SKILLS TRAINING IN AGGRESSION REGULATION (STAR):
A GROUP CURRICULUM DESIGNED TO ADDRESS FEMALE AGGRESSION
AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
A Project
Presented to the faculty of the Graduate and Professional Studies in Education
California State University, Sacramento
Submitted in partial satisfaction of
the requirements for the degree of
SPECIALIST IN EDUCATION
in
School Psychology
by
Nina S. Garrovillo
Emily A. Flitsch
SPRING
2014
SKILLS TRAINING IN AGGRESSION REGULATION (STAR):
A GROUP CURRICULUM DESIGNED TO ADDRESS FEMALE AGGRESSION
AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
A Project
by
Nina S. Garrovillo
Emily A. Flitsch
Approved by:
__________________________________, Committee Chair
Catherine Christo, Ph.D.
__________________________________
Date
ii
Students:
Nina S. Garrovillo
Emily Flitsch
I certify that these students have met the requirements for format contained in the
University format manual, and that this project is suitable for shelving in the Library and
credit is to be awarded for the project.
_________________________, Department Chair
Susan Heredia, Ph.D.
Graduate and Professional Studies in Education
iii
____________________
Date
Abstract
of
SKILLS TRAINING IN AGGRESSION REGULATION (STAR):
A GROUP CURRICULUM DESIGNED TO ADDRESS FEMALE AGGRESSION
AMONG HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS
by
Nina S. Garrovillo
Emily A. Flitsch
The development of this project was the collaborative effort of both authors to
provide a group counseling curriculum that intends to reduce aggressive behaviors
exhibited by female students at a high school. The primary purpose of this project is to
educate female students on better ways to process social information and give them
alternate ways of communicating with their peers in order to reduce their need to display
aggressive behaviors. The project defines the different types of aggression, reviews
current research that indicates aggression amongst female students is on the rise, and
examines current prevention and interventions programs that address bullying and
aggression.
The prepared project includes a ten week group counseling curriculum (Skill
Training in Aggression Regulation: STAR) that aims to address female aggression among
high school students by teaching emotion regulation, appropriate coping skills, and
conflict resolution by promoting self-confidence. Materials provided as a support to the
iv
curriculum include: A teacher referral form, parent permission slip, pre/post survey, two
alternative activities, and a group evaluation. This curriculum is scripted and includes
detailed instruction so that any school psychologist or other trained personnel can
implement it.
________________________, Committee Chair
Catherine Christo, Ph.D.
________________________
Date
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We would like to thank our advisor Catherine Christo for her invaluable guidance and
motivation while completing this project. Additionally, we would like to thank our
professors Stephen E. Brock and Melissa Holland for their ongoing support.
Nina Garrovillo would like to thank her supportive and loving family and friends for their
warm hugs and kind words of encouragement. Special thanks to my parents for always
believing in me, often more than I believed in myself, and for inspiring me to reach for
the stars. Lastly I would like to thank Jesse for reminding me that the stress and hard
work put into this graduate program was always worth it.
Emily Flitsch would like to acknowledge the ongoing support of her family and friends.
Nicholas, thank you for your enduring love and patience as I pursued my dreams. To my
mother, I sincerely appreciate that you instilled the importance of education in my life
and that you continuously encouraging me to strive higher. Finally, I want to thank my
beautiful daughter for the smiles, laughter, and late nights spent together working on this
project. Addison, you make it all worthwhile.
vi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………..
vi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………... 1
Background of the Problem………………………………………………….. 1
Purpose of Project………………………………………………………..
4
Description of Project…………………………………………………….
4
Definition of Terms…………………………………………………………..
4
Limitations…………………………………………………………………...
5
Statement of Collaboration…………………………………………………... 6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW………………………………………………………… 7
What is Aggression? Defining the Terms …………………………………...
8
Direct versus indirect aggression….………………………………...
8
Relational aggression………………………………………………..
9
Reactive versus proactive aggression.………………………………
10
Gender Differences………………………………………….……………….
11
The Role of Culture and Femininity in Aggression …………………………
15
Identity and aggression……………………………………………...
16
Etiology of Aggression………………………………………………………
18
The Aggression-Violence Continuum……………………………………….
20
Current Prevention/Intervention Programs…………………………………..
22
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Preventions………………………………………………………….
23
Second Step: Student success through prevention…………..
23
Good Behavior Game………………………………………..
24
Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT)……..
24
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS)……….
25
Fast Track Project……………………………………………
26
Child Development Project (CDP)…………………………..
26
Responding in Peaceful and Positive Ways (RIPP)…………
27
The School Transitional Environment Project (STEP)………
27
Interventions…………………………………………………………
28
Anger Coping Program………………………………………
28
Coping Power………………………………………………..
28
Problem-Solving Skills Training (PSST)…………………….
29
The Art of Self-Control………………………………………
29
Other related intervention studies……………………………
29
What is Missing……………………………………………………………… 30
3. METHODS……………………………………………………………………….. 33
Research…………………………………………………………………...…
33
Development of the Curriculum.…………………………………………….
33
4. FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION………………………………………….. 35
Curriculum Objectives………………………………………………………
viii
35
Interpretation…………………………………………………………………
36
Recommendations……………………………………………………………
38
Appendix A: Group Counseling Curriculum Skill Training in Aggression
39
Regulation (STAR)……………………………………………………
References……………………………………………………………………………
ix
106
1
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Due to the presence of aggression in public schools and the lack of school
personnel with specialized behavioral training on addressing aggressive behaviors, it is
critical that educators and school personnel have a rich understanding of why aggressive
behaviors occur and how to decrease these behaviors in the school setting. Students that
are aggressive may also be struggling with anxiety, depression, peer difficulties, and a
variety of other significant issues. As such, it is important to realize that students who
exhibit aggressive behaviors may be doing so as a means of coping with other issues or
traumas that they have been affected by. Aggressive behaviors can also lead to students
being rejected by their peers, which can lead to further problems including later
maladjustment, learning problems, mental health problems, and criminality in adolescents
(Zimmer-Gembeck, Geiger, & Crick, 2005). While much is known about the effects of
aggression, there is little understanding about how to address aggression in the schools.
