Appendix B
Foundational Skills in Handwriting
for Kindergarten Classrooms
Maria Fiela Paje-Delos Reyes, OTR/L
Foundational Skills in Handwriting for Kindergarten Classrooms
Maria Fiela Paje-Delos Reyes, OTR/L
Permission is granted to reproduce and distribute copies of the instructions, illustrations, forms, and
diagrams contained in this manual in limited quantities for non-commercial, educational use only.
OBJECTIVES:
Foundational Skills in Handwriting Program is designed to provide kindergarten teachers
classroom support to improve the students’ handwriting performance by means of engaging in a
structured program that utilizes an eclectic approach (cognitive and multisensory techniques) in
handwriting instruction. Students using this program will participate in classroom centers or
activities utilizing different sensorimotor components such as visual perception, visual-motor
integration, proprioception/kinesthesia, body awareness skills, and in-hand manipulation skills.
The main goal of the program is to enable at-risk students with fine motor delays to improve
their fine motor and visual skills to the point where they can succeed in school and develop their
writing skills that will prepare them for succeeding years in academic tasks. Objectives have
been developed for all those participating in the program:
1. Provide a structured program for teachers to increase their understanding of their
students’ hand functioning and developmental progression in teaching handwriting.
2. Provide additional knowledge for teachers in modifying classroom environment and
develop remediation activities to improve hand skills.
3. Increase awareness of teachers and administrators of occupational therapy as a resource
service.
4. Enable at-risk students with fine motor delays to increase their knowledge of hand
function and become more actively involved of their own skills.
INTRODUCTION:
Handwriting is an important skill for children to develop in primary years. It is a primary
way to communicate with and necessary to complete assignments, seatwork, homework, and
many tests. “Children in elementary school spend 31 to 60% of each academic day on fine motor
tasks including handwriting” (McHale & Cermak, 1992). As such, difficulty on this area may
pose a significant risk in the child’s academic success.
Studies by Oliver and Reisman (as cited in Hammerschmidt & Sudsawad, 2004) show
that problems with handwriting have been identified as one of the most common reasons for
referrals for occupational therapy services. Occupational therapy practitioners work with
students and teachers through direct therapy and consultation services on the goals of improving
student’s abilities and skills needed for academic success, including handwriting.
As with any skill, teaching handwriting requires many prerequisite skills necessary for
the skill acquisition. By providing a solid foundation in handwriting, students will be able to
improve their hand functioning in the classroom and become more actively involved in the
development of their own hand skills. Therefore, it is important for the teachers to gain
understanding of what constitutes an effective handwriting instruction.
FINE MOTOR MILESTONES:
>Grasping Skills according to Erhardt Prehension Developmental Levels
1. Grasp of the pellet (prone or sitting)
Age
natal
3 months
6 months
7 months
8 months
9 months
10 months
12 months
Milestone
No grasp or visual attention to the object
No attempt to grasp, but visually attends to the object
Raking and contacting objects
Inferior scissors grasp: raking object into palm with adducted
totally flexed thumb and all flexed fingers, or two partially
extended fingers
Scissors grasp: between thumb and side of curled indexed
finger, distal thumb joint slightly flexed, proximal thumb joint
extended
Inferior pincer grasp: between ventral surfaces of thumb and
index finger, distal thumb joint extended, beginning of thumb
opposition
Pincer grasp: between distal pads of thumb and index finger,
distal thumb joint slightly flexed, thumb opposed
Fine Pincer grasp: between fingertips or fingernails, distal
thumb joint flexed
2. Grasp of the cube
Age
natal
3 months
4 months
5 months
6 months
7 months
8 months
9 months
Milestone
Visually attends to object, grasp is reflexive
Visually attends to object and may swipe. Sustained voluntary
grasp possible only upon contact, ulnar side used, no thumb
involvement, wrist flexed
Primitive squeeze grasp: visually attends to object, approaches
if within 1 inch, contact results in hand pulling object back to
squeeze precariously against the other hand or body, no thumb
involvement
Palmar grasp: fingers on top of surface of object press it into
center of palm with thumb adducted
Radial palmar grasp: fingers on far side of object-press it
against opposed thumb and radial side of palm
Radial palmar grasp: fingers on far side of object-press it
against opposed thumb and radial side of palm, with wrist
straight
Radial digital grasp: object held with the opposed thumb and
fingertips, space visible between
Radial digital grasp, with wrist extended
Source: Cottrell, R.F. (2006). National occupational therapy certification exam: Review and study guide. Evanston,
Illinois: International Education Resources, Ltd.
