Environmental Monitoring
& Technology Series
Navigation &
Mapping
For Technicians
Study module 6
Topographic maps
cffet.net/env
Navigation & mapping for technicians
Study Module 6
Assessment details
Purpose
Upon successful completion of this study module you will have an understanding of the
different types of reference systems, datum’s, coordinate systems and specific notations
used in navigation as well as being able to perform simple unit conversions.
Instructions
◗ Read the theory section to understand the topic.
◗ Complete the Student Declaration below prior to starting.
◗ Attempt to answer the questions and perform any associated tasks.
◗ Email, phone, book appointment or otherwise ask your teacher for help if required.
◗ When completed, submit task by email using rules found on last page.
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Details
Student name
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N&M
Assessment name
Study module 6
Due Date
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Total Marks Available
25
Marks Gained
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Final Mark (%)
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Marker’s Initials
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Date Marked
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Weighting
This is one of twelve formative assessments that make up 40% of
the overall mark for this subject
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Introduction
Over the years many different types of map have been created which display a staggering
variety of information. Some other map types are discussed later in the GIS section so this
section will only deal with a special map that would be common to most students – the
topographic map.
Topographic maps
Topographic maps (from greek ‘topos’ meaning ‘place’ and ‘graphy’ meaning ‘write’) are
usually accurately detailed graphical representations of the Earth’s surface.
Figure 6.1 – Example of a typical topographic map.
What’s on a topographic map?
The features included on topographical maps include;
Cultural features - These include features such as roads, buildings, urban development,
railways, airports, names of places and geographic features, administrative boundaries,
state and international borders and nature reserves
Hydrography - Including lakes, rivers, streams, wetlands, coastal flats
Relief - Relief is a term used to describe the elevation aspects of a map and is an attempt to
transform the 3D world into a useable 2D world. This includes mountains, valleys, slopes,
depressions and ridges.
Vegetation - This attempts to define areas of different vegetation type. Examples include
wooded and cleared areas, vineyards and orchards.
Marginalia – This contains relevant information about map construction such as datum
information, grid dimensions and scales.
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Legend – part of the marginalia which lists the features shown on that map, and their
corresponding symbols.
Aerial photo – the back of current NSW maps have an aerial photo covering the area
portrayed on the map itself. This feature aids terrain identification and familiarisation.
Topographic maps usually show a geographic graticule (latitude and longitude, in degrees,
minutes and seconds) and a coordinate grid (easting’s and northings, in metres), so you can
determine relative and absolute positions of mapped features.
Caution!
Of importance to map users is the fact that maps are produced from information available
on a certain date. Over time, that information may change and topographic maps should
include a reliability statement, which states the map’s age and accuracy. Due to changes in
datum’s and projections which shift coordinate frameworks around, this could cause
problems for other coordinate users.
All topographic maps share similar designs and functionalities. The maps we will use as an
example are created by the NSW State Government (Central Mapping Authority). Outlined
below are the important parts of the map that need to be explained prior to their use.
Figure 6.2 – ‘Front’ and ‘back’ of an old NSW topographic map (when folded). Really, both of these
images are on the front of the map, forming the ‘marginalia’, and modern maps (that we will use in
class) have an aerial photo of the map area on the back.
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Study Module 6
Marginalia
As can be seen in Figure 6.2 above, the maps come with a staggering amount of information
which has been condensed into two ‘panels’ found on the left hand side (margin) of the
map. ‘Staggering’, you say…doesn’t look like much to me? Wait ‘till it’s all explained!
Map name and number
Each map has a name and number to identify its relative location to all other maps in the
area. The example from Figure 6.2 above has a name of Wallsend and a number of 9232-3-S.
The naming appears to be arbitrary but the numbering system is sequential and has a
specific logic behind it.
All the maps form part of the mapping authority’s sequence, whether it be from a national
or state mapping authority. In NSW the sequence is governed by the NSW Land & Property
Management Authority (LPMA). For NSW, the sequence of maps can be seen in Figure 6.3
below;
Figure 6.3 – Central Mapping Authority map sequence of 1:100000, 1:50000 & 1:25000 topographic
maps for Eastern NSW. Image modified from Land & Property Management Authority map.
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Map scale
The map scale and ruler are critical pieces of information on a map as they relate the
images on the map to the real world which allows for distance to be calculated, and from
distance comes routes, times and various other information that allow you to calculate how
long a job will take. There are two formal way of describing map scales using either fraction
or ratios, or using rulers (called linear scales).
