more than before – still live with their parents, partly because they cannot afford to live so comfortably on their own. Living with parents, however open-minded they are, does tend to make you behave a bit more demurely with friends of the other sex. And there is still, even in Italy, a connection between sex and babies. 1. Vocabulary notes: 1) frenzied – бешеный, яростный, темпераментный 2) fertility – воспроизведение потомства 3) dearth – недостаток, нехватка (продуктов) 4) stigma – пятно позора, стигма 5) eschew – избегать, сторониться 6) yuppiedom – светская жизнь 7) inhibit – мешать, препятствовать, сдерживать 8) demurely – скромно, сдержанно 9) impetuous – порывистый, темпераментный 2. Answer the following questions. 1) Does the title of the text “Why Italians don’t make babies” express its main idea? 2) What are the consequences of Italians have stopped making babies? 3) Can Italian women employment be considered as a definitive explanation? 4) Is childlessness still believed to be shameful? 5) Do Italians postpone marriage and babies because of their wish to have a good time? 6) What is “mammoni-phenomenon”? 3. Summary. TASK 19 Read the text and do exercises to it. Doctored In any list of die great names in the history of economics, there is sure to be more than a sprinkling of Britons – from Adam Smith to Ricardo, Marshall, Keynes and Hicks.But British economics dons are asking themselves an uncomfortable question: where are their successors coming from? And who is going to teach them? The number of Britons taking master's degrees-generally regarded as the minimum qualification for professional economists – is holding up. But the number going on to doctorates is falling. Andrew Oswald, an economics professor at Warwick University, says that the top ten economics departments in Britain now average only one new British doctoral student a year. In 1997 the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), which finances the studies of about a quarter of PhD economics students, handed out 33 awards. British students took only 16 – the rest went to students from the European Union. The British share of applications awards also fell below half for the first time, from 58 out of 100 in 1995 to 31 out of 84 in 1997. In Keynes's day, none of this would have mattered – the great man had but one degree, in mathematics. But the ESRC is sufficiently concerned about all this to be planning a study of why the number of would-be PhDs is falling. The obvious answers is pay. The starting salary for a university lecturer, with a doctorate in economics, is, at best, ?20 000 ($32 400) a year. Yet in the City of London, economists with only master's degrees can expect to start 38 on nearer to ?30 000- and comfortably more than that if they have a few years’ experience in the Bank of England or the Treasury. Indeed, a PhD usually adds nothing to an economist's earning power in a City firm, unless it is in a soughtafter area such as econometrics (high-powered number-crunching). The growth of economic consultancy has provided another career path, drawing economists away from academe. Behind this, says Simon Gaysford of London Economics, a consultancy, lie two things. One is privatisation, which in effect forced companies to hire experts on economic regulation. AS privatisation has spread across the world, so British economists have found that expertise gained at home is highly marketable. Second, because antitrust cases "how turn on economic as well as legal arguments, companies are paying big fees to economists as well as lawyers. Besides the pay gap, academic life is less secure than it used to be: staff who would once have had tenure are as sackable as anybody else. Also, says Dieter Helm – who is an Oxford don as well as director of «Oxera», a consultancy – the burden of paperwork and lack of research funds are extra reasons not to become an academic . The market for economists works far better outside the universities than it does inside them. The scarcity of top professors, says Professor Oswald, is now driving their salaries up; but the cartel of university bosses has succeeded in keeping the lid on junior dons' pay. Meanwhile, the City and the consultancies pay up. This may be lucrative for the current generation or economists. Who will educate the next generation though, is an unanswered question. 1. Vocabulary notes: 1) sprinkling – посыпание, уснащение 2) PhD (= Doctor of Philosophy) – докторфилософии 3) master’sdegree – степень магистра 4) soughtafter – популярный, модный 5) econometrics – эконометрика (наука, изучающая конкретные количественные связи между экономическими объектами и процессами) 6) expertise – специальные знания, компетенция 7) tenure – зд. срок пребывания в должности 8) scarcity – недостаток, нехватка, редкость 9) tokeepthelidon – держать в секрете 10) lucrative – прибыльный, доходный, выгодный 2. Answer the following questions. 1) What uncomfortable question are British economics dons asking themselves? Why? 2) Which fact from the article proves the unpopularity of scientific activity among British students? 3) What is the obvious explanation of the fact the number of would be PhDs is falling? 4) What is the role of the growth of economic consultancy? 5) Which two things make economic expertise highly marketable? 39 6) What does it mean “academic life is less secure than it used to be”? 7) What is the author’s conclusion? TASK 20 Read the text and do exercises to it. Write on Just as the introduction of the printing press in Europe in the late 15th century led many scribes of the time into a state of unemployed despair, so the more recent spread of the computer – whose typefaces can reproduce calligraphic designs of enormous variety – has made many latter-day scribes redundant Nevertheless, calligraphy as an art is still alive – both in its three traditional forms, based on Chinese, Roman and Arabic scripts, and in experimental new departures. For most people in the West, pride in penmanship is rare nowadays; however, in eastern countries good handwriting is still steadfastly taught in schools. China's Chairman Mao aspired to write out his own mediocre poems in a jagged script. And modern calligraphic masterpieces in Japan can sometimes fetch as much as a small Picasso painting. Oriental calligraphers (who work with the brush rather than the pen) study and copy the output of their great forerunners and work within the same rigorous limits. Varying effects are created by holding the brush at different angles, and no mistakes can be altered or erased. After Mao's death in 1976, however, a new generation in China dared to use calligraphy in avantgarde as well as traditional ways. And in Japan, at least one modern Japanese master, Ogawa Toshu, has also rejected the old limits. One of his calligraphic drawings, using' the characters for "Nesting Crane", depicts eyes at the heart of an ink storm; the artist says that it represents a mother crane who is protecting her young in a blizzard. Western and Arabic calligraphy is based on the pen (though the brush was employed for illuminating manuscripts). Medieval Christian monks preferred to use a quill, made from goose or swan feathers, and modern secular calligraphers often use the same antiquarian tool. Islamic calligraphers preferred pens cut from dried reeds, as they still do today. Later Christian craftsmen were usually clerks whose business was to make copies of the Bible in acceptable, workmanlike fashion. Islamic calligraphy, on the other hand, has always been perceived as a meditative, even mystical exercise; the scribe has to make himself or herself (many Arabic calligraphers have been women) ritually pure before they set about transcribing from the Koran. The best 20th-century calligraphers in the West are powerfully painterly. And their inspiration, as in the case of Mark Tobey, an American Expressionist who studied calligraphy at a Zen monastery in Japan, is usually oriental and (sometimes) Islamic. 40 Hans-Joachim Burgert, a German master, believes that calligraphy is now free to discover its own underlying, primitive forms. His spirited brushwork in English of the words "Unknown Branches", in which the letters tumble and sway like a tree in a tempest, hovers provocatively on the borders of llegibility. 1. Vocabulary notes: 1) scribe – писец, переписчик 2) despair – отчаяние, источникогорчения, безысходность 3) typefaces – печатные литеры 4) departure – отклонение, направление, курс 5) penmanship – каллиграфия, чистописание 6) steadfastly – упорно, прочно 7) rigorous – строгий, точный, неукоснительный 8) “NestingCrane” – «Журавль, вьющий гнездо» 9) blizzard – метель, буран, буря 10) quill – птичье (гусиное) перо 11) secular – зд. светский, нецерковный 12) reed – тростник, камыш 13) workmanlike – искусно 14) meditative – созерцательный 15) painterly – живописный, относящийся к живописи 16) underlying – лежащий в основе, основной 18) spirited – смелый, задорный, выразительный 19) tumble – валяться, метаться, кувыркаться 20) sway – качаться, раскачиваться 21) tempest – буря 22) hover – парить, зависать, болтаться 2. Answer the following questions. 1) What is the article about? 2) In what countries can one be taught modern calligraphy? 3) What calligraphic styles does the author of the article mention? 4) Can we say that the art of calligraphy has been developing? 