3. Releasing skills
Age
0-1 month
1-4 months
4 months
4-8 months
5-6 months
6-7 months
7-9 months
7-10 months
8 months
9-10 months
10-14 months
12-15 months
Milestone
No release; grasp reflex is strong
Involuntary release
Mutual fingering in midline
Transfers objects from hand to hand
Two-stage transfer; taking hand grasps before releasing hand
lets go
One-stage transfer; taking hand and releasing hand perform
actions simultaneously
Volitional release
Presses down on surface to release
Releases above a surface with wrist flexion
Releases into a container with wrist straight
Clumsy release into small container; hand rests on edge of
container
Precise, controlled release into small container with wrist
extended
3. Bilateral hand use
Age
0-3 months
4-10 months
12-18 months
18-24 months
2 1/2
Milestone
Asymmetric movements
Symmetric movements
Uses both hands for different functions
Manipulation skills emerge
The ability to use different hands for two very different
functions emerges
4. Manipulating skills according to Exner’s Classification system
Age
12-15 months
2 – 2 ½ years
3 – 3 ½ years
2-2 ½ years
6-7 years
6-7 years
Milestone
Finger to palm translation: a linear movement of an object
from the fingers to the palm of the hand
Palm to finger translation: with stabilization, a liner movement
of an object from the palm of the hand to the fingers
Shift: a linear movement of an object on the finger surfaces to
allow for repositioning of the object relative to the finger pads
Simple rotation: the turning or rolling of an object held at the
finger pads approximately 90 degrees or les
Complex rotation: the rotation of an object 360 degrees
In-hand manipulation with stabilization: several objects are
held in the hand and manipulation of one object occurs, while
simultaneously stabilizing the others
5. Pre-writing skills
Age
1- 1 ½ years
2 – 3 years
3 1/2– 4 years
4 1/2- 6 years
6-7 years
6-7 years
Milestone
Palmar supinate grasp: held with fisted hand, wrist slightly
flexed and slightly supinated away from mid-position; arm
moves as a unit
Digital-pronate grasp: held with fingers, wrist neutral with
slight ulnar deviation and forearm pronated; arms moves as a
unit
Static tripod posture: held with crude approximation of thumb,
index and middle fingers, ring and little fingers only slightly
flexed, grasped proximally with continual adjustments by other
hand, no fine localized movements of digit components; hands
moves as a unit
Dynamic tripod posture: held with precise opposition of distal
phalanges of thumb, index, and middle fingers, ring and little
fingers flexed to form a stable arch, wrist slightly extended,
grasped distally, MCP joints stabilized during fine, localized
movements of PIP joints
Complex rotation: the rotation of an object 360 degrees
In-hand manipulation with stabilization: several objects are
held in the hand and manipulation of one object occurs, while
simultaneously stabilizing the others
6. Scissor use skills
>Prerequisite skills for scissors use include the ability to:
a. Open and close a hand.
b. Isolate or combine the movements of the thumb, index and middle fingers.
c. Use hands bilaterally; one hand to use the scissors, one to stabilize the item being cut
d. Coordinate arm, hand, and eye movements.
e. Stabilize the wrist, elbow, and shoulder joint so that movement can occur at distal
joints.
f. Interact with the environment in the constructive developmental play stage
>Stages of development in scissor use, the child sequentially:
Age
2- 3 years
2 – 3 years
2-3 years
3-4 years
3-4 years
3-4 years
3-4 years
3 ½- 4 1/2 years
Milestone
Shows an interest in scissors
Holds and snips with scissors
Opens and closes scissors in a controlled fashion
Manipulates scissors in a forward motion
Coordinates the lateral direction of the scissors
Cuts a straight forward line
Cuts simple geometric shapes
Cuts circles
4-6 years
Cuts simple figure shapes
6-7 years
Cuts complex figure shapes
Source: Cottrell, R.F. (2006). National occupational therapy certification exam: Review and study guide. Evanston,
Illinois: International Education Resources, Ltd.
