Liberalism: Progressivism
#22
Historians often describe the Progressive movement as the urban counterpart to Populism.
Although the two movements shared some characteristics, they also had some important
differences. Most important, Progressivism found support among small businessmen,
professionals, and middle-class urban reformers, in contrast to the disgruntled farmers who
fueled the Populist movement. In the end, however, both Progressives and Populists left a lasting
stamp on the nation's history. This lecture explores the origins of Progressivism and its impact on
American government and society.
Some questions to keep in mind:
1.
2.
3.
What social, economic, and political factors fostered the Progressive movement?
Compare the goals and accomplishments of the Progressives and the Populists. Which
movement was more successful?
Why might some historians argue that Progressivism was the "Dawn of Liberalism?"
Definition of Liberalism:
Although many historians speak of a Progressive "movement," we should really think of
Progressivism as an umbrella, under which a variety of reform groups and champions of
liberalism gathered. So, any discussion of Progressivism should begin with the meaning of
"Liberalism" at the beginning of the twentieth century:



Government should be more active
Social problems are susceptible to government legislation and action
Throw money at the problem
"Definition" of Progressivism:
Progressives, themselves, were never a unified group with a single objective or set of objectives.
Instead, they had many different, and sometimes contradictory goals, including:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
End to "white slavery" (prostitution and the sweat shops)
Prohibition
"Americanization" of immigrants
Immigration restriction legislation
Anti-trust legislation
Rate regulation of private utilities
Full government ownership of private utilities
Women's suffrage
End to child labor
Destruction of urban political machines
"Taylorism"
Political reform
Types of Progressive Reform
There were four basic types of Progressive reform, and each reform corresponded to a key word,
repeated time and again in the rhetoric of Progressives:
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

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Economic--"Monopoly"
Structural and Political--"Efficiency"
Social--"Democracy"
Moral--"Purity"
Basic Goals of Progressives
Even though they were not a unified group, Progressives shared five basic characteristics or
beliefs:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
They were moralists
Government, once purified, must act
Believed in protecting the weakest members of society
Never challenged capitalism's basic tenets
Paternalistic, moderate, soft-minded
Origins of Progressive Thought and Action:
1. "Discovery" of poverty
Poverty had always existed in American society, but a
number of urban reformers began to call for new
legislation to help the poor in the late 1870s and early
1880s .
An entirely enclosed court in
a tenement district in
Baltimore
2. Charity movement
Prior to the late 1870s, there was no systematic method
for social welfare, just individual charity groups funded
by private donors. In 1877, however, reformers in
Buffalo, New York, organized a citywide effort to
coordinate local charities. This type of system eventually
spread to other United States cities.
3. Emancipation of Women
The 1880s saw the first generation of women--mostly
white and middle- or upper-class--to graduate from
college in large numbers. These women left college full of
enthusiasm, but, for the most part, were shut out of
professions in medicine, law, science, and business. So,
they often used their energies to battle social injustices.
4. The "Social Gospel Movement"
Up until the 1880s, most Protestant ministers had not concerned themselves with
the problems
of industrial society. Rapid urbanization and industrialization, however, convinced many of
them to fight for social justice. The goal of the Social Gospel movement was to make Christian
churches more responsive to social problems like poverty and prostitution. Some ministers
became known nationally as spokesmen for the Social Gospel, including Washington Gladden
and Walter Rauschenbusch.
5. Social settlement
movement:
The social settlement
movement was formed as a
ministry to immigrants and
the urban poor. Universityeducated men and women
(such as Jane Addams)
settled in working-class
neighborhoods to try and
help the poor and learn
about the real world. Most
settlement houses started
with clubs and classes, then
campaigned for housing
and labor reform. As they
aided people, settlement
houses also tried to instill
middle-class values and
often had a paternalistic
attitude toward the poor.
Immigrant children at Jane Addams' Hull House in
Chicago
6. Good Government movement
In the 1880s, reformers organized clubs in several American cities in an effort to
streamline government, to clean up corruption, and to turn municipalities into
model corporations. The National Conference for Good City Government took place
in Philadelphia in 1894. This was the starting point for many reformers who
identified themselves with the Progressive movement. The keynote speaker was
future President Theodore Roosevelt, who was the Chief of Police for New York
City at the time. In his speech, Roosevelt preached morality and efficiency in city
government. The founding of the National Municipal League was one crucial
outcome of the National Conference for Good City Government. The League was a
training ground for Progressives. It became an exchange network for various
reform movements and still exists today.
Theodore "Teddy" Roosevelt (18581919)--A Republican champion of
"trust-busting" and conservation,
Roosevelt served as vice president
under President William McKinley and
became president when McKinley was
assassinated in 1901. Roosevelt was
reelected in 1904, but did not seek a
third term in 1908. In his place, the
Republican convention nominated as its
presidential candidate William Howard
Taft, who promised to carry on
Roosevelt's policies. In 1912, feeling
that Taft, had undermined his
progressive legacy, Roosevelt sought,
but did not get, the Republican
nomination. As a result, he ran for
president as the candidate of the
Progressive Party. With the Republican
vote split between Taft and Roosevelt,
Democrat Woodrow Wilson won the
1912 presidential election.