5) What does the author tell us about the best modern calligraphers? Task 21 Read the text and do exercises to it. Dyed in the Womb A lesbian's sexual identity seems to be established before her birth. Men and women blink differently when startled . That simple and well-established observation has led QaziRahman of the University of East London, in England, and his colleagues to evidence supporting the idea that homosexuality is a characteristic which people are born with, rather man one they acquire as they grow up .The team's research, just 41 published in Behavioral Neuroscience, shows that lesbians blink like heterosexual men. That, in turn, suggests that the part of their brain that controls this reflex has been masculinised in the womb. Anyone who is startled by an unexpected noise tends to blink. If, however, the startling noise is preceded by a quieter sound, this blink is not so vigorous as it would otherwise have been. It is this lack of vigour which differs between the sexes. Men blink less vigorously than women when primed in this way. Given such a clear and simple distinction, testing the responses of homosexuals to noise seemed an obvious experiment to do. So DrRahman and his colleagues did it. Their subjects, men and women, gay and straight, were sat down one by one in a dimly lit room. The muscles that cause blinking were wired up with recording electrodes, and the subjects were fitted with headphones through which the sounds (sometimes a single startling noise, and sometimes a combination of soft and loud) were fed. In the latter case, as compared with the former, straight men had blinks that were 40 % less vigorous. In the case of straight women the drop was 13 %. Lesbians dropped 33 % which, statistically, made them more similar to straight men than straight women. Gay men were also intermediate, although in their case the difference was not statistically significant. Even in this apparently trivial matter, it seems,lesbianshave male-like brains. So what is going on? By default, people are female. Without influence of testosterone in the womb, a fetus will develop into a girl. The way testosterone acts to turn a fetus male is still poorly understood. It seems likely, though, that different organs respond independently to the hormone, and may do so at different times. Hormonal surges at critical moments could thus cause particular organs in an otherwise female body to become "male". (A lull in hormone products might have the opposite effect.) If the organ concerned is the brain, the result is more male-like behaviour including, possibly, male-type sexual preferences. Previous research has provided some evidence for this idea. Lesbians, for instance, are more accurate throwers of objects such as darts than straight women. In this they resemble straight men in a way that has nothing to do with sexual preference. And tissues other than the brain's may be affected,too. On average, lesbians ring fingers that are longer than their indexfingers, a feature that is typical of men but not of heterosexual women. In that context, a difference in the blink of an eye is no surprise at all. 1. VocabularyNotes: 1) blink – мигать, закрывать глаза 2) startle – пугать, поразить 3) masculine – мужской, мужеподобный 4) vigour – сила, мощь, живость, энергичность 5) prime – зд. воздействовать 6) wireup – связывать, соединять 7) straightandgay – гетеросексуальные люди и гомосексуалисты 8) default – бездействие, пассивность, неявка, отсутствие 9) fetus – плод, зародыш 42 10) surge – скачок, колебание 11) lull – перерыв, затишье 12) tissue – биол. ткань 13) ringfinger – безымянный палец 14) index finger – указательныйпалец 2. Answer the following questions. 1) What observation has made some East London specialists support the idea that homosexuality is an inborn characteristic rather than acquired one? 2) What exactly differs between the sexes startled by an unexpected noise? 3) What experiment was waged by Dr. Rahman and his colleagues ? 4) What way does testosterone act? 5) What features are lesbians and straight women characterized by? 3. Make up a summary of the text. Task 22 Read the text and do exercises to it. Are the Rules being Bent Again? A judge says an accused terrorist can call the witnesses he wants. No, he can’t… A federal judge has ruled that prosecutors may not seek the death penalty against Zacarias Moussaoui, the only person in the United States to have been charged so far in connection with the September 11th terror attacks. Nor may they present any evidence linking this so-called "20th hijacker" with the planning or execution of the attacks. The ruling, by a district judge, Leonie Brinkema, came after the federal government refused to allow Mr. Moussaoui to question al-Qaeda suspects who, he claims, could prove his innocence. The government says it will appeal . Mr. Moussaoui, a 35-year-old French man of Moroccan descent, was first arrested in the United States in August 2001 on minor immigration charges. It was not until after the suicide hijackings the next month that investigators began to take a keener interest in the Muslim trainee pilot being held in a Minnesota jail. Three months later Mr Moussaoui was charged on six counts of conspiracy – four of them punishable by death – to commit acts of terrorism, aircraft piracy, use of weapons of mass destruction, destruction of aircraft, murder of government employees and destruction of government property. Although he admitted being a member of al-Qaeda, Mr. Moussaoui claimed he knew nothing about the attacks until after they had осcurred. In an attempt to prove his innocence, he sought to question hree key al-Qaeda prisoners, including Khalid Sheikh Mohammed, the alleged mastermind of 9/11, and Mustafa Ahmed, its alleged financier. In two rulings earlier this year, Judge Brinkema ordered that he should be allowed to question by satellite link the three men, all being held at secret locations outside the United States. The government has refused to comply, arguing that national security could be jeopardised by the disclosure of confidential information. 43 In her latest ruling, delivered on October 2nd, Judge Brinkema said the government could not "maintain this capital prosecution while simultaneously refusing to produce witnesses who could, at a minimum, help the defendant avoid a sentence of death". But she refused to take the widely expected step of dismissing all charges against Mr. Moussaoui, who could face life imprisonment if convicted of the charges still pending. Her desire to keep the case under civilian jurisdiction appears to have been among her reasons for wishing to continue with a truncated trial. "This case can be resolved in an open and public forum," she declared. Among the options now facing the government is the possibility of transferring the trial to a military tribunal whose rules, including the right to extensive hearings behind closed doors, would be likely to help the prosecution. But this would attract widespread criticism. The government is already under attack for its treatment of some 660 al-Qaeda and Taliban suspects held at Guantanamo Bay, an American naval base in Cuba, where they are supposed to be awaiting trial before special military courts. Although some have now been detained for over 21 months, no charges have yet been brought. Nor have any of the prisoners, who include citizens of some of America's closest allies, had access to a lawyer or a consular official. Despite the criticism, the American government insists the Guantanamo Bay detainees are not prisoners of war but "enemy combatants", who are being held outside strictly-defined United States territory (the Guantanamo base is leased in perpetuity from Cuba) and therefore have no rights under either the Geneva Conventions or the American constitution. Last month Donald Rumsfeld, the secretary of defence, seemed to confirm suspicions that the government does not wish to bring these prisoners to trial. "Our interest," he said, "is not in trying them and letting them out. Our interest is in-during this global war on terror-keeping them off the streets, and so that's what's taking place." But that war could go on for a very long time, perhaps for decades. The government insists the Guantanamo prisoners are being treated "humanely". All now have individual indoor cells, proper beds, washing facilities and toilets. In July six of them, including two Britons and an Australian, were said to be eligible for trial. But, since then, nothing. No charges have been brought and no trial date set. 1. Vocabularynotes: 1) rule – постановлять, решать (в судебном порядке) 2) prosecutor – обвинитель 3) hijacker – воздушный пират, бандит 4) suspect – зд. подозреваемый 5) alleged – предполагаемый, обвиняемый 6) mastermind – руководитель, вдохновитель 7) comply – подчиняться, уступать 8) defendant – подсудимый, обвиняемый 9) pending – предстоящий, ожидающий решения 44 10) treatment – обращение, обхождение 11) detain – арестовывать, содержать под стражей 12) try – зд. допрашивать, привлечь к суду 13) eligible – подходящий, приемлемый 2. Statements for discussion. 1. Al-Oaeda is a very potent, well-financed, militant organization, responsible for a lot of suicide hijackings. 2. An accused terrorist can’t call the witnesses he wants because of threat to the US national security, caused by possible disclosure of confidential information. 3. Military court provides detainees with less rights than civilian court. 4. Keeping some 660 al-Qaeda and Taliban suspects at Guantanamo Bay may be “Solomon’s decision” of the American Government. 5. Prisoners of all kinds should be treated humanely. 