PATTERNS OF PREHENSION:
Below are examples of types of grasps used during drawing and writing activities. Common
maladaptive grasps are also described with remediation recommendations. Intervention needs are
outlined beside the inefficient prehension patterns.
© Therapro (1999) PERMISSION TO USE GRANTED IF CREDITS ARE
MAINTAINED.PERMISSION IS GRANTED TO REPRODUCE AND DISTRIBUTE COPIES
FOR NON-COMMERCIAL OR EDUCATIONAL USE ONLY.
CLASSROOM REMEDIATION IDEAS:
1. Check the height of the student tables. Check if the student’s feet are flat on floor, with
knees bent to around 90 degrees with hips slightly above the level of knees. The upper
body or torso should be more or less vertical and head as upright as possible.
2. Teach the students correct paper positioning for a writing task. Make sure the paper is
tilted about 45 degrees angle. If the student is left handed, the top left corner should be
closer to the body than the top right corner. If the student is right handed, the top right
corner should be closer to the body than the left corner. The child’s forearm should be
perpendicular to the bottom edge of the paper, this will naturally create a 30 degree angle
from his upper body or torso.
3. Give the students proper tools for writing. Use small pieces of chalk, crayon, etc. Be
explicit about proper finger placement. Teach the concepts of “writing hand” and
“helping hand.”
4. Before students are instructed in correct letter formation, students should have developed
skills that are pre-requisites for handwriting. These skills include:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
Ability to cross the midline
Ability to use two hands
Understanding of directional terms
Ability to recognize similarities and differences in forms
Hand dominance
Functional pencil grasp
Ability to copy lines and shapes
(Please refer to Fine Motor Centers for suggested classroom activities)
OCCUPATIONAL THERAPY ACCOMMODATIONS FOR THE CLASSROOM:
A. For students who have difficulty forming letters:
1. You demonstrate and have the child imitate you.
2. Give the student a letter strip to use at his/her desk and at home. Have parents work
on correct letter formation.
3. Provide explicit verbal directions as you form the letter and have the students follow
along, repeating the directions using the same words as they make the letter.
B.
C.
D.
E.
4. Using the “Handwriting Without Tears” format, re-teach the correct stroke sequence
for problem letters. Teach the concept that letters start at the top (either at the corner
or at the center.
For students who reverses letters or numbers:
1. Choose one reversal per assignment to work on. If the child reverses many numbers,
work on them one at a time, beginning with the lowest number.
2. When using the slate chalkboard, use the “starting corner” and the child will quickly
learn to form the letter the right way.
3. You demonstrate and have the child imitate.
4. Allow the student to keep a letter strip at his/her desk for quick reference.
5. Some students may benefit from a “green” (go) hand on the upper left hand corner of
the desk and a red (stop) hand on the upper right corner.
For students who hold pencils too lightly:
1. Have the child practice coloring shapes light gray, medium gray, dark gray, and black
to increase awareness of different degrees of pressure on the pencil.
2. Try a weighted pencil to give the child more awareness of the pencil.
3. Try using pencil grippers.
4. Do warm up activities before writing.
5. Have the student write on paper over a grainy surface.
6. Try a soft-lead pencil.
For students who hold pencil too tight and writes with too much pressure:
1. Correcting the pencil grasp might help. Experiment with various pencil grips.
2. Increase the child’s awareness of pencil pressure by having the student color shapes
in either light gray, medium gray, dark gray, or black.
3. Have the student write on a soft surface such as blotters, layers of paper, a mouse pad,
phone book, or a piece of Styrofoam.
