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A Pathway to Depression: The Effects of Self-Inefficacy and Peer Victimization on Scottish
Children
II. Project Definition: The main focus of this study is to examine the roots of depression in
school-aged children residing in Scotland. According to Scottish Public Health records from
2004, 8.3% of children living in Scotland have been clinically diagnosed with emotional and/or
behavioral mental health problems, and of these children, 2.5% have been clinically diagnosed
with depression. Since 2004, the numbers have continued to rise. Childhood depression is
defined as a child that shows an unhappy mood and self-depreciation and two or more of the
following symptoms: “aggressive behavior, sleep disturbance, lessened desire to socialize with
people, change in attitude toward school, change in school performance, physical complaints,
loss of usual energy, and unusual change in appetite or weight or both” (McKnew, Cytryn and
Yahraes, 1983, p. 43). Due to the startling number of children in Scotland with depression, the
main goal of this study is to examine the issues associated with the development of depression in
primary school children (ages 7 to 11) and to observe the contributing factors within the schools,
especially self-inefficacy, peer victimization, and bullying. Primarily, this project will attempt to
answer the question: “What are some of the reasons that children in Scotland develop
depression?”
Childhood depression was not formally recognized as a true mental health disorder until
the early 1970s. Even then, the same criteria used to diagnose adults were also used to diagnosis
children. Several articles have recently discussed a possible transition in diagnostic tools to
include specific items for children. The underlying feelings of depression are sometimes much
harder to decipher in children - symptoms are not as easily recognized. Smith and Handler
(2007) suggest that “children may be characterized by restlessness and irritability rather than the
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sad mood and apathy frequently seen in adults.” The newest version of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) now includes this angle of depression symptoms
specifically for the diagnosis of children. Children are also shown to display temper outbursts,
physical aggression and distractibility; however, each case is different and each behavioral
component is important for the analysis of childhood depression. As children enter adolescence
and young adulthood, the behaviors often change so that they have more depressed moods, sleep
disturbances, difficulty in thinking/concentrating and weight and appetite disturbances. Still,
many children are often times left untreated, which can lead to the development of other
variations of disorders.
Bullying and Peer Victimization
Because childhood depression is a detrimental disorder and more difficult to diagnose,
much research has been conducted to examine some of its roots in the hope of preventing this
problem before it begins. Researchers have tried to identify why children are experiencing such
depressive symptoms. Specifically, the effects of victimization and bullying on children have
been researched. Bullying can lead to feelings of loneliness, low self-esteem, and sadness in
children. For example, a primary school-based survey conducted in Glasgow, Scotland asked
children to recall social problems they were experiencing at school. This study asked the children
to report the number of times they were teased, called names, or bullied while in school and also
included a depression scale. Sweeting, Young, West and Der (2006) found that “bivariate
analyses showed positive associations between victimization and depression scores” (p. 589),
indicating that victimization by peers is associated with the development of depression. Another
study done by Sweeting, Young, West and Der (2006) focused on observing children on the
playground. The children were measured on the different types of activities they engaged in; it
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was found that students who typically played by themselves were more likely to be victims of
bullying and physical and verbal aggression. After these observations, students completed a selfreport on depression. Results displayed similar patterns – students who exhibited sadness and
withdrawal were targets of aggression and bullying. The depression scale showed that these
victims exhibited a sense of sadness, withdrawal and worry (p. 591).
Another common theory posited by researchers is that peer relationships, or lack thereof,
greatly contribute to a child’s socio-emotional development. Bolvin, Hymel and Bukowski
(1995) reason that “aggressive children are at greater risk for externalizing difficulties such as
delinquency, and withdrawn children are at a greater risk for internalizing difficulties such as
loneliness and depressed mood.” Perhaps it is the case that by the time Scottish children are in
primary school, socially withdrawn children experience even more rejection and may have even
more problems with self-perception, distress and self-esteem, which can potentially lead to
depression in these children. Some studies have indicated that such negative peer relationships
can contribute to the development of depression in children (Bolvin, Hymel & Bukowski). In this
study, 774 children were interviewed over a two-year span for an assessment of sociometric
status within the classroom. The children were also given a series of questionnaires examining
social behavior, victimization, loneliness and depressed mood. Social self-perceptions of
loneliness and peer rejection were highly correlated with a depressed mood. “Withdrawnrejected children have a lower self-concept, express more loneliness and social dissatisfaction,
and report stronger depressed mood than do average-status children” (p. 783). Therefore, a
child’s peer relationships and peer experiences are shown to have great contributions to
depressed moods.
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Self-Inefficacy
This prior research helped shape the foundation for my intended project. However, in
addition to examining the links between bullying/peer victimization and depression, I will also
be examining helplessness and the lack of self-efficacy as other correlates with childhood
depression. Self-efficacy is defined as “one’s beliefs in one’s capabilities to produce given
attainments. Unless people believe they can produce desired effects by their actions, they have
little incentive to act or to persevere in the face of difficulties” (Bandura, Pastorelli, Barbaranelli
& Caprara, 1999, p. 258). Research has shown that lack of self-efficacy, along with peer
victimization, is related to the development of childhood depression within the school setting.