3. Give a summary of the text. Task 23 Read the text and do exercises to it. Breathe or be Strangled If Eskimos have dozens of words for snow, Germans have as any for bureaucracy. The most popular is Amtsschimmel, a word of obscure origin that translates roughly as “the office horse”. The government declares that it is bent on chasing these clodhoppers out of Germany. But has it any more chance of success than in the past? The Institute for the German Economy, the research arm of the country’s business associations, hopes so, if only because the economy might be strangled to death unless red tape is loosened. Germans are fed up with forms and rules. Pollsters at the Allensbach Institute say that as many as 90 % of Germans have had rows with bureaucrats, up from 64 % in 1978. Bild, Germany’s biggest tabloid, recently sent out a reporter in search of ridiculous rules. One example: a tailor who had to put up a sign saying “fire extinguisher” next to (guess what) her fire extinguisher, to produce a thick folder with all regulations relevant to her business, to raise her work table by ten centimeters, to buy a special emergency kit, and to check if her only employee was allergic to nickel – at a cost of Ҳ400 ($428). Germany is, in short, one of the most rule-bound countries in the world. And that is bad news for the economy, particularly for entrepreneurs hoping to set up in business.A new World Bank study, “DoingBusiness in 2004”, illustrates the problem . The study shows that it takes an average of 45 days to register a new firm in Germany, compared with 18 in Britain and only four in America. The process is also cheaper in America, Britain, Canada and France than in Germany. The government has launched a “masterplan for reducing bureaucracy”, listing dozens of cases where archaic rules should be scrapped or simplified. 45 It recently brought in a bill to do away with such workplace regulations as where to put light switches or the shape of rubbish bins. The government has also chosen three regions where some laws will be suspended while local and federal agencies try out alternatives. Yet it will take years for Germany to match America and Britain. Germans may inveigh against bureaucrats, but they have a soft spot for state mollycoddling. In any case, over a third of the members of the federal parliament are former civil servants, hardly likely to be in the forefront of a campaign to cut bureaucracy. Even some businessmen are ambivalent, for regulation can be useful barrier to competition. The supposedly free market opposition has attacked government plans to loosen laws protecting guilds of architects and craftsmen from competition. The language of officialdom hardly helps. A recent example of cutting red tape was a law to speed up approval for building roads. Its name: VerkehrswegeplanungsbeschleunigunVerkehrsweggsgesetz. 1. Vocabulary notes: 1) red tape – волокита, бюрократизм 2) skirmish – схватка, столкновение 3) strangle – подавлять, душить 4) clodhopper – увалень, неповоротливый 5) pollster – лицо, проводящее опрос общественного мнения 6) folder – папка, проспект 7) scrap – выбрасывать (за ненадобностью) 8) inveigh – выступать против 9) softspot – уязвимое место 10) mollycoddle – баловать, нежить 11) ambivalent – двойственный 12) officialdom – чиновничество, бюрократический аппарат 2. Statements for discussion. 1) Germans are fed up with forms and rules much more than Russians are. 2) Too many rules is bad for any economy. 3) It is easy to do business in Germany in a civilized way, for business culture has had long history there. 4) Germans are ambivalent concerning cutting their bureaucracy. Prove that. 5) Red tape in Russia. Could you give some examples? 6) Business culture in Russia. Has it made any progress recently? 3. Give a summary of the text. 46 Task 24 Read the text and do exercises to it. Spying on the Spies Throughout the 1990s, Peru’s National Intelligence Service was synonymous with VladimiroMontesinos, the sinister spy chief who spun a web of corruption and intimidation from the heart of the authoritarian government of Alberto Fujimori. Since July 2001, Peru has been governed democratically under President Alejandro Toledo, and Mr. Montesinos is now in jail. But the intelligence service remains in turmoil-just when once again Peru needs one. Last month, Mr. Toledo sacked the service’s head, Alfonso Panizo, a retired admiral, the fourth man to hold the job in two years. His departure came after it had emerged that one of the president’s phone calls had been tapped, and the tape of the call given to a scandal-hungry television programme. Another television show then accused the intelligence service of spying on several awkward journalist. Mr. Panizo denied the charges; his agents were simply trying to discover who has leaking secrets to the media, he said. The new intelligence chief is Daniel Mora, a retired general but also a member of Mr. Toledo’s Peru Possible party (its secretary for ethics, no less). His appointment has stirred controversy: opponents say that the intelligence service should serve the state, rather than the governing party. But the bigger problem is that the service needs thorough reform. Mr. Montesinos still casts a long shadow. He turned the service from a small group of academics and analysts into a lavish outfit packed with military men engaged in dirty tricks. Sophisticated monitoring equipment, some donated by America’s Central Intelligence Agency to fight drugs, was diverted to political and commercial use. Mr. Montesinos routinely tapped the phones of politicians, journalists, top businessman and judges; he even surreptitiously recorded some of Mr. Fujimori’s private meetings. Mr. Toledo’s government has slashed the service’s budget and personnel (though in it still overstaffed). The perverse result is that most of the monitoring equipment now seems to be in the hands of private security companies, some run by former army cronies of Mr. Montesinos. In effect, telephone-tapping has been privatized; the results are leaked to pursue political vendettas. Apart from poisoning politics, all this is bad for public safety. Peru has real security threats that need watching. Drug exports are rising, as is kidnapping. Though nothing like the threat they used to be, small groups of Shining Path guerrillas roam remote areas. The country need spies – but honest ones. 1. Vocabulary notes: 1) sinister – зловещий, темный 2) spin (spun, spun) – плести, составлять 47 3) intimidation – запугивание, шантаж 4) turmoil – беспорядок, смятение 5) tap – зд. подслушивать 6) controvercy – спор, полемика 7) lavish – расточительный 8) divert – отвлекать, уводить в сторону 9) surreptitiously – исподтишка 10) slash – зд. урезать, сократить 11) crony – близкий, закадычный друг 12) guerrilla – партизан 13) roam – скитаться, бродить 2. Statements for discussion. 1) VladimiroMontesinos is known to have been a master of the dark arts. 2) The appointment of the new intelligence chief Daniel Mora has been approved unanimously in Peru. 3) Donated by America’s Central Intelligence Agency sophisticated equipment to fight drugs was used perversely. 4) Public safety in Peru is reported to be far from normal state. 5) Each country should have spy web to provide security for its citizens. 3. Give a summary of the text. 48 Часть III Текстыдляреферирования Task 1 Read the texts and study the summaries to the text Text1 Laser lidar Laser-based lidar (light detection and ranging) has also proven to be an important tool for oceanographers. While satellite pictures of the ocean surface provide insight into overall ocean health and hyperspectral imaging provides more insight, lidar is able to penetrate beneath the surface and obtain more specific data, even in murky coastal waters. In addition, lidar is not limited to cloudless skies or daylight hours. “One of the difficulties of passive satellite-based systems is that there is watersurface reflectance, water-column influence, water chemistry, and also the influence of the bottom”, said Chuck Bostater, director of the remote sensing lab at Florida Tech University (Melbourne, FL). “In shallow waters we want to know the quality of the water and remotely sense the water column without having the signal contaminated by the water column or the bottom”. A typical lidar system comprises a laser transmitter, receiver telescope, photodetectors, and range-resolving detection electronics. In coastal lidar studies, a 532-nm laser is typically used because it is well absorbed by the constituents in the water and so penetrates deeper in turbid or dirty water (400 to 490 nm penetrates deepest in clear ocean water). The laser transmits a short pulse of light in a specific direction. The light interacts with molecules in the air, and the molecules send a small fraction of the light back to telescope, where it is measured by the photodetectors. Abstract (Summary) Laser lidar. “Laser Focus World”, 2003, v 46, №3, p45. The text focuses on the use of laser-based lidar in oceanography. The ability of lidar to penetrate into the ocean surface to obtain specific data in murky coastal waters is specially mentioned. Particular attention is given to the advantage of laser-based lidars over passive satellite-based systems iN obtaining signals not being contaminated by the water column or the bottom. A typical lidar system is described with emphasis on the way it works. This information may be of interest to research teams engaged in studying shallow waters. 49 Text 2 A Spy with my flying eye A little lateral thinking has transformed the prospects for tiny robot planes 1. A TINY, pilotless spy plane that can be fired from a cannon is under development at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. The minuscule aircraft is designed to emerge from the case of an artillery shell and fly over enemy territory, sending back both video pictures of the target and its coordinates. 