Furthermore, interventions that address aggressive behaviors are typically focused on
male aggression, not female aggression.
Background of the Problem
Aggression can be found at both primary and secondary educational settings. It
has also been found that children that are aggressive in early childhood are often
aggressive into their adolescent years (Broidy et al., 2003). This means that students who
exhibit aggressive behaviors in early elementary school are likely to exhibit aggressive
2
and violent behaviors later in high school. It has been observed that there is a rapid
increase in crime perpetration in mid to late adolescents, about the same time that
students are in high school (Blonigen, 2010). It may be assumed that children who exhibit
aggressive behaviors at a young age and do not receive early intervention are at a higher
risk of exhibiting violent and delinquent behaviors as adolescents than those who do. In
2012 it was reported that the second leading cause of death for young people ages 10-24
was homicide (Centers for Disease Control, 2012). Youth violence is a substantial issue
with serious implications. Given the seriousness of the problem of youth violence it is
important to address the problem of aggression, especially in the adolescent years.
Victims of violence are more likely to later become perpetrators of violence: this
phenomenon is known as the cycle of violence (Heyman & Sleps, 2002). Given this
information it is extremely important to identify individuals who are aggressive, and
intervene in order to prevent individuals from further perpetrating violence. In doing so it
is hoped that the perpetrator will not create more victims of violence, and therefore
prevent future perpetrators of violence. The cycle of violence is an important aspect of
aggression that needs to be acknowledged and is crucial to understand when working
with aggressive students. Students who are aggressive are likely to have been victims of
early abuse and early exposure to violence. Therefore, students who live in low
socioeconomic areas or areas with high crime rates may be more at risk of witnessing or
being victims of violence, and may be more aggressive as a result.
3
While external influences of aggression, such as history of violence and
aggression, and community influences, are important in understanding aggression so are
internal influences. It is often assumed that people who are aggressive have anger
problems. However, it has been found that people experience anger similarly, regardless
of whether they are aggressive or not (Heyman & Sleps, 2002). People may differ in the
way they perceive and process anger and aggression. There are two kinds of
physiological processes that activate when individuals perceive threat or endangerment.
One of these processes results in immediate rage response that leaves individuals in a
state of arousal. Due to this heightened state of arousal these individuals are more likely
to be sensitive to irritations and may have aggressive outbursts. Individuals who are
inclined to this kind of arousal may be impulsively aggressive. A second kind of
physiological reaction is one in which the brain processes threatening information,
attributes causes for the events, and develops responses to threatening information. This
more complex processing of threatening events is associated with aggressive behaviors
that are carefully planned (Lochman, Powell, Clanton, & McElroy, 2010). One theory
describes a process in which people perceive and react to social information. These steps
are encoding social cues, interpreting the cues, identifying social goals, generating
possible solutions to the problem event, evaluating solutions, and enacting the behavior
of the chosen response. Individuals who have difficulty controlling their aggressive
behaviors may have difficulties with one or more of the steps in social information
processing due to their aroused states (Lochman et al.).
4
Purpose of Project
The primary purpose of this project is to help female students reduce their
aggressive behaviors and adopt appropriate coping skills. A group counseling curriculum
was created to teach girls how to better process social information and give them
alternate ways of communicating with their peers. The group curriculum will be scripted
so that it can be used by any school psychologist or other trained personnel. All handouts
and other necessary materials needed for the counseling sessions will be included in the
curriculum.
Description of Project
Research indicates that aggression amongst female students is on the rise and
current prevention and interventions do not adequately address the needs of these
females. Based on information gathered during this project, a group curriculum was
developed to appropriately address the needs of female students in high school that
exhibit aggressive behavior and have poor coping skills.
Definition of Terms
Aggression: Behavioral acts that results in harming or hurting others (Lochman et al.,
2010)
Direct aggression: Aggressive behavior that involves face-to-face confrontation.
Typically, this is thought of as physical violence; however it also includes verbal
aggression and other forms of face-to-face aggressive interactions (Archer, 2004).
5
Electronic aggression: The use of electronic media, including cell phones, personal data
assistants, and the internet to embarrass, harass, or threaten peers (Centers for Disease
Control, 2014).
Indirect aggression: Behavior that is able to harm the victim without necessarily
identifying who the aggressor is (Björkqvist, 1994).
Proactive aggression: “A deliberate coercive behavior that is controlled by external
reinforcements and is used as a means of obtaining a desired goal” (Connor, Steingard,
Anderson, & Melloni, 2003, p.280).
Reactive aggression: An angry, defensive response to threat, frustration, or provocation
(Connor, Steingard, Anderson, & Melloni, 2003, p.280).
Relational Aggression: Deliberately unfriendly behavior designed to hurt another person
through words or nonphysical means (Merrell, Buchanan, & Tran 2006, p.345).
Limitations
It should be noted that the authors primarily looked at evidence based prevention
and interventions. Additional preventions and interventions may be available to address
the needs of female students in the area of aggression. Further, this group curriculum was
based on research gathered around the needs of females in order to help foster appropriate
coping skills, learn how to process social information and communicative with peer
effectively. The implementation of the group curriculum was not included in this project.
Additional research is needed to determine the effectiveness of the group curriculum.
6
Statement of Collaboration
Together Nina Garrovillo and Emily Flitsch, graduate students in the School
Psychology program at California State University, Sacramento, worked in collaboration
to create this project. The succeeding sections were distributed equally amongst the two
co-authors in the development of this comprehensive project. Each co-author was
accountable for researching their section. Nina Garrovillo researched the definition of
aggression, aggressions role in different cultures, the etiology of aggression, and the
aggression-violence continuum. Emily Flitsch focused her research on gender difference
in aggression, current prevention programs, current intervention programs, as well as
what is missing in addressing aggression in schools. Both co-authors worked together in
the identifying areas of need and creating the group curriculum.