Representative Fraction (RF)
This method expresses the distance on the map as a fraction or ratio of the corresponding
distance on the ground. If the scale is a ratio of 1:100000, then every unit of distance on the
map can be represented as a fraction, literally as 1/100,000 of the distance on the ground.
The numerator is always 1, with the denominator being the representation value for the
particular map you are using. Common RF scales for NSW topographic maps are 1:100000,
1:50000 and 1:25000. Figure 6.4 below shows how the RF scale relates to distance on the
ground.
Figure 6.4 – Relationship between map RF scale and the distance represented on the ground.
Map scales are often described as being either one of two scales - small, or large (I suppose
there is a medium too somewhere). This terminology can cause confusion amongst learners
because the larger the scale, the less detail is shown (or the larger the denominator the
smaller the scale).
Exercise 7.1
Let’s test whether this makes sense to you. Arrange the three map scales below in order of
smallest to biggest scale.
1:5000
1:1000000
1:25000
=
=
=
Choose an item.
Choose an item.
Choose an item.
Perform the following unit conversions;
100000 cm to m
25000 cm to m
25000 cm to km
=
=
=
Click here to enter text.
Click here to enter text.
Click here to enter text.
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Linear scale (ruler)
This scale is a ruler, drawn to assist in the measurement of distance and, on current maps, is
worked out in kilometres. The important aspects to note with the linear scale ruler are that;
◗ The linear scale ruler will always be shown with (or near) the RF scale
◗ The unit may vary but is usually in kilometres
◗ Zero point is not always located at the left hand side, sometimes it is indented right
◗ Two graduations scales usually exist, primary and secondary
◗ Secondary graduations are usually in halves or fifths of the primary graduation
◗ Not all graduations will be labelled, values for these are derived from primary values
Figure 6.5 – Map scale, RF and linear ruler scale for a 1:250000 scale map showing unit of kilometres
with primary graduation of 5 km and secondary graduations of 1 km. 1 cm on the ground = 250000 cm
on the Earth (or 2500 m, 2.5 km).
Figure 6.6 – Map Scales showing different graduations values. Primary values are of 2 km and
secondary are of 1 km, with unlabelled graduations equalling 100 m (although it hard to see in this
image). Note that the ‘zero’ value is indented from the left.
Caution!
When photocopying maps it is important to photocopy the scale with the map. The map will
stay valid if the scale and map are changed proportionally, but will be useless if one or the
other is omitted from the change in proportion.
Print date & creator
This is of critical importance to be aware of because this will determine the datum that the
map is based on (even though the datum itself should be written as well). When describing
location the map print should be included. The map creator will also be stated on the map.
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Legend
The legend found on the map is the most important part of the map as it tells you exactly
how to read. A map without a legend is nothing more than a drawing.
Figure 6.7 – Example of a map legend showing map symbols and their description. This is the primary
information used to read the geographical or anthropological features on a map.
Other information on the map
◗ Data information notes
◗ Map conversion information
◗ Universal grid reference information
◗ Meteorological information
◗ Reference North’s and convergence information
◗ Map folding instructions
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Some expansion
◗ map scale? This is important because scale tells you about the comparative size of
features and distances displayed on the map.
◗ Which direction is north? This is important because direction orients the map to the real
world.
◗ What symbols are used on the map? Have a look at the legend. This is important
because to understand the map you need to understand the symbols. While there are
some “standard” symbols for many features, these and the less common features may
vary across different topographic map series.
◗ If you are going to use the coordinates from the map, you will need to determine which
coordinate system (or datum) is used on the map. Datum’s are explained later in this
booklet. This information will be contained in the text on the map margin. Some newer
maps show Global Positioning System (GPS) coordinates.
Maps and GPS
Remember to set your GPS to the right system, or a compatible one, and to include a
reference to the datum when quoting the coordinates. Maps on the new Geocentric Datum
of Australia (GDA) system are compatible with GPS.
The two main parts of a map are:
◗ the map face, which shows the area mapped and includes information to help you
visualise or recognise the area and locate features on the map; and
◗ the map margin information, which gives details that help you use the map, as well as
explanations on when, where and how the information was compiled.
Scale & measuring distance
The scale of a map is the relation between the horizontal distance between two points
measured on the ground and between the same two points measured on the map. This
relationship is constant, in whatever direction the distances are measured.
There are many ways of measuring distance on a map using dividers, a length of string, a
ruler, etc. Two simple methods using a strip of paper are described below.
Measuring straight distance
To measure the distance in a straight line between two points on a map:
◗ Lay the straight edge of a piece of paper against the two points and mark the distance
on the paper.