2. Trials this summer showed that the pane, called the Wide Area Surveillance Projectile (WASP), is airworthy and could survive being blasted out of a cannon, says John Deyst, professor of aeronautics and astronautics at MIT and principal investigator on the research project. So the team is continuing to work on it. 3. The WASP is the latest twist in the development of expendable drones that can fly over enemy territory. Some are already in use, but they have to be launched from a runway some distance behind the front line, taking up to an hour to rich their target. What’s unique about the WASP, says Deyst, is that it will – hopefully – be cheap, have a fast response time, and be controlled by a local commander. 4. The aircraft is meant to be packed into an artillery shell case that has a diameter of 12.7 centimeters. Its wings, stabilization fins and propeller fold back into its fuselage. 5. The shell could be fired from an artillery piece or a naval gun. When it is over its target – which could be as far as 20 kilometers away – a parachute will emerge, yanking the craft out of the shell (see Diagram).The spring-loaded wings then extend to a span of about a meter, at which point a diesel engine switches on. The plane will hold enough fuel for about half an hour’s flying. It will send back video images of the target, along with its coordinates, obtained from Global Positioning System satellites. 6. Deyst’s team faced two major technical challenges: one was to design a plane that could fold into a shell and still operate after surviving the huge acceleration of being fired from a gun. The other was to make the plane airworthy. 7. The team tackled the two problems separately. An unpowered model has now survived simulated firings. And a lightly larger has been tested for airworthiness. Deyst says the next challenge is to build a single model that survives both tests. The main emphasis now is on developing electronic components that are robust enough to survive the firing forces, he says. 8. Work on the WASP project has been carried out over the past two years with funding from MIT and the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Now, Deyst says, he is looking for more funding from the USA Army, Navy, or the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency to continue developing the drone. 9. The MIT team is not alone thinking along these lines: Science Applications International of San Diego, California, is working on a similar project, with the aim of carrying a bomb or other payload. Since the aircraft are designed to be expendable, one key factor is keeping the cost down to about $20 000, says Mark Roth, one of the researchers. KurtKleiner 50 Аннотация [Разведка с помощью беспилотного самолета]. I spy with my flying eye. Kleiner K. «NewScientist», 1998, 19/XI, vol. 159, №2152, 22 (англ.). Сообщается о разработке нового небольшого самолета-шпиона в Массачусетском технологическом институте (США). Приводятся особенности конструкции, технические характеристики и преимущества по сравнению с известными аналогами. Кратко отмечаются технологические трудности создания опытной модели лабораторного аппарата. Abstract The article describes a tiny, pilotless spy plane under development at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (USA). The design features, principle of operation, flight performance and its advantages over expendable drones already in use are presented. Twpmajortechnicalchallengesarebrieflytouchedupon. Реферат Кратко описана конструкция нового небольшого самолета-разведчика Массачусетского технологического института (MIT, США). Летательный аппарат предназначен для передачи видео изображения целей и точных координат противника со спутника системы GPS. Аппарат располагают внутри артиллерийского снаряда диаметром 12,7 см и выстреливают из сухопутной или морской пушки на дистанцию до 20 км. Над целью снаряд освобождается от снаряда при помощи парашюта, срабатывают пружинные механизмы раскрытия крыльев и пропеллера, включается дизельный двигатель. Максимальный размах крыльев составляет около 1 м, запас топлива рассчитан на работу двигателя в течение получаса. Команда разработчиков столкнулась с двумя техническими проблемами – обеспечением прочности конструкции при запуске, особенно электронной аппаратуры, и габаритов. Ориентировочная стоимость составит 20 000$. Илл. 2. Б. Иванов Text 1 Artificial Intelligence at Edinburgh University: a Perspective Jim Howe Revised June 2007. Artificial Intelligence (AI) is an experimental science whose goal is tounderstand the nature of intelligent thought and action. This goal is shared with anumber of longer established subjects such as Philosophy, Psychology andNeuroscience. The essential difference is that AI scientists are committed tocomputational modelling as a methodology for explicating the interpretative processeswhich underlie intelligent behaviour, that relate sensing of the environment to actionin it. Early workers in the field saw the digital computer as the best device available tosupport the many cycles of hypothesizing, modelling, simulating and testing involvedin research into these interpretative processes. They set about the task of developing aprogramming technology that would enable the use of digital computers as anexperimental tool. Over the first four decades of AI's life, a considerable amount oftime and effort was given over to the design and development of new special purposelist programming languages, tools and techniques. While the symbolic programmingapproach dominated at the outset, other approaches such as non-symbolic neural netsand genetic algorithms have featured strongly, reflecting the fact that computing ismerely a means to an end, an experimental tool, albeit a vital one. The popular view of intelligence is that it is associated with high level problemsolving, i.e. people who can play chess, solve mathematical problems, make complexfinancial decisions, and so on, are regarded as intelligent. What we know now is thatintelligence is like an iceberg. A small amount of processing activity relates to highlevel problem solving, that is the part that we can reason about and introspect, butmuch of it is devoted to our interaction with the physical environment. Here we aredealing with information from a range of senses, visual, auditory and tactile, andcoupling sensing to action, including the use of language, in an appropriate reactivefashion which is not accessible to reasoning and introspection. Using the termssymbolic and sub-symbolic to distinguish these different processing regimes, in theearly decades of our work in Edinburgh we subscribed heavily to the view that tomake progress towards our goal we would need to understand the nature of theprocessing at both levels and the relationships between them. For example, some ofour work focused primarily on symbolic level tasks, in particular, our work onautomated reasoning, expert systems and planning and scheduling systems, someaspects of our work on natural language processing, and some aspects of machinevision, such as object recognition, whereas other work dealt primarily with tasks at thesub-symbolic level, including automated assembly of objects from parts, mobilerobots, and machine vision for navigation. Much of AI's accumulating know-how resulted from work at the symbolic level,modelling mechanisms for performing complex cognitive tasks in restricted domains,for example, diagnosing faults, extracting meaning from utterances, recognisingobjects in cluttered scenes. But this know-how had value beyond its contribution tothe achievement of AI's scientific goal. It could be packaged and made available foruse in the work place. This became apparent in the late 1970s and led to an upsurge ofinterest in applied AI. In the UK, the term Knowledge Based Systems (KBS) wascoined for work which integrated AI know-how, methods and techniques with know-how, methods and techniques from other disciplines such as Computer Science andEngineering. This led to the construction of practical applications that replicatedexpert level decision making or human problem solving, making it more readilyavailable to technical and professional staff in organisations. Today, AI/KBStechnology has migrated into a plethora of products of industry and commerce, mostlyunbeknown to the users. History of AI at Edinburgh The Department of Artificial Intelligence can trace its origins to a smallresearch group established in a flat at 4 Hope Park Square in 1963 by Donald Michie,then Reader in Surgical Science. During the Second World War, through hismembership of Max Newman's code-breaking group at Bletchley Park, Michie hadbeen introduced to computing and had come to believe in the possibility of buildingmachines that could think and learn. By the early 1960s, the time appeared to be ripeto embark on this endeavour. Looking back, there are four discernible periods in thedevelopment of AI at Edinburgh, each of roughly ten years' duration. The first coversthe period from 1963 to the publication of the Lighthill Report by the ScienceResearch Council in l973. During this period, Artificial Intelligence was recognizedby the University, first by establishing the Experimental Programming Unit in January1965 with Michie as Director, and then by the creation of the Department of MachineIntelligence and Perception in October 1966. By then Michie had persuaded RichardGregory and Christopher Longuet-Higgins, then at Cambridge University andplanning to set up a brain research institute, to join forces with him at Edinburgh. Michie's prime interest lay in the elucidation of design principles for the construction of intelligent robots, whereas Gregory and Longuet-Higgins recognized that computationalmodelling of cognitive processes