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Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Aggression is associated with many psychological problems including anxiety,
depression, peer difficulties, substance use, and biased ways of interpreting social
situations (Young, Nelson, Hottle, Warburton, & Young, 2010). The effects of aggression
can affect students in the school setting, appearing as learning challenges or social
maladjustment. Given that most social development and learning occurs in the school
setting, it is important to understand the implications of aggression in the schools and its
impact on social development. Being held in positive regard by peers is associated with
relatively fewer behavior problems. Peer rejection however is associated with later
maladjustment including learning difficulties, mental health problems, and criminality in
adolescents (Zimmer-Gembeck, Geiger, & Crick, 2005).
There is much debate in the literature surrounding the different kinds of
aggression and its prevalence and effects among males and females. According to
Björkqvist (1994), “There is no reason to believe that females should be less hostile and
less prone to get into conflicts than males” (p.178). In this review of the literature,
aggression and the different vocabulary surrounding aggression will be defined, gender
and cultural differences related to aggressive behaviors will be explored, and the
functions of aggressive behavior will be examined. Furthermore, the differences that have
been found in aggressive behaviors at different developmental stages will be explored
and current prevention and intervention programs that are available in order to assist
8
school psychologists and other school professionals who may be dealing with female
aggression in their schools will be reviewed.
What is Aggression? Defining the Terms
“Human beings have nonphysical powers which are far beyond those of any other
animal. Accordingly, human aggression has faces and forms, inconceivable within the
realm of animal aggression” (Björkqvist, 1994, p.179). According to Lochman, Powell,
Clanton, and McElroy (2010) aggression can be defined as a “behavioral act that results
in harming or hurting others” (p.115). From the literature it appears the term “aggression”
is an umbrella term which encompasses a variety of different behaviors. Further, there are
several distinctions between the forms in which aggression can manifest itself, differing
based on the intent of the aggressor and the situation to which the aggressor is
responding. In order to understand the nuances of the different types of aggressive
behaviors, this section will define various terms that appear in the literature.
Direct versus indirect aggression
Aggressive behavior can be broken down into being either direct or indirect.
Direct aggression involves face-to-face confrontation with the person who is exhibiting
the aggressive behavior. Typically, this is thought of as physical violence; however it also
includes verbal aggression and other forms of face-to-face aggressive interactions
(Archer, 2004). Aggressive behaviors are indirect when the aggressor is able to harm the
victim without necessarily revealing who the aggressor is (Björkqvist, 1994). Indirect
aggressive behaviors often include social manipulation such as gossiping, ostracizing,
9
and cyber bullying. Cyber bullying has become of particular interest because of the recent
boom in popularity of social media. In addition to social manipulation, behaviors that are
often described as being “passive aggressive” are further examples of indirect aggression.
There appears to be some misunderstanding concerning how these different forms of
aggression manifest in males and females, and more specifically how aggression
manifests itself at different ages. These issues will be addressed later in this review, but it
is important to first better understand the types of aggression that are prevalent in the
schools.
Relational aggression
The term relational aggression has been defined as “deliberately unfriendly
behavior designed to hurt another person through words or nonphysical means (Merrell,
Buchanan, & Tran 2006, p.345).” Relational aggression can include both direct and
indirect aggression and it can include verbal aggression. Behaviors that can be described
as relational aggression include ostracizing peers from a group, gossiping about peers,
and name calling. While some behaviors do not involve any face-to-face interaction it can
include directly aggressive behaviors. Relational aggression has been associated with
adjustment difficulties such as internalizing problems, externalizing problems, peer
rejection, loneliness, and features of borderline personality disorder (Mathieson et.al.
2011)
Relational aggression has unique implications in the school environment. Young
et al., (2010) examined the effects of relational exposure in the perceptions of the school
10
environment of middle and high school students in the Detroit, Michigan area. Exposure
to relational aggression was reported more by middle school students rather than older
students. The results indicated that students who reported high levels of exposure to
relational aggression were more likely to believe that their schools were less safe.
Students who were victimized by relational aggression also had negative overall social
experiences at school (Young et al.).
In a meta-analytic review of 148 studies, Card, Stucky, Sawalani, and Little,
(2008) found an absence of a significant difference between the genders regarding
relational aggression. This indicates that relational aggression is seen in both males and
females and therefore should not be considered a “female-form” of aggression.
Additionally, it was found that relational aggression was more prominent than direct
aggression regardless of gender (Card et al.). This research shows that, contrary to what
may be common belief, males and females are behaving in relationally aggressive ways
at similar rates. Due to the common misconception that females behave in more
relationally aggressive ways girls may be viewed by teachers and school personnel as
being more relationally aggressive than boys.
Reactive versus proactive aggression
In addition to direct, indirect, and relational aggression there is reactive and
proactive aggression. An aggressive behavior can be deemed as either being reactive or
proactive depending on the intent of the aggressor. Direct, indirect, and relational
aggression can be either reactive or proactive. “Reactive aggression is an angry,
11
defensive response to threat, frustration, or provocation… Proactive aggression is a
deliberate coercive behavior that is controlled by external reinforcements and is used as a
means of obtaining a desired goal (Connor, Steingard, Anderson, & Melloni, 2003,
p.280).” Reactive aggression is impulsive and fear based in nature. Often, reactive
aggression is a response to a behavior of someone other than the aggressor. The aggressor
is reacting to a perceived threat, such as a student who physically lashes out at peers who
are teasing him, or a student who pours a drink on another student after being pushed in
the lunch line (Ellis, Weiss, & Lochman, 2009). Lochman et al. (2010) also noted that
reactive aggression is emotionally driven and anger is visually displayed. Proactive
aggression has intent, and is initiated by the aggressor. Often the aggressor is looking to
obtain something they want or enforce something they believe. Ellis et al. found in their
research that proactively aggressive participants had better planning abilities and problem
solving skills than reactively aggressive participants. While this particular study only
contained male participants, other studies (discussed in the following section) specifically
looked at gender differences in reactive and proactive aggression.
Gender Differences
When exploring gender differences between direct and indirect aggression there
have been mixed findings. Researchers have found that there has been an ongoing belief
that males are more likely to engage in direct aggressive behaviors while females are
more likely to engage in indirect aggressive behaviors (Archer, 2004; Björkqvist, 1994).