◗ Lay the paper along the linear scale with the right—hand mark against one of the
primary divisions and the left—hand mark against the secondary divisions to the Ieft.
◗ The total distance is the distance to the right of the zero, plus the distance to the left of
the zero; the distance below is 2,000 m + 1,700 m = 3,700 m.
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Figure 6.8 – Measuring straight lines on a map (Public Safety ITAB).
Measuring distance along a road
It is often necessary to measure a distance that is net straight, e.g. along a road. To calculate
the distance from A to B below, consider the read as a number of straight or nearly straight
sections.
◗ Lay a piece of paper along the first section and make two marks: the first at A and the
second at the end of the straight section.
◗ Pivot the paper about the second mark until it lies along the second section.
◗ Mark the end of the second section and continue this method until B is reached.
◗ Record the total distance by road as a straight line en the piece of paper and read it off
against the linear scale. The distance below is 4,450 m.
Figure 6.9 – Measuring distance along a road (Public Safety ITAB)
Shape of the ground, gradients and inter-visibility
Manufactured features, such as towns, roads and railways occur on the surface of the
ground. Their details change quite rapidly. The shape of the ground (often referred to as
relief) is permanent and determines the nature of the life lived on it, the type of things built
on it, the position of towns and the direction and forms of communications.
The importance of being able to visualise, from the map, the shape of the ground is obvious.
It shows what positions may be suitable for good observation, what ground is good for cross
country movement, etc.
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Shape of the Ground (Relief)
There are two distinct elements in the representation of relief. These are representation of:
◗ height
◗ shape
Representation of height is a factual matter in which the variations will arise from the type
and accuracy of the information, and how much information is provided. On the other hand,
representation of shape may be largely artistic and the methods will vary on different maps.
Methods of showing relief
There are many ways of showing relief on a map, including:
◗ hachures
◗ hill shading
◗ contours
Hachures
This method may be used in sketch maps. Hachures show rising ground by a shading of fine
lines down the line of the slope and are heaviest on the steepest slopes. They give a good
impression of the shape of the ground but they have two great disadvantages:
◗ They do not show exact information regarding height, only the illusion of height, and
therefore heights and slopes cannot be measured.
◗ The hachure lines tend to obscure other detail on the map.
Hill shading
Hill shading shows by darkness of colour what hachures show by lines. The shading may be
applied so that colours darken as the ground rises, or it may be applied as if the light was
coming from one direction, so that one side of a hill is shown in a lighter shade than the
other to give greater definition. Hill shading is sometimes used as well as contour lines.
Figure 6.10 – Example of hill shading
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Contours
The most usual way of showing relief is by the use of contour lines. Contours not only give a
representation of height but also indicate the shape of the ground. The idea of a contour is
very simple. It is an imaginary line drawn on a map, joining all places of equal height above a
fixed datum (or reference) line (usually sea level).
Figure 6.11 – Example of contour lines
Height of contours
On the map, each contour is drawn at a specific height above a fixed datum. The difference
in height between contours is called the contour interval and is shown in the marginal
information on the map. It is important to realise that if the contour interval is 20 metres,
for example, something smaller than 20 metres may not appear on the map.
Every fifth contour may be drawn heavier to aid measuring height. These are known as
index contours. Some contours have the height shown at intervals along their length. On
most maps these heights are printed so that they read correctly when facing uphill. This can
be useful when determining the direction of high ground.
Figure 6.12 – Hill shading and contours
Contour patterns
Each topographical feature, such as a spur or a knoll, is represented by its own particular
contour pattern. The diagram below shows some contour patterns. The most important
points to remember about contour patterns are:
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◗ contour lines close together indicate steep slopes
◗ contour lines far apart indicate gentle slopes
◗ evenly spaced contour lines indicate uniform slopes
◗ when the spacing of contour lines, reading from high to low, decrease, the slope is
convex
◗ when the spacing of contour lines, reading from high to low, increase, the slope is
concave
Figure 6.13 – Contour patterns
Representation of height
Height without reference to shape is shown by fixing the height above sea level at selected
points. Three common methods are described below in order of accuracy.
Bench mark
◗ The most precise heights, usually a permanent mark cut into a stone, built into a wall or
on the side of a triangulation pillar.
◗ The height given is the height of the mark and not the level of the ground.
Trigonometrical
◗ Usually shown on maps and are defined on the (trig) stations ground normally by a mark
in a concrete block under a survey beacon.
Spot elevation
◗ Less accurate heights and are without a definite mark on the ground.
◗ Selected to indicate the height of the ground at points such as tops of hills.
◗ Accuracy will vary, but are as accurate as the contours.
