Big Mac Outline
Iraq and Syria
Pd. 7
Political Climate in Iraq, British Mandate 1920 – 1932
Ethnic Make-up
80% Arab
Over half were Shi’ia Muslim
The rest were Sunni Muslims: though they were the numerical minority the
British supported their rise to “political prominence” (Cleveland 204)
20% Kurdish
Mostly Sunni Muslim, the Kurds regarded the northern territories of Iraq to
be their ancestral homeland. The Kurds also had their own language and culture and
sought to preserve this through “political autonomy.” Thus, the British experienced much
resistance to their centralizing efforts in the new state and overall Kurdish unwillingness to
assimilate into the Arab majority – this developed a pattern of conflict between Kurds and
Arabs in Iraq.
Uprising of Summer 1920
Because Ottoman presence had been confined to major cities, the less populated
lands of Iraq were made up mainly of tribal confederations unaccustomed to mandated
rule.
Tribes along the Euphrates began a series of uprisings against the British attempt to
replace Ottoman rule with a centralized government. This “localized rebellion…became
enshrined in Iraqi mythology as the first symbol of the new state’s rejection of foreign rule”
(Cleveland 205).
Several months of fighting cost 10,000 Iraqi casualties, 450 British soldiers, and £40
million.
British Political Policy
Deal with Iraq on a treaty basis
Reduce expenses by placing as much power in the hands of the Iraqi government as
imperially possible. Thus they needed to find a pro-British ruler.
Amir Faysal
King-ed in 1921
At this time there were no systems of government, education, national defense, etc.
Organic Law 1925
Iraq defined as “hereditary constitutional monarchy with an elected bicameral
legislature” (Cleveland 207).
Islam is the state religion
National institutions brought into existence (public school system to train
government officials)
1930 Treaty
25 year alliance
Iraq to gain full independence within two years
Britain retains military and security privileges
Allowed Britain to control the development of Iraqi armed forces – required all to
be trained in Britain
Oil
Iraq signed an agreement in 1925 granting Britain a 75 year concession with the Iraq
Petroleum Company.
Social
An Anglo-Iraqi treaty approved in 1924 maintained British rights in the Iraq and
was only passed by the Constitutional Assembly under heavy pressure from the British.
The treaty faced heavy opposition from those who demanded complete independence.
Faisal was proclaimed King of Iraq as a concession from the British when the
French expelled him from Syria. Faisal as a candidate for King of Iraq had little support
from Iraqis but was pushed through by the British Council of Ministers who wanted the
position to be filled by someone they could work with. Faisal proved to be a competent
leader, but at the time of his coronation he was an unpopular choice.
Another Anglo-Iraqi treaty passed in 1930 under pressure from the League of
Nations (especially France, who wanted to avoid losing power in its own mandates)
provided a 25 year alliance between the two countries to promote common interests.
Britain maintained military bases in Iraq for communication purposes and would assist in
the training of the Iraqi army.
After the death of Faisal, Iraqi democracy struggled to prevail. Elections were not
soundly established and were for the most part controlled. The Iraqi government evolved
more and more into an autocracy and politicians began to play on tribal differences for
support.
Economic
 In the mandate Iraq successfully obtained the Mosul area, an area said to be rich
in oil, in spite of Turkish attempts to re-claim it (Mansfield).
 Also due to the Mandate Iraq received very little land area along the Persian
Gulf and thus their ability to have economic success through ports was hindered
(Cleveland).
 Britain mainly wanted to secure there own interests economically.
o Kept strong communications with India for trade
o Protected Oil fields in both Iraq and India.
o Placed responsibility of as much government as possible in the hands of
the Iraqi government to cut the amount of money being given to Iraq
(Cleveland).
 Iraq Petroleum Company
o Signed in 1925- a 75 year long contract which gave Brittan control over
the Iraq oil fields.
o Iraq received some money from the oil fields but not much and it
became a constant irritant to them (Cleveland).
The Political Climate of Syria, French Mandate 1920 – 1946
Mandated Rule: French-Style
Instead of creating national institutions that would prepare Syria for independence,
the French developed policies and conditions that would prolong their mandated rule.
A System of Divide and Conquer
“Emphasized and encouraged the existing religious, ethnic, and regional
differences within Syria” (Cleveland 218).
(France created Greater Lebanon out of Syrian territory and placed Maronite Christians in
power).
Damascus and Aleppo
1920 – France divided the cities into two separate states, each with its own governor
and set of French advisers
The French carved Syria into a series of political units, totally politically isolated,
designed to hinder the development of a “Syrian national identity” (219).
1924 – Combined the states into a single unit called the State of Syria
Also included Homs and Hama
Compact Minority Groups
Alawite Muslims
Druze
In 1922, France provided each with their own state which were administratively
separate from Syria until 1942
French essentially isolated the Druze and Alawites from national politics and had
ensured that Syrian society would be dominated by middle-class Sunni Muslims.
This, in turn, ensured the highest degree of political instability.
Revolt of 1925 – 1927
Beginning as a local rebellion it soon became a symbol of anti-French and antimandate sentiments within Syria
After Druze chieftain, Sultan Attash, successfully drove French forces out of
the Jabal Druze state, rebellions sprang up all over Syria. By Fall 1925, Damascus and
Homs were in full revolt; Arab leaders joined with the Druze to create a national resistance
movement. Unable to quell the uprisings, the French subjected Damascus to an air and
artillery bombardment that lasted for 48 hrs.
The Bottom Line: 6,000 Syrian casualties, Damascus destroyed, France
remained in control
The National Bloc
Formed by individuals who had prospered under Ottoman and French rule, they
engaged in “politics of the notables” which was known as “honorable cooperation.”
Representative of the landowning, wealthy class, these families maintained
connections to France and to the Syrian public (who were anti-French everything)
Social
Syria was placed into the hands of the French, who were more concerned with
maintaining strategic interests rather than building an independent Syria. This going against
the rallying cries of the elite who called for complete independence and for the country to
include land in Transjordan and Palestine.
Syria was divided into three autonomous districts, each with their own
administrations and French supervisors. These districts were all under the supervision of
the High Commissioner of Syria. This fragile framework created altercations between the
various ethnicities and religions residing in each district.
France rejected an early proposal of the Syrian Constitution that failed to recognize
French control. The French proposed a new Constitution that placed France in control of
foreign affairs and security. Regime changes in both countries lead them to agree upon
Syrian independence with French assistance in foreign policy and retention of two military
bases.
France conceded Syrian land to Turkey before WWII in order to avoid pushing
them to aid the axis.
Economic
 France believed that they should control the area of Syria economically due to
the many resources invested in the area pre-mandate. France developed
“railways, port facilities, and commercial exchanges” (Cleveland).
 Removal of Biqa Valley
o France removed this fertile area from Syria and gave it to Lebanon
(another French territory).
o The French clients were the main people to benefit from this area.
o Syria received no money or resources from this area (Cleveland).
 France used a large amount of money to enforce its politics in Syria via the
French army (Cleveland).
 Secure Oil
o As in most territories in the Middle East oil was a major factor.
o French secured oil fields and kept profit from the oil, which left Syria
with little money for
Conclusion/Notes:
Britain took a more hands off approach to Iraq and allowed Iraqis to hold office
and support themselves economically. France on the other hand was trying to divide and
conquer Syria. The French were very controlling and did not allow Syria to develop
economically and politically. Due to the creation of separate communities the French were
able to hold on to Syria longer. However, when the French left the mandate, Syria was in
shambles.