It has been theorized that females are more likely to engage in indirect aggressive
12
behavior because they are physically weaker, but have more social intelligence than
males (Björkqvist). Archer found through meta-analysis research that males were more
likely to engage in physical aggression than females. Similarly, males were slightly more
likely to engage in verbal aggression than females. Salmivalli & Kaukiainen (2004) also
found that males were more physically aggressive than females. When looking at indirect
aggression, Salmivalli & Kaukiainen discovered that there was little to no difference
between genders, which was different from Archer’s findings that females engage in
indirect aggressive behaviors more often than males.
A more recent study done in Australia, which explored aggression in adolescents
between the ages of 12 and 18, paralleled previous findings that males were more likely
than females to engage in direct aggression. However, in this study it was established that
adolescent males were more likely to engage in indirect aggression in comparison to
females as well (Marks, Hine, Manton, Thorsteinsson, 2012). Marks et al. did indicate
that this higher rating of indirect aggression among males could simply reflect female
self-reports not being an accurate reflection of true behavior. The Youth Risk Behavior
Surveillance report from 2011, which tracks health-risk behaviors of school age youth (912 graders) nationwide, found that male students reported higher occurrences of being in
a physical fight than female students. When asked if they had been involved in one or
more physical fights in the previous 12 months, 41% of male student reported they had,
in comparison to 24% of female students. These statistics align with previous reports that
13
males are more likely to engage in physical aggression (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2012a).
Relational aggression is another area in which researchers report varying results
when looking at gender differences. In the past, relational aggression was seen as
primarily a female form of aggression. Swearer (2008) notes that the idea of relational
aggression being a form of aggression only used by females has been heightened by the
media through movies such as Mean Girls (2004). Merrell, Buchanan, and Tran (2006)
composed a list of studies where relational aggression was more prevalent among
females, a list of studies where relational aggression was more prevalent among males,
and a list of studies that indicated similarity across gender. It is apparent that relational
aggression is seen in both males and females, though it is hard to say if one gender
engages in relational aggression more than the other or if they engage equally. Salmivalli
and Kaukiainen (2004) did not find any differences between males and females in
relational aggression, meaning that both males and females are equally involved in this
form of aggression.
One study examined the effects of relational aggression in the perceptions of the
school environment. Researchers found that male students with high exposure to
relational aggression were also more likely to carry a weapon to school; therefore it was
indicated that relational aggression should be added to the list of risk factors for weapon
carrying at school. Further, the researchers discovered that females reported witnessing
more relational aggression at school than did males (Young et al., 2010).
14
A three-year longitudinal study was conducted with students in the United States
to examine physical aggression, relational aggression, and prosocial behaviors in third
grade and see if there were predictors of behaviors in sixth grade (Zimmer-Gembeck,
Geiger, & Crick, 2005). Researchers found that there was no gender difference in
relational aggression in third grade; however, by sixth grade, girls were more relationally
aggressive than boys. It was also found that early relational aggression was a predictor of
social preference and social influence three years later. Further, it was indicated that
prosocial behavior was found to be more important to social preference and social
influence for girls than boys (Zimmer-Gembeck et al.)
As discussed earlier, relational aggression is associated with bullying. The Youth
Risk Behavior Surveillance report from 2011, found that female students (9-12th graders)
are more likely to be bullied, on school campus and electronically, than male students.
When asked if they had been bullied on school property in the previous 12 months, 22%
of female students reported they had in comparison to 18% of male students. When asked
if they had been electronically bullied in the previous 12 months, 22% of female student
reported they had in comparison to 11% of male students (Centers for Disease Control
and Prevention, 2012a). While this survey indicated that female students were more
likely to be bullied, the main difference between female and male students was small
when looking at being bullied on school property. Unfortunately, data was not available
as to whether male or female students were more likely to be the bullies.
15
When exploring gender difference for proactive and reactive aggression, it seems
that both genders engage in proactive and reactive aggression. One study examined male
and female subjects who had been referred to a residential treatment center and pediatric
psychopharmacology clinic that served seriously emotionally disturbed youth. In this
study no gender differences were found in the prevalence of reactive versus proactive
aggression. This differs from research on non-referred samples and suggests that, in
seriously emotionally disturbed youth, gender differences disappear. However, while
males were more likely to behave in reactively aggressive ways if they had problems with
hyperactivity/impulsivity, females were more likely to act in these ways due to early
traumatic stress and low verbal IQ (Connor et al., 2003). It is important to note that more
differences are seen in reactive and proactive aggression in non-referred samples.
From the literature, it appears that little research focuses on female violence
specifically. This may be because female violence has been perceived as being less
prevalent or less extreme than male violence. Female violence is, however, becoming
more prevalent and appears to be a complex issue (Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2012a).
The Role of Culture and Femininity in Aggression
When considering cultural differences in violence it is important to consider not
only race, but also socio-economic factors and gender roles within various cultures.
Cultural views on the acceptance of violence vary when looking at gender role. Male
16
violence is often seen as a way for males to demonstrate their masculinity, whereas
female violence goes against the stereotypical view of what femininity is.
Identity and aggression
A six year anthropological study was conducted to examine female violence of
Hawaiian high school age students. Irwin and Adler (2012) found that there are a variety
of factors that can lead to violence among females. These factors include family
dynamics, peer groups, socio-economic status, and cultural views of femininity.
Hawaiian and Pacific Islander’s value family resiliency, specifically female resiliency.
This is partially due to the mass incarceration of Pacific Islander men which puts the
women in a more central role of the family. Irwen and Adler state that women often take
on many of the typical male responsibilities. Women in this culture are encouraged to be
outspoken and resourceful for the survival of their families. However, young girls in this
community are held to traditional feminine roles and local norms. This creates role
confusion for many young girls in these communities. According to Irwen and Adler, in
addition to struggling with what their role is as a female in their culture, they are also
faced with many gender inequalities. Sexual double standards demand that girls in this
culture remain pure and innocent while males are rewarded for their sexual conquests.
Further, the culture is one of romance where young girls hyper focus on relationships
with boys and their social standing depends on their relationship status. These issues are
primary reasons why young girls fight each other. Reasons for aggression included
17
maintaining their social standing and respect, often surrounding their sexual virtue, as
well as defending romantic relationships (Irwin & Adler).