4. Modify the pencil.
5. Try a mechanical pencil so the student has to learn to control the amount of pressure
used.
6. Cue the student to write faster (if legibility is not compromised too much).
For students who have difficulty spacing letters and keeping the letters on the line:
1. Try popsicle sticks or placing a finger down between words.
2. Try using a stamp pad and have the student stamp his/her fingerprint between each
word.
3. Use the concept of exaggerating the spacing by putting “nothing” between words.
4. Have student place dashes between words.
5. Experiment with different kinds of paper such as bi-color, raised line, Sky-GrassEarth, Handwriting Without Tears paper
6. Skip lines (using regular notebook paper)
7. Highlight or darken baseline
8. Highlight margins
9. Try teaching the student cursive.
F. For a student who has tremors:
1. Use weighted cuff.
2. Use weighted pencil.
3. Use alternative writing techniques.
G. For a student who has difficulty holding a pencil:
1. If a child has developed poor habits, try an adaptive grip to position the fingers
(pencil grip, stetro grip,try wrapping the pencil with a silly putty or play dough to
help relax a tense grip.
2. Check to see that the hips , knees and ankles are all at 90 degrees for optimal posture.
3. When modifying the pencil grasp, have the child use the adaptive grip for only short
time each day. This will help the child get used to the feel of a new grasp.
4. If the child has a difficult time manipulating a large or regular size pencil, try using
pencil stubs.
5. If the child moves his entire arm when writing, try having the student write on a
vertical surface such as a slat board or a large 3 ring binder or use an easel.
6. If the child holds the pencil too close or too far from the tip, try wrapping a small
rubber band around the area where the fingers should be placed.
7. Provide frequent breaks.
Source: Korenstein, B. J. (2002). Occupational therapy accommodations for the classroom. Retrieved from
http://www.venturacountyselpa.com/Portals/45/Users/Teacher%20Res/OT%20Accom%204%20Classroom
.pdf
HANDWRITING INSTRUCTION:
The following standards of learning (SOLs), issued by the Virginia Department of Education,
illustrate the writing accomplishments that students must meet by the end of kindergarten.
(Please see Appendix A for details):
1. The student will print his/her name.
2. The student will draw pictures and/or use letters and phonetically spelled words to write
about experiences, stories, people, objects, or events.
3. The student will explore the uses of available technology for reading and writing.
4. Using multisensory and cognitive approaches as adapted in studies conducted by
In order to meet the above expectations, the following are suggested classroom centers that
utilize cognitive and multisensory approaches in handwriting. By engaging the students in visual
and fine motor activities as part of daily classroom experience, students will be able to increase
their knowledge of hand function and become more actively involved of their own skills.
Fine Motor Center # 1
1. Finger Muscles Warm-up: This center will focus on activities that develop prerequisite skills in handwriting such as crossing the midline, promoting bilateral
integration, understanding directional terms, developing hand dominance, and promoting
functional grasp. Examples of activities include:
a. Ability to cross the midline
1. Practice tying shoes.
2. Handwriting exercises:
2.1 Windshield wipers: arms above head, cross straight arms ten times like
scissors then put bottom arm over top hand and do ten more.
2.2 Scissor cuts: same as windshield wipers only arms are pointed straight down
with palm up
3. Daily experiences: Students zipper their coat, button their pants or tie their shoes.
4. Balancing: Students build blocks and use both hands to balance their structure.
5. Lacing cards.
Sources:
http://www.doe.virginia.gov/testing/sol/standards_docs/english/index.shtml#expectations
Pre-K and Kindergarten Handwriting Resource by Frederick County Public Schools. Retrieved from
http://fcps.org/boez.htm#board April 2012
6. Cross-crawling obstacle course: The teacher creates an obstacle course with
things for students to crawl in and out of, over and under, up and down.
7. Mini-movements: Roll out paper on the floor and tape in place. Tell students to lie
on their stomachs to paint. Using finger paint, students will make a variety of tiny
movements with their fingers that matches the rhythm of music being played.