by machine might offer newtheoretical insights into their nature. Indeed, Longuet-Higgins named his researchgroup the Theoretical Section and Gregory called his the Bionics ResearchLaboratory. During this period there were remarkable achievements in a number ofsub-areas of the discipline, including the development of new computational tools andtechniques and their application to problems in such areas as assembly robotics andnatural language. The POP-2 symbolic programming language which supported muchsubsequent UK research and teaching in AI was designed and developed by RobinPopplestone and Rod Burstall. It ran on a multi-access interactive computing system,only the second of its kind to be opened in the UK. By 1973, the research in roboticshad produced the FREDDY II robot which was capable of assembling objectsautomatically from a heap of parts. Unfortunately, from the outset of theircollaboration these scientific achievements were marred by significant intellectualdisagreements about the nature and aims of research in AI and growing disharmonybetween the founding members of the Department. When Gregory resigned in 1970 to go to Bristol University, the University's reaction was to transform the Departmentinto the School of Artificial Intelligence which was to be run by a SteeringCommittee. Its three research groups (Jim Howe had taken over responsibility forleading Gregory's group when he left) were given departmental status; the BionicsResearch Laboratory's name was retained, whereas the Experimental ProgrammingUnit became the Department of Machine Intelligence, and (much to the disgust ofsome local psychologists) the Theoretical Section was renamed the TheoreticalPsychology Unit! At that time, the Faculty's Metamathematics Unit, which had beenset up by Bernard Meltzer to pursue research in automated reasoning, joined theSchool as the Department of Computational Logic. Unfortunately, the high level ofdiscord between the senior members of the School had become known to its mainsponsors, the Science Research Council. Its reaction was to invite Sir James Lighthillto review the field. His report was published early in 1973. Although it supported AIresearch related to automation and to computer simulation of neurophysiological andpsychological processes, it was highly critical of basic research in foundational areassuch as robotics and language processing. Lighthill's report provoked a massive lossof confidence in AI by the academic establishment in the UK (and to a lesser extent inthe US). It persisted for a decade - the so-called "AI Winter". Since the new School structure had failed to reduce tensions between seniorstaff, the second ten year period began with an internal review of AI by a Committeeappointed by the University Court. Under the chairmanship of Professor NormanFeather, it consulted widely, both inside and outside the University. Reporting in1974, it recommended the retention of a research activity in AI but proposedsignificant organizational changes. The School structure was scrapped in favour of asingle department, now named the Department of Artificial Intelligence; a separateunit, the Machine Intelligence Research Unit, was set up to accommodate Michie'swork, and Longuet-Higgins opted to leave Edinburgh for Sussex University. The newDepartment's first head was Meltzer who retired in 1977 and was replaced by Howewho led it until 1996. Over the next decade, the Department's research was dominatedby work on automated reasoning, cognitive modelling, children's learning andcomputation theory (until 1979 when Rod Burstall and Gordon Plotkin left to join theTheory Group in Computer Science). Some outstanding achievements included thedesign and development of the Edinburgh Prolog programming language by DavidWarren which strongly influenced the Japanese Government's Fifth Generation Computing Project in the 1980s, Alan Bundy's demonstrations of the utility of metalevel reasoning to control the search for solutions to maths problems, and Howe's successful development of computer based learning environments for a range of primary and secondary school subjects, working with both normal and handicapped children. Unlike its antecedents which only undertook teaching at Masters and Ph.D. levels, the new Department had committed itself to becoming more closely integrated with the other departments in the Faculty by contributing to undergraduate teaching as well. Its first course, AI2, a computational modelling course, was launched in 1974/75. This was followed by an introductory course, AI1, in 1978/79. By 1982, it was able to launch its first joint degree, Linguistics with Artificial Intelligence. There were no blueprints for these courses: in each case, the syllabuses had to be carved out of the body of research. It was during this period that the Department also agreed to join forces with the School of Epistemics, directed by Barry Richards, to help it introduce a Ph.D. programme in Cognitive Science. The Department provided financial support in the form of part-time seconded academic staff and studentship funding; it also provided access to its interactive computing facilities. From this modest beginning there emerged the Centre for Cognitive Science which was given departmental status by the University in 1985. The third period of AI activity at Edinburgh begins with the launch of the Alvey 54 Programme in advanced information technology in 1983. Thanks to the increasing number of successful applications of AI technology to practical tasks, in particular expert systems, the negative impact of the Lighthill Report had dissipated. Now, AI was seen as a key information technology to be fostered through collaborative projects between UK companies and UK universities. The effects on the Department were significant. By taking full advantage of various funding initiatives provoked by the Alveyprogramme, its academic staff complement increased rapidly from 4 to 15. The accompanying growth in research activity was focused in four areas, Intelligent Robotics, Knowledge Based Systems, Mathematical Reasoning and Natural Language Processing. During the period, the Intelligent Robotics Group undertook collaborative projects in automated assembly, unmanned vehicles and machine vision. It proposed a novel hybrid architecture for the hierarchical control of reactive robotic devices, and applied it successfully to industrial assembly tasks using a low cost manipulator. In vision, work focused on 3-D geometric object representation, including methods for extracting such information from range data. Achievements included a working range sensor and range data segmentation package. Research in Knowledge Based Systems included design support systems, intelligent front ends and learning environment. The Edinburgh Designer System, a design support environment for mechanical engineers started under Alvey funding, was successfully generalised to small molecule drug design. The Mathematical Reasoning Group prosecuted its research into the design of powerful inference techniques, in particular the development of proof plans for describing and guiding inductive proofs, with applications to problems of program verification, synthesis and transformation, as well as in areas outside Mathematics such as computer configuration and playing bridge. Research in Natural Language Processing spanned projects in the sub-areas of natural language interpretation and generation. Collaborative projects included the implementation of an English language front end to an intelligent planning system, an investigation of the use of language generation techniques in hypertext-based documentation systems to produce output tailored to the user's skills and working context, and exploration of semiautomated editorial assistance such as massaging a text into house style. In 1984, the Department combined forces with the Department of Lingistics and the Centre for Cognitive Science to launch the Centre for Speech Technology Research, under the directorship of John Laver. Major funding over a five year period was provided by the AlveyProgramme to support a project demonstrating realtime continuous speech recognition. By 1989, the University's reputation for research excellence in natural language computation and cognition enabled it to secure in collaboration with a number of other universities one of the major Research Centres which became available at that time, namely the Human Communication Research Centre which was sponsored by ESRC. During this third decade, the UGC/UFC started the process of assessing research quality. In 1989, and again in 1992, the Department shared a "5" rating with the other departments making up the University's Computing Science unit of assessment. The Department's postgraduate teaching also expanded rapidly. A master’s degree in Knowledge Based Systems, which offered specialist themes in Foundations 55 of AI, Expert Systems, Intelligent Robotics and Natural Language Processing, was established in 1983, and for many years was the largest of the Faculty's taught postgraduate courses with 40-50 graduates annually. Many of the Department's complement of about 60 Ph.D. students were drawn from its ranks. At undergraduate level, the most significant development was the launch, in 1987/88, of the joint degree in Artificial Intelligence and Computer Science, with support from the UFC's Engineering and Technology initiative. Subsequently, the modular structure of the course material enabled the introduction of joint degrees in AI and Mathematics and AI and Psychology. At that time, the Department also shared an "Excellent" rating awarded by the SHEFC's quality assessment