From the literature it appears that there are more deep-seated issues concerning
why girls engage in violence against other girls. One of the reasons may have to do with
the oppression that girls face, which in turn leads to them displacing their anger towards
other females. In doing so girls are “not just fighting other girls, but they are participating
in the overall subordination of girls by trivializing their fights as ‘dumb’ compared to
fights that boys have and by critiquing some girls who fight as being tomboys who reject
the feminine norms” (Waldron, 2011, p.1326). An ethnographic research project
examined two high schools in the United States. One high school was made up of 99%
African American students while the second high school was made up of 83.6%
Caucasian students. One aspect of the study examined society’s belief that physical fights
among Caucasian female students are not perceived as serious as physical fights among
African American female students. Researchers found that the female students studied
referred to girls who engaged in physical fights as being “ghetto,” which has racial
undertones that are associated with the African American culture (Waldron).
The research gathered shows that it is important to take culture into account when
addressing aggression in schools. Cultures have different gender role expectations as well
as different views and acceptance of aggression.
18
Etiology of Aggression
Aggressive behaviors are influenced by a number of different factors. Many
people believe that aggression and anger are closely related. However, it has been found
that people may experience anger similarly whether they are aggressive or not. One study
used a facial expression coding system to examine how students who are rated as being
either aggressive or nonaggressive by their peers displayed anger. It was found that both
aggressive and nonaggressive children display anger in similar ways (Hubbard, 2001). It
has also been found that there is no difference between men and women in their
experiencing anger, though there are reports of sex differences in aggression (Archer,
2004). This suggests that anger may have less of an influence on aggressive behaviors
than previously believed. It is, however, important to understand that the physiological
arousal that is associated with aggression may be one factor influencing behavior.
Lochman et al. (2010) describes two kinds of physiological processes that activate when
an individual perceives threat or endangerment. One of these processes results in an
immediate rage response that leaves the individual in a long lasting state of action
readiness that can last hours or days. Once individuals are in this state they may be
sensitive to minor irritations that can initiate anger outbursts. This kind of anger cycle can
be difficult to break and is characterized by impulsivity that is suggested to be associated
with reactive aggression. In the second physiological process, the brain processes the
threatening information, attributes causes and motivations for the events and develops
19
responses to the threatening information; this kind of physiological reaction is suggested
to be associated with proactive aggression (Lochman et al.).
Outcome expectancies of aggressive behavior may be another factor mediating
aggression. One study investigated the different outcome expectancies for indirect and
direct aggression in males and females. For direct aggression fear of authority appeared
as a cognitive expectancy. Given that males were more likely than females to commit
direct aggression, it appears that males may have a reduced fear of authority in
comparison to females. However, fear of authority did not emerge as an expectancy
factor for indirect aggression (Marks et al., 2012).
Lochman et al. (2010) describes a process in which people perceive, understand,
and react to social information. This process is a six step social information processing
model that is located within a social-cognitive framework. The steps are encoding social
cues, interpreting the cues, identifying social goals, generating possible solutions to the
problem event, evaluating solutions, and enacting the behavior of the chosen response. It
is suggested that aggressive individuals have difficulties with one or more of these steps.
Individuals who have difficulties controlling their anger may also have difficulties with
the one or more of the aforementioned steps in social information processing due to their
physiological reactions and aroused states (Lochman et al.).
A third factor that is associated with aggression is external influences. External
influences include familial influences, peer influence, and community influences.
Parenting practices, child abuse, and domestic violence are all familial influence that are
20
associated with aggression (Guerra, Huesmann, & Spindler, 2003). Peers can also
influence aggressive behaviors. An important aspect to consider is the community in
which children are living. In a study examining the effects of community violence
exposure on aggressive thoughts and behaviors of elementary-aged youth living in urban
and inner-city communities it was found that children who are more exposed to violence
behave and think in more aggressive ways (Guerra et al.).
The Aggression-Violence Continuum
Violence is a significant issue among young people in the United State. In 2012 it
was reported that homicide was the second leading cause of death for young people ages
10-24 (Centers for Disease Control, 2012b). Youth violence has resulted in a great
number of nonfatal injuries (Van Ryzin & Dishion, 2013). The magnitude of the impact
of youth violence is staggering, and as such it is important to not only understand the risk
factors of youth violence but also the outcomes of early aggressive behavior. In a study
examining longitudinal outcomes of early physical aggression and adolescent
delinquency it was found that, among boys, childhood physical aggression is associated
with violent and nonviolent delinquency in adolescence (Broidy et al., 2003). This study,
however, had a limited female sample and did not find that that early physical aggression
among females consistently predicted adolescent offending. While early aggression
appears to be a predictor of later adolescent aggression, information on trajectories
beyond adolescence and into adulthood is limited.
21
The large impact of youth violence may be due to a phenomenon known in
criminology as the age-crime curve. The age-crime curve is firmly established in
criminology and describes the relationship between age and crime perpetration. It has
been found that there is a rapid increase in crime perpetration in mid-adolescence, a peak
in late adolescence, a rapid decline in early adulthood, and a gradual decline thereafter
(Blonigen, 2010). According to Moffit’s Developmental Taxonomy, there is a distinction
between two types of offenders: Life-Course-Persistent offenders and adolescencelimited offenders (Barns & Beavers, 2010). While adolescence-limited offenders follow
the age-crime curve trend, Life-Course-Persistent offenders do not. There are two risk
factors associated with becoming a Life-Course-Persistent offender, one of which is the
presence of neuropsychological deficits caused by maternal drug use during pregnancy,
exposure to toxic agents, and genetic factors; the second is having grown up in an adverse
home environment (Barns & Beavers). From this research it is suggested that violent
behavior is influenced by age, biological makeup, and environment.
While most childhood and adolescent violent behavior only persists until early
adulthood there is a population of people who remain violent into adulthood. These
individuals are likely to have been victims of early abuse, early exposure to violence, and
may have also shown signs of early aggression and violence. The cycle of violence
hypothesis theorizes that individuals who have been exposed to or experienced violence
are more likely to perpetrate violence later in life (Heyman & Sleps, 2002). A metaanalysis of three national longitudinal studies of adolescent health found that both
22
childhood abuse and adolescent dating violence victimization are highly predictive of
young adult intimate partner violence (Gomez, 2011). Therefore those who have been
victims of violence are more likely to become perpetrators of violence.
