APES Review
1.
First Law of Thermodynamics: energy is neither created nor destroyed, may be converted from one form to another.
2.
Second Law of Thermodynamics: when energy is changed from one form to another, some useful energy is degraded into lower quality
energy (usually heat) Entropy is increased.
3.
High quality energy: organized and concentrated, able to perform useful work (ex: oil and nuclear)
4.
Low quality energy: disorganized dispersed (ex: heat)
5.
Units of energy” joules, calories, kilocalories, BTU’s, kilowatt-hours
6.
Power: the rate of doing work. Units of power: watts and kilowatts.
7.
Electromagnetic radiation: form of energy, travel as waves-radio waves, IR, visible light, UV, gamma rays
8.
Ionizing radiation: has enough energy to knock electrons from atoms, forming ions and capable of doing damage to DNA. (Gamma rays,
X-rays, UV)
9.
Radioactive decay: unstable radioisotopes decay releasing gamma rays, alpha and beta particles.
10. Half-life: time it takes for ½ of the mass of a radioisotope to decay
11. Estimate of how long a radioisotope must be stored until it has decayed to a safe level: 10 half lives.
12. Nuclear fission: nuclei of isotopes are split apart into smaller nuclei; used in nuclear reactors.
13. Nuclear fusion: 2 isotopes of light elements are forced together at high temperatures; not technologically available now.
14. Parts of hydrologic (water) cycle: evaporation (transpiration), condensation, precipitation
15. Fate of precipitation: runoff or infiltration, percolation.
16. Aquifer: underground water bearing layer Water table- upper surface of groundwater.
17. Cone of depression: lowering of water table around a pumping well.
18. Salt water intrusion: over pumping of groundwater near coast causes salt water to move into aquifer.
19. Ways to conserve water. Agriculture- drip irrigation, industry- recycling, home use- fix leaks, use gray water, low flow fixtures.
20. Distribution of water on Earth: 97% seawater, 2% in icecaps and glaciers, <1% in ground water, surface, organism, and atmosphere.
21. Carbon: component of all organic molecules.
22. Largest reservoir of carbon: sedimentary rocks, then ocean.
23. Photosynthesis: process by which plants convert CO2 to carbohydrates, removes C from the atmosphere.
24. Cellular respiration: organisms break down carbohydrates; releases energy, returns C to atmosphere.
25. Processes that releaser C back into the atmosphere: cellular respiration and decomposition, fires, burning fossil fuels, volcanoes.
26. Carbon-silicate cycle: very slow, geological cycle, C in oceans used by marine organisms, end up in ocean sediments and are subducted
into Earth’s crust, eventually returned through volcanic venting.
27. Nitrogen: component of proteins and amino acids
28. Largest reservoir of nitrogen: the atmosphere (78% N2). Producers cannot use nitrogen gas.
29. Nitrogen fixation: N2 is converted to ammonia NH3. Bacteria do this (esp. Rhizopbium in legumes)
30. Nitrification: ammonia is converted to nitrite (NO2) to nitrate (NO3).
31. Assimilation: plants incorporate ammonia and nitrate ions into organic molecules (nucleic acids, amino acids).
32. Ammonification: decomposer bacteria break down organic compounds into ammonia.
33. Denitrification: specialized bacteria convert nitrogen compounds into N2 and N2O which is released into the atmosphere.
34. Phosphorous: component of nucleic acids.
35. P cycles more slowly: no gaseous phase, mostly found in rocks as PO4, released by weathering.
36. P: major limiting factor for plant growth.
37. Too much P in aquatic ecosystems: from animal wastes, fertilizers, sewage can cause eutrophication.
38. Major macronutrients: CHNOPS. Micronutrients and trace elements: needed in small amounts.
39. Earth is 4.5 billion years old. 1st cells appeared 3.5 billion years ago.
40. Plate tectonics: Earth’s crust is broken into plates which move relative to each other, movement caused by convection currents
dissipating Earth’s internal heat.
41. Volcanoes and earthquakes occur at plate boundaries
42. Divergent plate boundaries: sea floor spreading, new crust generated, mid ocean ridges.
43. Convergent plate boundaries: oceanic plate subducts under ocean or continental plates, causes volcanoes and trenches. Continental
plates produce mountains.