exercise for its teaching provision in the area of Computer Studies. The start of the fourth decade of AI activity coincided with the publication in 1993 of "Realising our Potential", the Government's new strategy for harnessing the strengths of science and engineering to the wealth creation process. For many departments across the UK, the transfer of technology from academia to industry and commerce was uncharted territory. However, from a relatively early stage in the development of AI at Edinburgh, there was strong interest in putting AI technology to work outside the laboratory. With financial banking from ICFC, in 1969 Michie and Howe had established a small company, called Conversational Software Ltd (CSL), to develop and market the POP-2 symbolic programming language. Probably the first AI spin-off company in the world, CSL's POP-2 systems supported work in UK industry and academia for a decade or more, long after it ceased to trade. As is so often the case with small companies, the development costs had outstripped market demand. The next exercise in technology transfer was a more modest affair, and was concerned with broadcasting some of the computing tools developed for the Department's work with schoolchildren. In 1981 a small firm, Jessop Microelectronics, was licensed to manufacture and sell the Edinburgh Turtle, a small motorised cart that could be moved around under program control leaving a trace of its path. An excellent tool for introducing programming, spatial and mathematical concepts to young children, over 1000 were sold to UK schools (including 100 supplied to special schools under a DTI initiative). At the same time, with support from Research Machines, Peter Ross and Ken Johnson reimplemented the children's programming language, LOGO, on Research Machines microcomputers. Called RM Logo, for a decade or more it was supplied to educational establishments throughout the UK by Research Machines. As commercial interest in IT in the early 1980s exploded into life, the Department was bombarded by requests from UK companies for various kinds of technical assistance. For a variety of reasons, not least the Department's modest size at that time, the most effective way of providing this was to set up a separate nonprofit making organisation to support applications oriented R&D. In July 1983, with the agreement of the University Court, Howe launched the Artificial Intelligence Applications Institute. At the end of its first year of operations, Austin Tate succeeded Howe as Director. Its mission was to help its clients acquire knowhow and skills in the construction and application of knowledge based systems technology, 56 enabling them to support their own product or service developments and so gain a competitive edge. In practice, the Institute was a technology transfer experiment: there was no blueprint, no model to specify how the transfer of AI technology could best be achieved. So, much time and effort was given over to conceiving, developing and testing a varietyof mechanisms through which knowledge and skills could be imparted to clients. A ten year snapshot of its activities revealed that it employed about twenty technical staff; it had an annual turnover just short of ?1M, and it had broken even financially from the outset. Overseas, it had major clients in Japan and the US. Its work focused on three subareas of knowledge-based systems, planning and scheduling systems, decision support systems and information systems. Formally, the Department of Artificial Intelligence disappeared in 1998 when the University conflated the three departments, Artificial Intelligence, Cognitive Science and Computer Science, to form the new School of Informatics. A gift of tongues Troy Dreier PC MAGAZINE July 2006. Jokes about the uselessness of machine translation abound. The CentralIntelligence Agency was said to have spent millions trying to program computers totranslate Russian into English. The best it managed to do, so the tale goes, was to turnthe Famous-Russian saying "The spirit is willing but the flesh is weak" into "Thevodka is good but the meat is rotten." Sadly, this story is a myth. But machinetranslation has certainly produced its share of howlers. Since its earliest days, thesubject has suffered from exaggerated claims and impossible expectations. Hype still exists. But Japanese researchers, perhaps spurred on by thelinguistic barrier that often seems to separate their country's scientists and techniciansfrom those in the rest of the world, have made great strides towards the goal ofreliable machine translation—and now their efforts are being imitated in the West. Until recently, the main commercial users of translation programs have beenbig Japanese manufacturers. They rely on machine translation to produce the initialdrafts of their English manuals and sales material. (This may help to explain thebafflement many western consumers feel as they leaf through the instructions for theirvideo recorders.) The most popular program for doing this is e-j bank, which wasdesigned by Nobuaki Kamejima, a reclusive software wizard at AI Laboratories in Tokyo. Now, however, a bigger market beckons. The explosion of foreign languages(especially Japanese and German) on the Internet is turning machine translation into amainstream business. The fraction of web sites posted in English has fallen from 98%to 82% over the past three years, and the trend is still downwards. Consumer software,some of it written by non-Japanese software houses, is now becoming available tointerpret this electronic Babel to those who cannot read it. Enigma variations Machines for translating from one language to another were first talked aboutin the 1930s. Nothing much happened, however, until 1940 when an Americanmathematician called Warren Weaver became intrigued with the way the British hadused their pioneering Colossus computer to crack the military codes produced byGermany's Enigma encryption machines. In a memo to his employer, the RockefellerFoundation, Weaver wrote: "I have a text in front of me which is written in Russianbut I am going to pretend that it is really written in English and that it has been codedin some strange symbols. All I need to do is to strip off the code in order to retrievethe information contained in the text." The earliest "translation engines" were all based on this direct, socalled"transformer", approach. Input sentences of the source language were transformeddirectly into output sentences of the target language, using a simple form of parsing. The parser did a rough/analysis of the source sentence, dividing it into subject, object,verb, etc. Source words were then replaced by target words selected from a dictionary,and their order rearranged so as to comply with the rules of the target language. It sounds simple, but it wasn't. The problem with Weaver's approach wassummarized succinctly by Yehoshua Bar-Hillel, a linguist and philosopher whowondered what kind of sense a machine would make of the sentence "The pen is inthe box" (the writing instrument is in the container) and the sentence "The box is inthe pen" (the container is in the[play]pen). Humans resolve such ambiguities in one of two ways. Either they note thecontext of the preceding sentences or they infer the meaning in isolation by knowingcertain rules about the real world—in this case, that boxes are bigger than pens(writing instruments) but smaller than pens (play-pens) and that bigger objects cannotfit inside smaller ones. The computers available to Weaver and his immediatesuccessors could not possibly have managed that. But modern computers, which have more processing power arid morememory, can. Their translation engines are able to adopt a less direct approach, usingwhat is called "linguistic knowledge". It is this that has allowed Mr. Kamejima toproduce e-j bank, and has also permitted NeocorTech of San Diego to come up withTsunami and Typhoon - the first Japanese-language-translation software to run on thestandard (English) version of Microsoft Windows. Linguistic-knowledge translators have two sets of grammatical rules—onefor the source language and one for the target. They also have a lot of informationabout the idiomatic differences between the languages, to stop them making sillymistakes. The first set of grammatical rules is used by the parser to analyze an inputsentence ("I read" The Economist "every week"). The sentence is resolved into a treethat describes the structural relationship between the sentence's components ("I"[subject], "read" (verb), "The Economist" (object) and "every week" [phrasemodifying the verb). Thus far, the process is like that of a Weaverstyle transformerengine. But then things get more complex. Instead of working to a pre-arrangedformula, a generator (i.e., a parser in reverse) is brought into play to create a sentencestructure in the target language. It does so using a dictionary and a comparativegrammar—a set of rules that describes the difference between each sentencecomponent in the source language and its counterpart in the target language. Thus abridge to the second language is built on deep structural foundations. Apart from being much more accurate, such linguistic-knowledge enginesshould, in theory, be reversible—you should be able to work backwards from thetarget language to the source language. In practice, there are a few catches whichprevent this from happening as well as it might - but the architecture does at least make life easier for software designers trying to produce matching pairs of programs. Tsunami (English to Japanese) and Typhoon Japanese to English), for instance, sharemuch of their underlying programming code. Having