From the research it appears that violence and aggression are perpetuated through
a culture of violence. It is hoped that through better understanding of how violent and
aggressive behavior manifests and grows throughout an individual’s lifetime, a way to
break the cycle of violence can be found. Due to the prevalence of youth violence it
appears that the ages 10-24 are an extremely important age to target for aggression
prevention and intervention. Most students of this age probably have already been
exposed to violence and may even have been perpetrators of violence. While age and
biological factors cannot be changed, environmental factors that these students are faced
with can be. This can include their school environment, their classroom environment,
their peer interactions, and their parents’ involvement with the school. Understanding
how to break the cycle is the first step in reducing youth violence.
Current Prevention/Intervention Programs
While there are multiple prevention and intervention programs aimed at
addressing the issue of bullying, only a few programs target aggression specifically. The
prevention and intervention programs discussed have been carefully studied over the
years and there is evidence that a few of the programs decrease aggressive behaviors after
implementation. Young et al. (2010) noted that the more effective programs were those
23
that focused on system changes in order to create encouraging, approachable, and
compassionate school environments where education was highly valued.
Preventions
There are currently multiple evidence-based programs that aim at universal
prevention of aggression. These prevention programs target certain developmental age
groups. The majority of these prevention programs are designed for elementary age
students, though a few programs have been identified as effective when working with
young adolescents. Below is a brief description of the evidence based prevention
programs discussed by Lochman et al. (2010). All of the discussed programs are designed
for preschool, elementary school and/or middle school students.
Second Step: Student success through prevention. The Second Step program
(Committee for Children, 2014a) is available for preschool to middle school students. It
aims to teach social-emotional skills and prevent impulsive and aggressive behaviors in
students. This is accomplished by increasing a student’s prosocial behavior. Additionally
this program teaches skills in empathy, emotion management, impulse control, problem
solving, self-regulation, executive functioning skills, conflict resolution, and anger
management. Second Step is a universal curricular classroom intervention. For
kindergarten through fifth graders the program is divided into units that teach skills for
learning, empathy, emotion management, and problem solving. These units each have
individual lessons appropriate for each grade level. In middle school the program focuses
on themes of empathy and communication, bullying prevention, emotion management,
24
problem solving, substance abuse prevention/decision making, and goal setting. Again,
these themes each have individual lessons that are appropriate for different grade levels
(Committee for Children, 2014b).
A longitudinal study by Espelage, Low, Polanin, and Brown (2013) examined the
effect of Second Step at the sixth grade level at 36 Midwestern schools. Students in the
intervention schools participated in fifteen weeks of the sixth grade curriculum. The
lessons were delivered by trained teachers for one school year. This study found that
students who were in the Second Step program were 42 percent less likely to self-report
physical aggression perpetration (Espelage et al.).
Good Behavior Game. The Good Behavior Game (National Registry of
Evidence-based Programs and Practices. (2014a) program is designed to help children
accept authority and rules in the classroom by playing a game. Classrooms are split into
teams and teams track when rules are broken. A team wins if they have the least amount
of “fouls.” In one study by Kellam, Ling, Merisca, Brown, & Ialongo (1994) the Good
Behavior Game was applied to urban first-grade classrooms. Researchers found that in
boys above the median on pretest levels of aggression, there was a sustained reduction of
behavior into sixth grade.
Linking the Interests of Families and Teachers (LIFT). The objective of the
LIFT (Promising Practice Network, 2013b) program is to promote communication
between teachers and parents, as well as teach students social and problem solving skills.
It is designed to address aggressive and other at-risk social behaviors with teachers and
25
peers at school and parenting practices including inconsistent discipline and lack of
supervision. The target population is elementary aged students, particularly those living
in at-risk neighborhoods. The program has three components: classroom-based social
skills training, the playground good behavior game, and parent management training. The
focus of the program is social skills and problem solving training.
This program was created to increase peer interactions as it has been found that
children who are aggressive are at risk for peer rejection from the normative group. This
rejection, in turn, increases the risk of conduct problems and delinquency (Reid, Eddy,
Fetrow, and Stoolmiller, 1999). A study of 12 elementary schools in an areas with a high
percentages of households with at least one juvenile detainment (average detainment rate
of these schools were 13%) examined the effects of LIFT on first and fifth grade students.
The results indicated that the intervention had significant effects on decreasing physical
aggression among the students on the playground (Reid et al.).
Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies (PATHS). PATHS (Promising
Practice Network, 2013c) is a universal, social-emotional learning program intended to
teach children how to calm down in three simple steps; stop, take a deep breath, and
identify the problem and your feelings. It is an elementary-based program to promote
social emotional competence through cognitive skills building. Research on this program
has shown significant improvement in social problem solving and understanding of
emotions for second and third grade students, as was shown in a post-test. These same
26
effects were found after a one-year follow up (Greenburg, Domitrovich, and Bumbbarger,
2001).
Fast Track Project. The Fast Track Project (Fast Track Project, 2011) aims to
teach students problem solving skills, understanding, ability to communicate emotions,
and self-control. The hypothesis of the project is that “improving child competencies,
parenting effectiveness, school context and school-home communications will, over time,
contribute to preventing certain behaviors across the period from early childhood through
adolescence” (Fast Track Project, 2011). The program uses the PATH component but
additionally addresses family, school, and community levels. It was found that students in
this program reported lower amounts of peer aggression (Greenburg, Domitrovich, &
Bumbbarger, 2001).
Child Development Project (CDP). The CDP (Promising Practice Network,
2013a) is an environmental change approach designed to increase a student’s respect and
responsibility by creating a caring community atmosphere within the schools. Further,
students, teachers, and parents all work together to create a compassionate school
community that encourages student involvement in decision making and promotes
cooperation and warm interpersonal relationships, thereby lessening the role of teacher
control and student competition. In the classroom component of the project, there are five
core components: cooperative learning, developmental discipline, social development,
promoting prosocial behaviors and community building activities (Promising Practice
Network, 2013). When this program is implemented with fidelity it was found that
27
students had reductions in measures of student drug use and delinquency, and an increase
in student empathy and self-esteem (Berryhill & Prinz, 2003). Further analysis of this
program showed that it increased students’ sense of community which had the most
positive relationship with student outcomes in high-poverty schools.