8. The cross-crawl limbo: Play the traditional game “The Limbo,” holding a stick in
the air. Ask students to form a line and find a way to go under the stick without
bumping it. Each time through, lower the stick. Eventually, the students will have
to crawl forward on their stomachs to get beneath the pole.
9. What a racquet: The teacher will help students make a racquet by stretching a
wire hanger to form a diamond shape. Stretch stockings across the diamond and
tape at the bottom. Use the racquets to play a game like badminton where students
hit a ball or birdie back and forth to a partner. Have students start out close
together and then move farther and farther apart.
10. Turtle crawl: Challenge students to crawl like turtles around an open space.
b. Ability to use two hands:
1. Tearing paper instead of using scissors.
2. Cutting with scissors.
3. Tracing letters by using stencils
4. Making letters using yarn, shoestrings, or wax-coated string
5. Gluing objects using small manipulatives to a letters
6. Stapling paper while making books or packets to encourage use of both hands
7. Punching holes to make designs on paper
8. Wringing out sponges to increase muscle development.
9. Sewing and lacing
10. Stringing beads
11. Performing finger plays
12. Clapping
13. Constructing with blocks
14. Handwriting exercises:
14.1 Mickey Mouse Ears: Place fist next to ears, squeeze, and then open and close
the fingers. Complete the activity 10 to 15 times.
14.2 Door knob turns: Arms in front of you, elbows slightly bent, move wrists
from side to side as if you are opening a doorknob. Move wrists to the right and
then to the left.
Source: Pre-K and Kindergarten Handwriting Resource by Frederick County Public Schools. Retrieved from
http://fcps.org/boez.htm#board April 2012
14.3Finger opposition: Hold fingers next to ears and have the students touch their
thumb to each finger and back again. Complete 10 to 15 sets.
14.4Butterflies: Hold arms straight in front of your body and make an X with
thumbs, palms facing down to resemble a butterfly. Make small circles 10 times
to the right and then 10 times to the left.
c. Understanding of directional terms and the ability to recognize similarities and
differences in forms:
Incorporate the following activities in their daily routines:
1. Play Simon Says
2. Establish classroom routines throughout the year
3. Read aloud: Model left to right progression so students understand and
visualize left to right directionality
4. Follow directions in a sequence by completing step-by-step recipes
5. Choral read: Students read along with the teacher, following a pointer to focus
on print read from left to right
6. Build puzzles
7. Discriminate objects according to size, shape, color, etc.
8. Straight line/curved line exploration: Students manipulate commercially-made
wooden, plastic or foam pieces, cut into big and small lines and curves, to
form letters
d. Hand dominance: In order to develop hand dominance, teachers need to provide
students with opportunities to explore hand preference. As a precursor, students must
develop their small muscles, which aid fine motor skills.
The following activities will improve hand strength:
1. Tearing paper to make art projects.
2. Using plant sprayers to water classroom plants.
3. Use tweezers or tongs to place small items or objects (buttons, beads, beans)
into the container.
4. Using eye droppers to transfer water from one container to another.
5. Finger painting with Jello on a paper plate.
6. Stringing popcorn, buttons, and beads to make necklaces.
Source: Pre-K and Kindergarten Handwriting Resource by Frederick County Public Schools. Retrieved from
http://fcps.org/boez.htm#board April 2012
The following activities will improve hand dominance:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Playing Simon Says.
Sequencing items.
Cutting with scissors.
Drawing with stencils, templates, or a ruler.
Using a pencil sharpener.
Opening containers with lids.
Using wind-up toys.
Wearing a bracelet or ring as a reminder.
e. Having a functional pencil grasp:
1. Using manipulatives (Jigsaw puzzles, legos, snap beads)
2. Playing with small toys
3. Molding with clay, sand, play dough, silly putty.
4. Using daily experience activities (zipping, buttoning, sewing, screwing lids,
tying knots and bows, playing a piano)
5. Practicing art skills (coloring, drawing, sketching, tearing paper, folding paper)
f. The ability to copy lines and shapes/basic strokes:
>The following are examples of basic strokes: vertical lines, horizontal lines, diagonal
lines, circles, partial circle strokes.