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Physical features
Some common terms for the various physical features shown on a map are listed below and
illustrated in the diagram on the next page.
Basin
An area of reasonably level ground surrounded, or nearly surrounded, by hills; or an area
drained by a river and its tributaries.
Crest
The highest part of a hill or mountain range. That line on a range of hills or mountains from
which the ground slopes down in opposite directions.
Escarpment
The steep hillside formed by a sudden drop in the general ground level, usually from a
plateau.
Gorge
A deep ravine usually with steep sides.
Knoll
A low detached hill.
Plateau
A tableland; an elevated region of considerable extent, generally level.
Ravine
A long, deep valley worn by a stream.
Re-entrant
A valley or ravine, usually between two spurs, running inward towards the hill or mountain
top.
Ridge
The line along a hill or range of hills or mountains from which the water flows in opposite
directions; sometimes the crest of a line of hills as it appears along the horizon.
Saddle
A depression between hills or mountain tops that are next to each other; also called a col.
Spur
A minor feature, generally in the form of a ridge, running out from a hill or mountain.
Undulating ground
Ground which rises and falls gently.
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Figure 6.14 - 3D example of physical features
Gradients
The slope of the ground may be expressed as the angle the ground makes with the
horizontal, but more commonly as a gradient, e.g. 1 in 10 or 1 in 20, which may be written
as 1:10 or 1:20. A gradient of 1 in 10 means that in a distance of 10 units horizontally, the
ground rises or falls 1 unit.
The eye exaggerates slopes to the extent that many people looking down a slope of 1:1
would say that it was vertical. Looking down a slope of 1:3 or 1:4 they would be convinced
that it was at least 1:1. It is important, therefore, to be able to visualise the slope or gradient
of the ground from a study of the map. Figure 6.15 shows the effect of various gradients.
Figure 6.15 – Different gradients
Contour lines & interval
Topographic maps enable 3D features to be shown as 2D (such as elevation and shape) by
the use of contour lines which, once the contour interval has been defined, are easily
calculated and transcribed. The contour interval states the height difference between two
contour lines.
Figure 6.16 – Specification of contour interval on the 1:25000 scale map used in Figure 6.15 above.
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The elevation profile of a map section can easily be drawn up from a map using graph paper
and a ruler, in conjunction with the contour information the map provides. This is shown in
Figure 6.17 below.
Figure 6.17– Using the contour information to determine the elevation profile for a map section. In this
example the contour interval is 20 m (Touche 2004).
Figure 6.17 above shows the different types of contour lines used. Only ‘every other’
contour line is labelled with a height so that overcrowding is avoided and are commonly
called Index Lines, so this means that unlabelled contours must be determined from the
maps contour interval by counting up or down to the next labelled contour interval.
Some contours are truly approximate and are designated so on the legend as contour lines
with small gaps in them.
Contours are useful for obtaining a variety of other information as well such as the slope (°
angle) and gradient (% angle) of a landform, the type of landform present (such as ridge,
summit, and valley etcetera).
Measuring gradients
Gradients can be measured accurately using instruments designed specifically for that
purpose. Reasonably accurate results can also be achieved by using information from the
map.
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To calculate a gradient:
◗ First measure the horizontal distance on the map between two successive contour lines
(successive contour lines are contour lines that are next to each other).
◗ Express this in the same unit as the contour interval.
Example
If the contour interval is 20 metres, and the distance measured on the map between two
successive contours is 120 metres, the average gradient between these two contours is
20/120 = 1/6 or 1:6.
Maximum gradient for cross country vehicle use
As a guide for successful cross-country vehicle use, the gradient of a road or track should
not exceed 1:6 except for short distances and should never exceed 1:3.
Inter-visibility (Line of Sight)
Instances may arise where it will be necessary to determine what area of ground can be
primarily covered by line of sight from a given point. Examples of this are:
◗ planning and establishing radio communications from one point to another
◗ assessing a particular area for observation
In simple cases an inspection of the map may show clearly whether or not intervening
higher ground exists between the points under consideration. Obvious obstructions other
than intervening higher ground may be trees or buildings and these must be taken into
account.
Where inter-visibility is not certain by inspection, it is necessary to make a section of the line
of sight as explained below. A section is a diagram drawn to show the rise and fall of the
ground along a line between two points.
Making a section
To make a full section between two points A and B on a contoured map, proceed as follows;
◗ Draw a line on the map between the two points. Find the highest and lowest contours
cut by the line.
◗ Lay a straight edge of a piece of paper along the line AB and mark it at points A and B
together with the points at which each contour cuts this line. Label each mark with its
height, allowing an extra 10 metres for the heights of trees where necessary. In addition
mark creeks and crests.