Responding in Peaceful and Positive Ways (RIPP). The RIPP (National Registry
of Evidence-based Programs and Practices, 2014b) program is designed to teach middle
school students communication and problem solving skills and to promote the use of
nonviolent approaches to solve conflicts. Students in this program have shown significant
improvement in their decision-making knowledge and use of peer mediation (Greenburg,
et al., 2001). In another study that looked at sixth grade students across three schools who
were receiving the intervention, participants reported a decreased number of suspensions
and fights with an increase in the use of peer mediation to solve conflict (Farrell, Meyer,
and White, 2001).
The School Transitional Environment Project (STEP). The STEP (Lochman et
al., 2010) program looks to increase student adaptation skills during transitions. STEP
aims to reorganize the system in schools so that there are smaller class sizes and students
have an ongoing set of peers. The program wants students to perceive their educational
environment as safe. A safe environment and an ongoing group of peers can reduce
conflict among students. One study found that STEP students had fewer absences, higher
grades, more stable self-concept, more positive perceptions of their school environment,
and lower dropout rates. (Berryhill & Prinz, 2003).
28
Interventions
There are currently a few evidence-based intervention programs that aim to assist
students who are aggressive. Below is a brief description of the intervention programs
discussed by Lochman et al. (2010). These intervention programs target certain
developmental age groups, primarily elementary aged students.
Anger Coping Program. The Anger Coping Program (Lochman et al., 2010)
targets children in the fourth to sixth grade and is intended to teach goal setting, social
problem solving, and anger management skills. Studies show that following
implementation there was a decrease in disruptive and aggressive behaviors as well as an
increase in self-esteem and on task behaviors (Greenburg et al., 2001).
Coping Power. Coping Power (Coping Power, 2006) is a preventive intervention
program that targets at-risk children in the fourth to sixth grade and their parents. It is
intended to teach emotional awareness, relaxation techniques, social skills, and how to
deal with peer pressure. Key factors include social competence, self-regulation, and
positive parental involvement. It is a structured cognitive-behavioral group program for
students and includes a behavioral parent training group for their parents (Lochman et al.,
2010).
A case study by Lochman, Boxmeyer, Powelle, Wojnaroski, and Yaros (2007)
examined a ten year old 4th grade female with a predominantly reactive pattern of
aggressive behavior. This student often overreacted to peer provocation and would bully
and threaten other students. A pre and post assessment was conducted using the Behavior
29
Assessment System for Children (BASC) (Pearson, 2014) to evaluate the effectiveness of
the Coping Power program. For this student it was found that conduct problems,
aggression, hyperactivity, and externalizing behaviors decreased. It was also found that
these students’ adaptive behaviors increased.
Problem-Solving Skills Training (PSST). The PSST program (Kazdin, A. E., &
Weisz, J. R., 2003) targets elementary school aged children and is intended to teach prosocial problem solving skills. PSST has shown to be associated with significant
improvements in overall child dysfunction, pro-social competence, and aggressive,
antisocial, and delinquent behavior (Kazdin, Siegel, & Bass, 1992).
The Art of Self-Control. The Art of Self-Control (Lochman et al., 2010) program
targets students ages thirteen to seventeen and is intended to teach relaxation techniques,
self-monitoring, problem solving skills, and coping techniques. Studies show that
implementation of the program led to a decrease in aggressive and disruptive behaviors
as well as an increase in social skills, self-control and problem solving abilities (Lochman
et al., 2010).
Other related intervention studies
Williams (2002) looked at the effectiveness of an anger management program put
in place at an alternative school for students who were expelled from their previous
school for carrying a weapon at school. Researchers worked to determine the needs of the
school and, once needs were determined, school staff and students received direct anger
management training. After the training students were surveyed and it was discovered
30
that there was a significant decrease in students’ willingness to fight and an overall
improvement in their ability to control anger (Williams). The results of this study may
not be easily generalized across settings since the sample size was small. However, it was
apparent that students in this alternative setting needed to learn anger management skills
and, once learned, were able to better control their anger.
Similarly, another study found that direct aggression significantly decreased when
group counseling was used to address the needs of aggressive girls (Hoffman, Cummings,
& Leschied, 2004). In this study researchers took a small group of adolescent girls (12-16
years of age) and had them participate in eight, one hour group counseling sessions. The
group counseling curriculum was created by the researchers and designed to (a) educate
the participants on the types of aggression, (b) discuss how violence can impact their
lives, (c) teach nonviolence coping strategies, and (d) improve participants’ self-image.
Pre and post test results showed a decrease in direct aggression behaviors, such as
walking away from a fight or thinking about whether the fight was worth it. Again this
study was conducted with a small sample size. More research would need to be
completed before results could be generalized.
What is Missing?
Through this gathering of data it appears that there are a variety of bullying
prevention programs as well as some violence prevention and intervention programs
available. While it is suggested that universal prevention is best practice (Young et al.,
2010), not all students will be exposed to these practices. Since many of the universal
31
programs are done at the elementary school level there is a large population of middle
and high school students who are left out. Further, not all schools implement these
discussed universal programs as they can be perceived as being too costly and too time
consuming. While prevention efforts are viewed as being best practice, often these kinds
of programs are not implemented because the problem behavior is not being observed.
Additionally, there are students who will need more intense intervention services as these
prevention oriented programs did not stop them from displaying aggression later on in
their school careers. There was limited research on effective interventions to help such
students.
Programs specifically created for female students are lacking. Gender specific
programs would greatly benefit female students since it is apparent that females and
males have different needs when addressing aggression, especially when it comes to
relationships. Male and female relationships with same gender peers are different
between sexes. Further, there are not many programs that address older adolescents. The
current programs that are available and effective address primarily elementary aged
students.