44. Transform boundaries: plates slide past each other, causes earthquakes.
45. Rock cycle: relationship of rocks and rock formation processes.
46. Rock types according to origin: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
47. Minerals: are not renewable.
48. Ore: concentration of mineral is high enough so that it is profitable to mine.
49. Mineral reserve: identified deposits, profitable to mine.
50. Surface mining: strip mining, cheaper, less dangerous to miners. Problems: toxic runoff, acid drainage.
51. Soil texture: size of soil particles; sand, silt, clay
52. Humus: organic material in soil
53. Leaching: removal of dissolved materials by water moving through.
54. Permeability: ability to transmit water. Porosity: ability to hold water.
55. Solution to soil problems: contour plowing, crop rotation, conservation tillage, organic fertilizers.
56. Troposphere: 0-17 km above Earth’s surface, site of weather, organisms, most water vapor.
57. Stratosphere: 17-48 km above surface, contains ozone layer.
58. Composition of Earth’s atmosphere: 78% N2, 21% O2, 0.9% argon, 0.0035% CO2.
59. Original atmosphere was H2 and He, Organisms have altered atmosphere: increases O2 and N2 decreased.
60. Weather: daily atmospheric conditions (temp and precip), Climate long term atmospheric conditions.
61. Global circulation patterns: caused by uneven heating of Earth’s surface and Earth’s rotation.
62. ENSO: El Niño Southern Oscillation; see-sawing of air pressure over Southern Pacific.
63. El Niño: In equatorial Pacific, trade winds weaken and warm water sloshed back to S America, suppresses upwelling of nutrient rich water
along west coast of S America.
64. Effects of El Niño: disrupts food chains, alters precipitation patterns, fewer Atlantic hurricanes.
65. Greenhouse gases (GHG) water vapor, CO2, methane, CH4, CFC’s; trap outgoing infrared radiation (heat), causing Earth to warm.
66. Effects of global warming: rising sea level, droughts, disruptions of ecosystems, shifts in vegetation.
67. Ozone depletion: caused by: CFC’s, methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), halons, methyl bromide all break down stratospheric
ozone.
68. Effects of ozone depletion: increased UV radiation reaches Earth’s surface; causes increased skin cancer, cataracts, decreased plant
growth and marine productivity.
69. Stratospheric ozone layer: approximately 20-30 km above the Earth’s surface (12-18miles).
70. Biotic/abiotic: living and non-living.
71. Producer/autotroph: organisms that CAN make their own food.
72. Consumer/heterotroph: organisms that CANNOT make their own food.
73. Aerobiotic respiration oxygen used by producers, consumers, decomposers to break down complex organic compounds and release
energy.
74. Major trophic levels: producers-primary consumers-secondary consumers-tertiary consumers-etc.
75. Energy flow in food webs: solar energy converted to chemical energy, eventually returned as hear.
76. Energy flow in food webs: only 10% transferred to next trophic level.
77. Why is only 10% transferred: energy lost to heat (2nd law), not all biomass is digested, and predators expend energy to catch prey.
78. Mutualism: interaction between 2 species in which both species benefit.
79. Parasitism: relationship in which one partner obtains nutrients at the expense of the host.
80. Commensalism: one partner benefits, the other is neither harmed nor benefited.
81. Competition: organisms competing for the same resources.
82. Biome: large region having similar climate and plant life, determined mostly by temperature and precipitation.
83. Population: organism of the same species living in a particular area.
84. Community: populations of all species living and interacting in an area.
85. Primary succession: colonization and establishment of communities in an area not preciously inhabited.
86. Secondary succession: change in communities after disturbance; examples- logging, forest fires, hurricanes.
87. Natural selection: organisms with favorable characteristics pass them on to the next generation.
88. R strategist: reproduce early, mature rapidly, short lived, many and unprotected offspring.
89. K strategist: reproduce late, mature slowly, long lived, fewer and cared for offspring.
90. Keystone species: species whose role in the ecosystem is more important than others.
91. Indicator species: species who serve as early warning that ecosystem is being degraded.
92. Traits of endangered species: specialists, small range, require large territory.
93. Endemic species: found only in one area. Exotic species: non-native species.
94. Carrying capacity: number of individuals that can be sustained over time by ecosystem.
95. Size of human population: 6.2 billion
96. Doubling time: divide 70 by percent growth rate.
97. Malthus: said human population can outgrow food supply, result will be war, famine, and disease.
98. Most populous countries: China, India, Us.
99. Demographic transition: as countries become industrialized, death rates decline followed by declining birth rates.
100. Preindustrial phase: birth and death rates high, low net population growth.
101. Transitional phase: economic development better health care, death rates fall result is rapid population growth, occurring in LDC’s
currently.
102. Industrial phase: decline in birth rates, population growth slows.
103. Age structure: proportion of population in each age and sex category; broad base- rapid growth, narrow base- slow growth, uniform
shape- zero growth.
104. Most important factor affecting population growth: economic status of women.
105. Ways to decrease birth rates: family planning, access to contraception, economic opportunities.
106. Replacement fertility level: number of children needed to replace a couple (2.0 theoretically, 2.6 in LDC because of infant mortality).