>The following activities give students an opportunity to practice using basic strokes:
1. Drawing
2. Painting
3. Stirring
4. Sand play
5. Water play
6. Finger painting
7. Connecting dots
8. Tracing
9. Drawing lines to connect matching pictures on paper/chalkboard
Source: Pre-K and Kindergarten Handwriting Resource by Frederick County Public Schools. Retrieved from
http://fcps.org/boez.htm#board April 2012
Fine Motor Center # 2
Structured worksheets of visual motor activities: This center will focus on activities that
include a series of sample mazes, visual memory activities, visuomotor integration, and visual
form perception.
Please see Appendix B.
Fine Motor Center # 3
Alphabet warm-up: This center will focus on naming of each letter, matching the letter with
the appropriate letter (i.e. matching uppercase letter to uppercase letter, upper case to lower
case, lower case to lower case), and practicing producing letters in the context of
developmental progression (Asher, 2006). During letter introduction, the teacher will model
writing the letter on a whiteboard and describe the steps. The students will imitate by writing
in the air using large arm movements and repeating steps aloud. The students will then
continue to say the steps while writing on the table with pointer finger.
***Introduce the uppercase letters in the following order:
Rationale: According to Benbow (1990) (as cited in Zwicker & Hadwin, 2007), introducing
letters with similar stroke patterns is thought to reinforce correct motor patterns for letter
formation and reduce problems of reversals, rotations, and inversions (Alston & Taylor,
1987).
1. Vertical and horizontal lines- E,F,H,I,L,T
2. Oblique lines- A, K, M, N,V,W,X,Y,Z
3. Curved lines- B,C,D,G,J,O, P,Q,R,S,U
***Introduce the lowercase letters in the following order:
4. c, a, d
5. g, q,o
6. b, h, n
7. m, p, r
8. f, i, j
9. k, t, x
10. y, v, w
11. e, l, s
12. u, z
Fine Motor Center # 4
Alphabet practice using a multisensory approach: This center will focus on modeling and
imitating of letter strokes using multisensory modalities (Woodward & Swinth, 2002).
During guided practice activities, students will write with scented markers, color change
markers, finger paint, pudding, shaving cream, clay tray, salt, rice, or sand tray. Students will
also write in their handwriting books or worksheet with the teacher or therapist monitoring
for semi-independent practice.
References
Asher, A. (2006). Handwriting instruction in elementary schools. American Journal of
Occupational Therapy, 60, 461-470.
Berry, J. (1993). Fine motor skills in the classroom: Screening & remediation strategies.
Framingham, MA: Therapro Inc.
Cottrell, R.F. (2006). National occupational therapy certification exam: Review and study
guide. Evanston, Illinois: International Education Resources, Ltd.
Frederick County Public Schools (2003). Pre-k and kindergarten handwriting resource.
Retrieved from http://fcps.org/boez.htm#board April 2012
Hammerschmidt, S. L., & Sudsawad, P. (2004). Teachers’ survey on problems with handwriting:
Referral, evaluation, and outcomes. American Journal of Occupational Therapy, 58,
185–192.
Korenstein, B. J. (2002). Occupational therapy accommodations for the classroom. Retrieved
from
http://www.venturacountyselpa.com/Portals/45/Users/Teacher%20Res/OT%20Accom%2
04%20Classroom.pdf
Virginia Department of Education (2011). English Standards of Learning. Retrieved from:
http://www.doe.virginia.gov/testing/sol/standards_docs/english/index.shtml#expectations
Woodward, S., & Swinth, Y. (2002). Multisensory approach to handwriting intervention:
perceptions of school-based occupational therapists. American Journal of Occupational
Therapy, 56(3), 305-12.
Zwicker, J., & Hadwin, A. (2009). Cognitive versus multisensory approaches to handwriting
intervention: A randomized controlled trial. Occupational Therapy Journal of Resources,
29(1), 40-48.