Campaign poster for William McKinley and Teddy
Roosevelt
Bull Moose Party--Nickname for the Progressive Party of 1912. The bull moose
was the emblem for the party, based on Roosevelt's boasting that he was "as
strong as a bull moose."
William Howard Taft (1857-1930)--Republican
President of the United States from 1909 to 1913. The
United States' most corpulent chief executive, Taft stayed
close to the policies of Roosevelt at the beginning of his
term. Later in his presidency, however, Taft favored
conservative measures, such as a high protective tariff,
and lost popularity.
Postcard states "Here's to the
Man the New Dixie Counts On"
Robert M. "Fightin' Bob" LaFollette (1855-1925)-Progressive Era political leader who served as a United States
Congressman from 1885 to 1891, governor of Wisconsin from
1900 to 1905, and United States Senator from 1905 to 1925. In
1924, LaFollette ran as an independent Progressive candidate
for President and polled nearly 6 million votes out of some 30
million cast.
Robert M. La Follette
(1855-1925) speaking
before an audience of
12,000 in Los Angeles,
1907
Robert "Fighting Bob" La Follette
(1855-1925) in a classic pose
Copyright 1997 State Historical Society of
Wisconsin
Ultimately, Progressives introduced a host of reforms and transformed the way
that many Americans understood government and economics. Progressivism,
however, did not just transform domestic life. As the United States stepped onto
the world stage in the early twentieth century, it also shaped the nation's foreign
policy.
The Progressive Movement and National Politics
TR is "Dee-Lighted" to throw his hat into the
ring of the 1912 presidential election
Copyright 1997 State Historical Society of Wisconsin
The Policeman of the World
In 1898, America, which was becoming an ever more important player in world affairs, entered
into its first international conflict--the Spanish-American War. A series of wars and police
actions followed in the twentieth century, from World War I to Afghanistan. Why did American
leaders begin to believe that the United States had a right and a duty to police the world? This
lecture examines trends of expansionism and imperialism in the period after the Civil War,
trends which still influence American foreign policy today.
Some questions to keep in mind:
1.
2.
In the late-nineteenth century, was the United States essentially isolationist,
essentially expansionist, or a combination of both?
What were the economic and political consequences of religious missionary work
in the nineteenth century?
The following three general propositions form the foundation of our future discussions
about war and foreign policy:
1.
2.
3.
War is the extension of a nation's diplomacy by other than peaceful means.
For whatever reasons a nation enters a war, that war, itself, changes the relationship of
its citizens with each other and with the national government.
The rhetoric that justifies or opposes a war reveals a great deal about the way a nation's
citizens think about themselves.
Historians have opposing interpretations of America's involvement in world affairs in the
years after the Civil War:
1.
2.
3.
Before 1898, America was isolationist
After the Civil War, America was expansionist.
America was isolationist in theory, expansionist in practice.
To decide which of these interpretations is more accurate, we must examine three major trends
of the time from the isolationist and the expansionist points of view:
1.
2.
3.
Industrial expansion
Western settlement
Growth of the federal government
Those who believed that America was basically isolationist before 1898 contend that these three
domestic concerns prevented the United States from becoming involved in foreign affairs. In
their viewpoint, the United States could not devote much time or energy to foreign affairs.
Grover Cleveland (1837-1908) was President from 1885 to 1889 and from 1893 to 1897. In his
inaugural address in 1885 he summed up America's isolationist doctrine:
"A policy of peace, commerce and honest friendship
with all nations; entangling alliances with none."
Now let us examine
The Rest of the Story.
Those who argue that America was expansionist after the Civil War maintain that these same
three domestic concerns actually led the United States to extend its global interests.
Industrial expansion
From 1865 to 1890, the industrial
complex of the United States
expanded rapidly and the nation
became one of the world's two great
industrial powers. American
industrialists looked for new
markets in Asia, Latin America, and
Africa. Four aspects of industrial
expansions also affected imperialist
tendencies:
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Business cycles.
Alternating cycles of
prosperity and recession
(and even economic
depressions in 1873 and
1893) meant that
production of American
goods often exceeded
consumption.
International investment
capital. Between the late
1860s and the turn of the
century, foreign concerns
invested $3 billion in the
nation's economy.
Desire to expand markets.
Shift in balance of trade.
For example, Standard Oil
had few petroleum exports
in 1880, but controlled
70% of the world's oil
market by 1890.
Kimberly-Clark paper mill in Wisconsin (in
Appleton, Kimberly, Neenah, or Niagara)
Copyright 1997 State Historical Society of Wisconsin
Western settlement
Recall that farmers settled and tilled more and more land in the West, in part, because of the
existence of seemingly boundless international markets. As European demand for United States
agricultural surplus declined from 1880 on, farmers had to seek new markets in order to
survive.
Growth of federal government
Increasingly, the federal government made policies on economic matters, such as import tariffs
and currency reform, and helped pave the way for American commercial expansion abroad.
Industrialists and farmers, alike, turned to the federal government for help in securing new
markets.