107. Point source: discreet location like smokestack; non-point sources: dispersed, large area, e.g. cars.
108. BOD: biochemical oxygen demand, amount of oxygen consumed by aerobic decomposers to break down organic compounds.
109. Eutrophication: sequence of events caused by excess of N and P stimulating algal bloom.
110. Hypoxia: algae dies, BOD increases as decomposers break down algae, DO is depleted and water cannot support life.
111. Primary air pollutants: emitted directly into atmosphere (CO, SOx, NO, hydrocarbons).
112. Secondary pollutants: formed by reaction of primary pollutants.
113. Particulates: source-burning fossil fuels, diesel exhaust; effects- respiratory irritation and damage, reduction- electrostatic precipitators,
scrubbers.
114. Nitrogen oxides: source- burning fuel at high temperatures, effects- respiratory irritation, acidification of lakes, precursor to smog and
ozone; reduction- catalytic converter in cars.
115. Sulfur oxides- source – burning coal and oil; effects- respiratory irritation, produces acid deposition, reduces plant growth; reduction- use
low sulfur coal, limestone injection or flue gas scrubbing.
116. Carbon monoxide: source- incomplete combustion of fossil fuels; effects- binds to HB, reduces O2 carrying ability; reduction- catalytic
converter in cars, oxygenated fuels, increased fuel efficiency.
117. Ozone: source- secondary pollutant formed from NOx and UV with VOCs; effects - respiratory irritation, damages plants; reductionreduce NOx emissions, catalytic converter in cars.
118. Industrial smog: sulfurous, from burning coal.
119. Photochemical smog: formed by photochemical reactions of NO and VOCs in sunlight.
120. Acid deposition: pH below 5.6, caused by sulfuric and nitric acids, leached soil nutrients and toxic metals, weakens plants, disrupts
aquatic systems.
121. Electricity generation: falling water, wind, or steam from water boiled by fossil fuel combustion or nuclear fission turn a turbine
connected to a generator.
122. Petroleum (oil) formed from: dead aquatic organisms buried in sediments converted by heat and pressure in hydrocarbons.
123. Pros of petroleum: cheap, easy to transport, high quality of energy.
124. Cons of petroleum: nonrenewable, degradation from drilling transport and refining, burning produced CO 2, air pollution.
125. Steps in coal formation: peat, lignite, bituminous, anthracite (increasing heat and C content).
126. Major parts of a nuclear reactor: core, control rods, containment building, steam generator, turbine.
127. Two most serious nuclear power plant accidents: Chernobyl (Ukraine 1986) and 3 Mile Island (Harrisburg, PA 1979).
128. Alternate energy sources: not fossil fuels; wind, solar, waves, biomass, geothermal, fuel cells.
129. Reasons alternative energy sources not used more: not as economical, fossil fuels heavily subsidized.
130. Hard path energy policy: Large centralized facilities all connected to grid; soft path policy: diverse, local, flexible energy sources.
131. Multiple land use (US): National Forests and Natural Resource Lands (managed by BLM).
132. Moderately restricted lands: National Wildlife Refuges
133. Restricted use lands: National Parks, National Wilderness Preservation System.
134. Municipal solid waste: mostly paper. Most municipal waste is: land filled.
135. Sanitary landfill: daily capping of waste.
136. Problems and solutions with landfills: leachate- liner with collections systems, methane gas- collect and burn, volume of waste, compact
and reuse.
137. Incineration advantages: reduced waste volume by 90%, waste heat can be used.
138. Incineration disadvantages: toxic emissions (polyvinyl chloride, dioxin) – can use scrubbers and electrostatic precipitators, must dispose
of ash.
139. Best way to solve waste problem reduce amount at source.
140. Undernourishment: not enough calories. Malnourishment: improper amounts of nutrients.
141. Modern farming: high fuel and resource use. Traditional farming: polyculture, crop rotation, labor intensive.
142. Love Canal, NY: school and homes built over chemicals buried in old canal, causing birth defects and cancer.
143. Major types of insecticides: chlorinated hydrocarbons- DDT, organophosphates- Malathion, carbimates- aldicarb.
144. Pesticide pros: saves lives from insect transmitted diseases, increased yield and profits.
145. Pesticide cons: resistant strains, pesticide treadmill, ecosystem imbalance, persistence, bioaccumulation, and biomagnifications.
146. Biological pest control: use predators, biopesticides, parasites, agricultural practices like crop rotation.
147. IPM: pest management through a variety of techniques, agricultural, biological and use of minimal amount of pesticides when necessary.
148. LD-50: dose (material per unit body weight) of chemical that kills 50% of exposed population.
149. Mutagen: causes changes in DNA, Teratogen: causes birth deformities, carcinogen: causes cancer.
150. Minimata disease: mental impairments cause by mercury.