been designed from the start for use on a personal computer ratherthan a powerful workstation or even a mainframe, Tsunami and Typhoon use memory extremely efficiently. As a result, they are blindingly fast on the latest PCs— translating either way at speeds of more than 300,000 words an hour. Do they produceperfect translations at the click of a mouse? Not by a long shot. But they do come upwith surprisingly good first drafts for expert translators to get their teeth into. Onemistake that the early researchers made was to imagine that nothing less than flawless,fully automated machine translation would suffice. With more realistic expectations,machine translation is, at last, beginning to thrive. Text 3 IBM promises science 500-fold break-through in supercomputing power David Stone PC MAGAZINE March 8, 2005. Biologists hail SI 00 million project to build a "petaflop" computer as likely to revolutionize our understanding of cellular biology. The computer, nicknamed 'Blue Genes', world be around 500 times faster than today's most powerful supercomputer. Computer scientists say that the planned machine, details of which were revealed last: week, is the first large leap in computer architecture in decades. IBM will build the programme around the challenge of modeling protein folding (see below), with much of the research costs going on designing software. It will involve 50 scientists from IBM Research's Deep Computing Institute and Computational Biology Group, and unnamed outside academics. But Blue Gene's hardware will not he customized to the problem and, if IBM's blueprint works, it will offer all scientific disciplines petaflop computers. These will be capable of more than one quadrillion floating point operations ('flop') per second around two million times more powerful than today's top desktops. Most experts have" predicted that fundamental technological difficulties would prevent a petaflop computer being built before around 2015. "It is, fantastic that IBM is doing this," says George Lake, a scientist at the university of Washington and NASA project, scientist for high-performance computing in Earth and space science. IBM is showing leadership by ushering in a new generation of supercomputers, he says. The biggest-technological constraints to building a petaflop machine have been latency - increasing the speed with which a chip addresses the memory - and reducing power-consumption. A petaflop computer build using conventional chips would 59 consume almost one billion watts of power. IBM reckons Blue Gene will use just one million-watts. Although processor speeds have increased exponentially, the time to fetch dm from the memory of a supercomputer, 300 nanoseconds, is only slightly less than half what it was 20 years ago. Putting more and more transistors on a chip is therefore unlikely to lead to much greater speed. "We set out from scratch, completely ignoring history, and thought how can we get the highest performance out of silicon," says Monty Denneau, a scientist at IBM's Thomas J. Watson research center in Yorktown Heights, New York, who is assistant architect of Slue Gene. Arvind, a professor of computer science at Mit who is considered one of the top authorities on computer architecture, applauds IBM's approach. "It has made very big steps in rethinking computer architecture to try to do without the components that consume power, it has taken all these research ideas and pulled them together." Text 4 Antiviruses.Principle of work.Examples of antiviruses. Antivirus software consists of computer programs that attempt to identify, thwart and eliminate computer viruses and other malicious software (malware). Antivirus software typically uses two different techniques to accomplish this: • Examining (scanning) files to look for known viruses matching definitions in a virus dictionary • Identifying suspicious behavior from any computer program which might indicate infection. Such analysis may include data captures, port monitoring and other methods. Most commercial antivirus software uses both of these approaches, with an emphasis on the virus dictionary approach. Historically, the term antivirus has also been used for computer viruses that spread and combated malicious viruses. This was common on the Amiga computer platform. Dictionary In the virus dictionary approach, when the antivirus software looks at a file, it refers to a dictionary of known viruses that the authors of the antivirus software have identified. If a piece of code in the file matches any virus identified in the dictionary, then the antivirus software can take one of the following actions: • attempt to repair the file by removing the virus itself from the file • quarantine the file (such that the file remains inaccessible to other programs and its virus can no longer spread) • delete the infected file To achieve consistent success in the medium and long term, the virus dictionary approach requires periodic (generally online) downloads of updated virus dictionary entries. As civically minded and technically inclined users identify new viruses "in the wild", they can send their infected files to the authors of antivirus software, who then 60 include information about the new viruses in their dictionaries. Dictionary-based antivirus software typically examines files when the computer's operating system creates, opens, closes or e-mails them. In this way it can detect a known virus immediately upon receipt. Note too that a System Administrator can typically schedule the antivirus software to examine (scan) all files on the computer's hard disk on a regular basis. Although the dictionary approach can effectively contain virus outbreaks in the right circumstances, virus authors have tried to stay a step ahead of such software by writing "oligomorphic", "polymorphic" and more recently "metamorphic" viruses, which encrypt parts of themselves or otherwise modify themselves as a method of disguise, so as not to match the virus's signature in the dictionary. Suspicious behavior The suspicious behavior approach, by contrast, doesn't attempt to identify known viruses, but instead monitors the behavior of all programs. If one program tries to write data to an executable program, for example, the antivirus software can flag this suspicious behavior, alert a user and ask what to do. Unlike the dictionary approach, the suspicious behavior approach therefore provides protection against brand-new viruses that do not yet exist in any virus dictionaries. However, it can also sound a large number of false positives, and users probably become desensitized to all the warnings. If the user clicks "Accept" on every such warning, then the antivirus software obviously gives no benefit to that user. This problem has worsened since 1997, since many more nonmalicious program designs came to modify other .exe files without regard to this false positive issue. Thus, most modern antivirus software uses this technique less and less. Other approaches Some antivirus-software uses of other types of heuristic analysis. For example, it could try to emulate the beginning of the code of each new executable that the system invokes before transferring control to that executable. If the program seems to use self-modifying code or otherwise appears as a virus (if it immediately tries to find other executables, for example), one could assume that a virus has infected the executable. However, this method could result in a lot of false positives. Yet another detection method involves using a sandbox. A sandbox emulates the operating system and runs the executable in this simulation. After the program has terminated, software analyzes the sandbox for any changes which might indicate a virus. Because of performance issues, this type of detection normally only takes place during ondemand scans. Also this method may fail as virus can be nondeterministic and result in different actions or no actions at all done then run - so it will be impossible to detect it from one run. Some virus scanners can also warn a user if a file is likely to contain a virus based on the file type. An emerging technique to deal with malware in general is whitelisting. Rather than looking for only known bad software, this technique prevents execution of all computer code except that which has been previously identified as trustworthy by the 61 system administrator. By following this default deny approach, the limitations inherent in keeping virus signatures up to date are avoided. Additionally, computer applications that are unwanted by the system administrator are prevented from executing since they are not on the whitelist. Since modem enterprise organizations have large quantities of trusted applications, the limitations of adopting this technique rest with the system administrators' ability to properly inventory and maintain the whitelist of trusted applications. As such, viable implementations of this technique include tools for automating the inventory and whitelist maintenance processes. Issues of concern • The spread of viruses using e-mail as their infection vector could be inhibited far more inexpensively and effectively, without the need to install additional antivirus software; if bugs in e-mail clients, which allow the unauthorized execution of code, were fixed • User education can effectively supplement antivirus software. Simply training users in safe computing practices (such as not downloading and executing unknown programs from the Internet) would slow the spread of viruses and obviate the need of much antivirus software. • The ongoing writing and spreading of viruses and of panic about them gives the vendors of commercial