William Evarts--United States. Secretary of State from 1877 to 1881. In his "Report upon the
Commercial Relations of the United States" Evarts argued that the government should foster
economic growth. He revitalized the consular service in foreign countries and appointed
successful businessmen as consuls to represent America's interests in foreign countries.
Card from Singer Mfg. Co.'s
series depicting life in
countries importing Singer
sewing machines
Copyright 1997 State Historical Society of
Wisconsin
"Pork Diplomacy" of the 1880s demonstrates the growing correlation between business and
government. In the 1870s American farmers "were turning out pigs like they were going out of
style" (Prof. Schultz) and were exporting their surplus pork to Europe. In the 1880s, because of
protest from French and German farmers, these governments passed restrictions on the
importation of American pork. The nation's farmers and businessmen were outraged and the
United States government brought economic reprisals against the German states and France.
Hog
Copyright 1997 State Historical Society of
Wisconsin
Prize-winning hogs, 1884
Copyright 1997 State Historical Society of Wisconsin
The "Missionary Factor"
Missionaries of Peace
After the Civil War, the pace of American Christian missionary work around the globe,
especially in Asia and Africa, increased dramatically.
1. Soul saving and profit making go hand-in-hand. For example, the founder of the
2.
3.
Dole pineapple fortunes was the son of a missionary to the Sandwich Islands (Hawaii).
Many other American businessmen learned about potential foreign markets from
reports that missionaries brought back.
Government protection and international agreements. The federal government had
a long-standing policy of protecting the needs of its citizens in foreign lands. More
American missionaries around the world meant more American citizens to protect
from discrimination and attack, so the government was drawn into "entangling
alliances" with other countries.
A faith in the destiny of Christianity to conquer the world.
Political cartoon: "What the United States Has Fought For"
Copyright 1997 State Historical Society of Wisconsin
Robert E. Spear was the head of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church. In
one of his speeches, he claimed:
"The civilized nations are beginning to perceive that
they have a duty, which is often contemptuously
spoken of, to police the world. The recognition of this
duty has been forced by trade."
Missionaries of War
By the 1880s, the once-respectable United States Navy was in shambles. Three factors allowed
for its renewal and development:
1. The economic recovery from the Depression of 1873 meant that the federal
2.
3.
government now had surplus money to build a modern navy.
William Hunt became the first truly effective Secretary of the Navy.
Many Americans realized that the United States was a 10th-rate naval power
essentially unprepared if commercial rivalries turned into military conflict.
Even landlocked Populists in the Midwest campaigned for a larger navy. There was a widelyheld belief that the nation needed ships, not to make war, but to protect its rights and prestige.
Alfred Thayer Mahan (1840-1914) was a naval strategist, historian, and leading advocate of a
powerful American navy who influenced the thinking of Teddy Roosevelt and other
government leaders. In his writings and speeches, Mahan stated:
1. Surplus production requires commercial colonies
2. Oceans should be highways, not barriers
3. A powerful navy is essential for commerce
Mahan believed in the power of a modern military to prevent war, and wrote:
"War now not only occurs more rarely, but is an
occasional excess, from which recovery is easy."
**Justification
for Imperialism:
Champions of expansionism often justified American imperialism in terms of American
DESTINY and American DUTY.
Frederick Jackson Turner (1861-1932) wrote "The Significance of the Frontier in American
History" (1893), which argued that the nation's western frontier had promoted American
democracy. Some American intellectuals expanded on Turner's thesis and argued that expansion
overseas was the next great frontier that would help reinvigorate the nation and its political
system. Woodrow Wilson was a friend and advocate of Turner who tried to put Turner's
writings into practice once he reached the White House.
The "Anglo-Saxon myth" was the dominant intellectual justification for American
imperialism. This myth held that the Anglo-Saxons were the final result of cultural evolution.
The United States, as the obvious seat of growing Anglo-Saxon power, had a duty to expand its
influence throughout the world.
The two prevalent themes of American DESTINY and American DUTY are best summed up in
the writings of Senator Albert J. Beveridge (1862-1927) of Indiana. A historian as well as a
politician, Beveridge stated in his 1898 speech, "The March of the Flag:"
"Will you remember today, that we but do what our fathers
did. We but pitch the tents of liberty further westward, further
southward. We only continue the march of the flag. The
question is not an American question but a world question.
Shall free institutions broaden their blessed reign? The
opposition to expansion tells us we ought not to govern a
people without their consent. I answer that the rule of liberty
applies only to those who are capable of self-government. Do
we owe no duty to the world? Wonderfully has God guided us.
It is ours to set the world its example of right and honor. We
cannot fly from our world duties. It is ours to execute the
purpose of a fate that has driven us to be greater than our
small intentions. We cannot retreat from any soil where
Providence has unfurled our banner. It is ours to save that soil
for liberty and civilization. For liberty and civilization and God's
promises fulfilled, the flag must henceforth be the symbol and
the sign to all mankind."
This faith in destiny, duty and the morality of power would be played out in military
expansion and war during the presidencies of Theodore Roosevelt and Woodrow
Wilson.