This project intends to examine how female aggression manifests itself in the
school setting and to develop a group curriculum geared to decreasing adolescent female
students’ aggressive tendencies. The group curriculum will aim to address aggression in
adolescents 13-18 years of age. The goal of the group curriculum is to promote healthy
relationships with peers by increasing female students’ skills in emotional regulation,
32
verbal abilities, coping strategies, problem solving, and social skills. Additionally, the
curriculum will discuss substance abuse prevention and goal setting for future success.
33
Chapter 3
METHODS
Research
In the process of researching this project, the authors utilized several techniques.
EBSCO host, the Education Resources Information Center (ERIC), and the California
State University, Sacramento, library host databases were searched for peer-reviewed
journal articles, both qualitative and quantitative, using a variety of search terms. The key
words “Female Aggression” were used in combination with other terms, such as in the
school, curriculum, intervention, and prevention. Additional searches were conducted
using words and phrases such as gender differences, etiology, types of aggression and
outcomes. The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) and the Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) websites were used as a search engine for
preventive and intervention programs, best practices, statistics and resources. The coauthors were assigned to write specific sections of the outline for the literature review.
Development of the Curriculum
The curriculum was developed as an intervention targeted at female students who
have been identified as exhibiting violent or aggressive behaviors. The focus of the
curriculum is to teach students emotional regulation and empathy through social
emotional learning, problem solving through direct instruction of communication
strategies and social skills. Additionally, students will acquire skills to advocate for
themselves, learn how to take control of their lives by empowering them to set goals,
34
obtaining knowledge of the resources that are available to them, and become educated
about substance abuse and dating violence. This curriculum is designed as a small group
intervention for female high school students.
35
Chapter 4
FINDINGS AND INTERPRETATION
The project, Skills Training in Aggression Regulation (STAR): A Group
Counseling Curriculum Designed to Address Female Aggression among High School
Students, resulted in the creation of one group counseling curriculum intended to be used
school psychologist and other qualified education professionals working in high schools
in order to be used as an intervention for female students who have been identified as
being aggressive at school. This included an overview of the current research, a review of
available prevention and intervention curriculums, and a ten session group curriculum
which includes two alternative sessions.
Curriculum Objectives
The primary purpose of this curriculum is to help reduce aggressive behaviors
among aggressive female high school students by teaching these students awareness of
what it means to be aggressive, giving students a better understanding of their own
emotions and how to take control of their emotions, giving students coping skills, and
improving self-esteem. The secondary purpose is to increase school psychologists’,
school site administrators’, and teachers’ awareness and understanding of why these
behaviors occur. In the ten week curriculum, students will be provided information
through interactive discussions, thought provoking activities, handouts, brainstorming,
and a resource guide while participating in a small group experience.
36
The group curriculum is contained in Appendix A. All documents that pertain to
the curriculum such as the teacher referrals, parent permission form, pre and post surveys,
and all handouts needed for each session are included within the curriculum (Appendix).
Interpretation
Aggression in the schools can cause students to feel that their schools are unsafe.
It has been found that students who report a high exposer to relational aggression are
more likely to believe that their schools are unsafe and are more likely to carry a weapon
to school (Young et al., 2010). Female violence is becoming more prevalent and appears
to be a complex issue, according to the CDC Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance report
from 2011, 24% of female students reported that they had been involved in one or more
physical fights in the previous 12 months, female students were also more likely than
male students to be victims of bullies and electronic bullying (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2012a). Females students are affected by aggression in the
schools and yet only one intervention program was found that females specifically.
There are a variety of bullying prevention programs as well as some violence
prevention programs available. While universal prevention is best practice (Young et
a.,2010), not all students will be exposed to these practices. Few interventions were found
for adolescents, one curriculum, The Art of Self-Control, focuses on teaching relaxation
techniques, self-monitoring, problem solving skills, and coping techniques.
Implementation of this program led to a decrease in aggressive and disruptive behaviors
as well as an increase in social skills, self-control and problem solving abilities (Lochman
37
et al., 2010). Another study examined the effectiveness of an anger management program
put in place at an alternative school for students who were expelled from their previous
for carrying a weapon at school. This study found that there was a decrease in student’s
willingness to fight and an improvement in their ability to control their anger (Williams,
2002). One study was found that examined a group curriculum used to address the needs
of aggressive girls. This curriculum focused on educating students on the types of
aggression, discussing how violence impacts their lives, teaching nonviolence coping
strategies, and improving participants’ self- image. It was found that direct aggression
significantly decreased as a result of participating in this program (Hoffman, Cummings,
& Leschied, 2004).
As a result of conducting this research it was found that females do engage in
aggressive behaviors at school and few programs exist to address female aggression.
Furthermore there appears to be many early preventative social emotional learning
curriculums available but few focus on aggression specifically at the secondary level.
Even fewer curriculums exist for aggressive females. It seems that there is a
misunderstanding surrounding gender roles and aggression and many believe that female
aggression is either not as extreme or not as prevalent as male aggression. From the
research it can be seen that there is a need to address female aggression. This curriculum
was created as a result of examining different components of successful curriculums. As
such the components of the STAR curriculum include aggression education, emotional
38
regulation, teaching coping skills, problem solving skills, empathy, and goal setting, and
increasing the self-esteem of group members.
Recommendations
The following recommendations are offered as a result of the findings within this
project. It is recommended that administrators, school psychologists, and educators use
this curriculum as a means to reduce female aggressive behaviors in the school setting.
Through this curriculum, it is hoped that schools will be able to better support their
aggressive students and create a more safe school environment. In addition, the creators
hope to further research the efficacy of this curriculum when implemented with fidelity
across school districts. Data could be collected using the pre and post survey included in
the curriculum. It may also be interesting to collect data on pre and post intervention
aggressive behaviors as observed by parents, teachers, and self-report. Further study is
recommended to pinpoint the most effective educational interventions to support
aggressive students, especially aggressive females. Lastly, because universal prevention
is best practice, it is recommended that schools implement a social emotional curriculum
at the primary level to prevent later aggression in adolescents.
39
APPENDIX A
Group Curriculum
Skill Training in Aggression Regulation (STAR)
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
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62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
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