antivirus software a financial interest in the ongoing existence of viruses. Some theorize that antivirus companies have financial ties to virus writers, to generate their own market, though there is currently no evidence for this. • Some antivirus software can considerably reduce performance. Users may disable the antivirus protection to overcome the performance loss, thus increasing the risk of infection. For maximum protection the antivirus software needs to be enabled all the time — often at the cost of slower performance (see also software bloat). • It is sometimes necessary to temporarily disable virus protection when installing major updates such as Windows Service Packs or updating graphics card drivers. Having antivirus protection running at the same time as installing a major update may prevent the update installing properly or at all. • When purchasing antivirus software, the agreement may include a clause that your subscription will be automatically renewed, and your credit card automatically billed at the renewal time without your approval. For example, McAfee requires one to unsubscribe at least 60 days before the expiration of the present subscription, yet it does not provide phone access nor a way to unsubscribe directly through their website. In that case, the subscriber's recourse is to contest the charges with the credit card issuer. History There are competing claims for the innovator of the first antivirus product. Perhaps the first publicly known neutralization of a wild PC virus was performed by European Bemt Fix (also Bemd) in early 1987. Fix neutralized an infection of the Vienna virus. Following Vienna a number of highly successful viruses appeared including Ping Pong, Lehigh, and Suriv-3 aka Jemsalem. In January 1988, researchers in the Hebrew University developed "unvirus" and "immune", which tell users whether their disks have been infected and applies an antidote to those that have. 62 From 1988 onwards many companies formed with a focus on the new field of antivirus technology. One of the first breakthroughs in antivirus technology occurred in March 1988 with the release of the Den Zuk viruses created by Denny Yanuar Ramdhani of Indonesia. Den Zuk neutralized the Brain virus. April 1988 saw the Virus-L forum on Usenet created, and mid 1988 saw the development by Peter Tippett of a heuristic scanner capable of detecting viruses and Trojans which was given a small public release. Fall 1988 also saw antivirus software Dr. Solomon's AntiVirus Toolkit released by Briton Alan Solomon. By December 1990 the market had matured to the point of nineteen separate antivirus products being on sale including Norton AntiVirus and ViruScan from McAfee. Tippett made a number of contributions to the budding field of virus detection. He was an emergency room doctor who also ran a computer software company. He had read an article about the Lehigh virus were the first viruses to be developed, but it was Lehigh that Tippett read about and he questioned whether they would have similar characteristics to viruses that attack humans. From an epidemiological viewpoint, he was able to determine how these viruses were affecting systems within the computer (the boot-sector was affected by the Brain virus, the .com files were affected by the Lehigh virus, and both .com and .exe files were affected by the Jemsalem virus).Tippett's company Certus International Corp. then began to create anti-virus software programs. The company was sold in 1992 to Symantec Corp, and Tippett went to work for them, incorporating the software he had developed into Symantec's product, Norton AntiVirus. Best antivirus soft NOD32 is an antivirus package made by the Slovak company Eset. Versions are available for Microsoft Windows, Linux, FreeBSD and other platforms. Remote administration tools for multiuser installations are also available at extra cost. NOD32 Enterprise Edition consists of NOD32 AntiVirus and NOD32 Remote Administrator. The NOD32 Remote Administrator program allows a network administrator to monitor anti-virus functions, push installations and upgrades to unprotected PCs on the network and update configuration files from a central location. NOD32 is certified by ICSA Labs. It has been tested 44 times by Virus Bulletin and has failed only 3 times, the lowest failure rate in their tests. At CNET.com, it received a review of 7.3/10. Technical information NOD32 consists of an on-demand scanner and four different real-time monitors. The on-demand scanner (somewhat confusingly referred to as NOD32) can be invoked by the scheduler or by the user. Each real-time monitor covers a different virus entry point: AMON (Antivirus MONitor) - scans files as they are accessed by the system, preventing a virus from executing on the system. DMON (Document MONitor) - scans Microsoft Office documents and files for macro viruses as they are opened and saved by Office applications. IMON (Internet MONitor) - intercepts traffic on common protocols such as POPS and HTTP to detect and intercept viruses before they are saved to disc. 63 XMON (MS eXchangeMONitor) - scans incoming and outgoing mail when NODS 2 is running and licensed for Microsoft Exchange Server – i.e, running on a server environment. This module is not present on workstations at all. NOD32 Virus Detection Alert NOD32 is written largely in assembly code, which contributes to its low use of system resources and high scanning speed, meaning that NOD32 can easily process more than 23MB per second while scanning on a modest P4 based PC and on average, with all real-time modules active, uses less than 20MB of memory in total but the physical RAM used by NOD32 is often just a third of that. According to a 2005 Virus Bulletin test, NOD32 performs scans two to five times faster than other antivirus competitors. In a networked environment NOD32 clients can update from a central "mirror server" on the network, reducing bandwidth usage since new definitions need only be downloaded once by the mirror server as opposed to once for each client. NOD32's scan engine uses heuristic detection (which Eset calls "ThreatSense") in addition to signature files to provide better protection against newly released viruses. Text 5 What is a virus? B. Kelley IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, PM 1789 Rewised June, 2006. In 1983, researcher Fred Cohen defined a computer virus as "a program that can 'infect' other programs by modifying them to include a ... version of itself. " This means that viruses copy themselves, usually by encryption or by mutating slightly each time they copy. There are several types of viruses, but the ones that are the most dangerous are designed to corrupt your computer or software programs. Viruses can range from an irritating message flashing on your computer screen to eliminating data on your hard drive. Viruses often use your computer's internal clock as a trigger. Some of the most popular dates used are Friday the 13th and famous birthdays. It is important to remember that viruses are dangerous only if you execute (start) an infected program. There are three main kinds of viruses*. Each kind is based on the way the virus spreads. 1. Boot Sector Viruses - These viruses attach themselves to floppy disks and then copy themselves into the boot sector of your hard drive. (The boot sector is the set of instructions your computer uses when it starts up.) When you start your computer (or reboot it) your hard drive gets infected. You can get boot sector viruses only from an infected floppy disk. You cannot get one from sharing files or executing programs. This type of virus is becoming less common because today's computers do not require a boot disk to start, but they can still be found on disks that contain other types of files. One of the most common boot sector viruses is called "Monkey," also known as "Stoned." 2. Program Viruses - These viruses (also known as traditional file viruses) 64 attach themselves to programs' executable files. Usually a program virus will attach to an .exe or .corn file. However, they can infect any file that your computer runs when it launches a program (including .sys, .dll, and others). When you start a program that contains a virus, the virus usually loads into your computer's Memory. * Three kinds of viruses 1. Boot Sector viruses attach to floppy disks and then copy into the boot sector of your hard drive. 2. Program viruses attach to a program's executable files. 3. Macro viruses attach to templates. The truth about viruses The majority of people believe that the most common source of viruses is the Internet through e-mail or downloaded files. The truth is however, that the majority of viruses spread through shared floppy disks or shared files on internal network. Even if you are not connected to the Internet you should still be concerned about viruses. You should also be aware that there are thousands of false rumors of viruses (virushoaxes). 65 Использованная литература: 1. Андронов О.Г., Бойко Б.Л. Теоретико-практический Информационная обработка текстов. - М., 1999. курс: 2. Батурина С.А. Сборник текстов для перевода и реферирования.- Омск, 2005 3. Князева Е.Г. Информационная обработка текстов. Учебное пособие – М., 2001. 4. Колодожная Ж.А. Основные понятия реферировании научных документов.- М.: 2002 об аннотировании и 5. Маркушевская Л.П., Цапаева Ю.А. Аннотирование и реферирование. (Методические рекомендации для самостоятельной работы студентов) СПб ГУ ИТМО, 2008 6. Славина Г., Харьковский З., Антонова Е. Аннотирование и реферирование. Учебное пособие по английскому языку- М.: Высшая школа, 2006 66 67 68

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