◗ On a blank sheet of paper, draw sufficient equally spaced parallel lines so that each line
represents a contour or height value. Number these lines in sequence according to their
contour value. Allow one value higher than the highest point and one value below the
lowest point on the section line AB.
◗ Lay the marked piece of paper (obtained from point 2) over the numbered parallel lines
and mark the position of A and B.
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Figure 6.18 – Example of an elevation profile. Note that this can be performed using the free version
of Google Earth.
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Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS)
So, that’s how you read a map.
How you use a map to actually navigate from one place to another can only really be shown
to you, and believe it or not, is almost a dying art.
These days we have electronic aids, maps, GPS and other items to aid in navigation, and it is
these that will be focused on in the future.
Google Earth (or similar programs listed below) are exceptional tools for deriving
navigational information from non-road based environments.
You will be taught how to use Google Earth or similar programs in later chapters.
These days, all of this sort of work falls under the heading of Geographical Information
Systems, or GIS. GIS is a very important aspect of environmental work that you should
know, but is not technically covered by the units you are learning here. Having said that,
learning GIS is something that we will cover in the last chapter, but it is not compulsory and
will not reflect on your competency in this unit.
If you are keen, you can download the following free software to work in and with GIS;
◗ Google Earth (free version http://www.google.com/earth/download/ge/agree.html)
◗ Quantum GIS (QGIS, which is free http://www.qgis.org/en/site/)
◗ TerraGo GeoPDF free toolbar (http://www.terragotech.com/products/terrago-toolbar)
You will also need to familiarise yourself with the following sources of Australian map,
cartography and cadastral information;
◗ MapConnect from Geoscience Australia (http://mapconnect.ga.gov.au/MapConnect/)
◗ NSW Land & Property Information (http://www.lpi.nsw.gov.au)
◗ Specifically the Spatial Information Exchange (http://maps.six.nsw.gov.au/)
And finally you will need to acquire data to display (called shapefiles), which you can get
from literally everywhere (including the above sources), but environmental info can be
obtained from the following sources;
◗ http://www.nratlas.nsw.gov.au/
◗ http://www.environment.gov.au/science/databases-maps
◗ http://www.environment.gov.au/metadataexplorer/explorer.jsp
I really do hope that you get the time and the inclination to work with some of these GIS
tools because even having a rudimentary knowledge of them can be a big help in getting a
job.
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Assessment task
After reading the theory above, answer the questions below. Note that;

Marks are allocated to each question.

Keep answers to short paragraphs only, no essays.

Make sure you have access to the references (last page)

If a question is not referenced, use the supplied notes for answers
NOTE: Although the existence and use of physical maps is in decline, the knowledge that you
learn here is still very much applicable to the electronic version and is all used in GIS. You
need to understand that this is not redundant information.
1. What is a topographic map? 1 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
2. List five features found on a topographic map. 5 mk
Type your answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
3. What is meant by the term ‘representative’ fraction? 2 mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
4. Which map covers a greater area: a small scale or large scale map? 2 mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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5. List five features found in a legend. 5 mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
6. What do contour lines tell us about the terrain? 2 mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
7. Identify and explain the three methods of representing height on a topographic map. 6
mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
8. What is meant by the term gradient? 2 mk
Type you answer here
Leave blank for assessor feedback
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Assessment & submission rules
Answers
◗ Attempt all questions and tasks
◗ Write answers in the text-fields provided
Submission
◗ Use the documents ‘Save As…’ function to save the document to your computer using
the file name format of;
name-classcode-assessmentname
Note that class code and assessment code are on Page 1 of this document.
◗ email the document back to your teacher
Penalties
◗ If this assessment task is received greater than seven (7) days after the due date (located
on the cover page), it may not be considered for marking without justification.
Results
◗ Your submitted work will be returned to you within 3 weeks of submission by email fully
graded with feedback.
◗ You have the right to appeal your results within 3 weeks of receipt of the marked work.
Problems?
If you are having study related or technical problems with this document, make sure you
contact your assessor at the earliest convenience to get the problem resolved. The name of
your assessor is located on Page 1, and the contact details can be found at;
www.cffet.net/env/contacts
Resources & references
1. These notes
2. Geoscience Australia. 2005. Map reading guide: How to use topographic maps.
Commonwealth of Australia, Canberra.
Hunter TAFE - Chemical, Forensic, Food & Environmental Technology [cffet.net]
Course Notes for delivery of MSS11 Sustainability Training Package
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