According to Jeffery Miller (1998), “when a depressive episode emerges, a disturbance of school
functioning likely follows” (p. 171). Disturbances in both academic and social areas are prone to
develop as a result of peer victimization, leading the child to feel worthless and incompetent.
When children are already socially isolated or feel academically inefficient, it is very hard for
these children to overcome obstacles following discouragement. “A lack of friends not only
makes depression worse, it is most likely caused by depression” – a vicious circle that is hard for
children to rise above (175).
When children feel inefficacy to fulfill standards (academic, athletic, etc…), it gives rise
to self-devaluation and eventually depression in some children. It might also be the case that
children who are depressed lack self-efficacy. Most young children are generally positive about
themselves – until they are presented with failure. Research found strong correlations between a
young child’s helplessness/inefficacy and later symptoms associated with depression, as well as
a negative sense of worth. These results were shown in an article by Kistner, Ziegert, Castro and
Robertson (2001) that found “support in the view that the early emergence of helplessness may
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be particularly pernicious, with negative implications for children’s psychological adjustment.
These symptoms are associated with depression and negative self-worth five years later.”
Another study by Bandura, Pastorelli, Barbaranelli and Caprara (1999) conducted
research about self-efficacy as a pathway to childhood depression. Bandura et al (1999) studied
over 250 Italian children in middle school and found that children were more depressed and
negative about academic inefficacy rather than their actual academic performance. In the long
run, these children were impacted by academic inefficacy in academic achievement. With this
they could experience problem behaviors and the development of depression – this “sense of
inefficacy to fulfill the valued standards gave rise to self-devaluation and depression” (259). The
participants were given measures of perceived self-efficacy asking items about motivation, group
activities, peer pressure, others’ expectations and beliefs in ability to voice an opinion. Children
were then rated on prosocial behaviors and problem behaviors with parents, teachers and peers.
Lastly, children were given a 27-item Children’s Depression Inventory (Kovacs, 1985) to
measure “features that characterize depression, such as despondency, hopelessness, loss of
appetite and interest in pleasurable activities, self-deprecation, and suicidal ideation” (p. 261).
Interestingly, academic inefficacy, social inefficacy, lack of prosocial behavior, low academic
achievement and problem behavior all significantly predicted pathways to depression. Thus, “the
converging evidence from these diverse lines of research suggests that a persistent sense of
personal inefficacy operates as a common contributor to both clinical and less severe forms of
depression” (p. 267).
The research conducted by Bandura et al (1999) is the foundation for my project. The
intended research will replicate many of their methods in measuring self-efficacy and depression;
however this study will research children in Scotland. To date, there has been very little research
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done with Scottish children correlating childhood depression and self-inefficacy. In addition,
little research has looked at the relationship between peer victimization and these variables.
Perhaps bullying, self-inefficacy, and childhood depression are all interacting contributors to the
development of depression in children. It is my hypothesis that self-inefficacy, along with peer
victimization and bullying, are significantly related to the development of childhood depression
in Scottish children. Examining these relationships will be the main focus of my research.
III. Methods
Participants
Participants for this project will be recruited from primary schools in Glasgow, Scotland.
Primary schools consist of grades 4 through 6 in Scotland and the children will range from ages
seven to eleven. I hope to survey at least 50 students while in Glasgow. I will be studying at the
University of Glasgow for the term, so it is most convenient for me to research Scottish children
only within the city of Glasgow. Although this limits the scope of my research, focusing on
Glasgow will allow me to complete my data collection in a timely manner.
Materials
Depression. I will be using the Children’s Depression Inventory by Maria Kovacs to
evaluate childhood depression. This is a 27-item self-assessment scale. Children are presented
with three choices to rate their behaviors and feelings. A score of 19 and above is used to
designate a clinical level of depression. The items are intended to measure features that
characterize childhood depression, including loss of appetite, hopelessness, loss of interest in
pleasurable activities and self-deprecation.
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Self-Efficacy. I will be using several of the evaluations used by Bandura et al (1999) to
evaluate self-efficacy. While Bandura et al (1999) examined 7 levels of self-efficacy, I will only
be using items from a few of the sections most relevant to my research. Students will be asked to
rate, using a 5-point response format, their belief of capability in the designated subject of a
question. To measure perceived self-efficacy I will utilize questions dealing with children’s
beliefs in their capabilities to form/maintain social relationships and deal with interpersonal
conflicts. For example, students could be asked: “How well can you express your opinions when
other classmates disagree with you?”
Also, I will be using questions to measure how children plan and organize academic
subjects, perceived academic successes/failures, and motivations to pursue academic activities
and other interests. Sample items include, “How well can you get teachers (or parents) to help
you when you are stuck on homework?” and “How discouraged do you feel when you get stuck
on your homework?” Lastly, I will be examining their beliefs in their own capabilities to fulfill
what their teachers and parents expect of them. For example, an item would read: “How well do
you feel that you can live up to what your parents expect of you?”
Peer Victimization and Bullying. Children will be given another questionnaire which I
will be creating for the purpose of this study. This survey will assess peer victimization and
children will be asked if they get teased, called names and bullied. They will be given response
options ranging from never to every day. In addition, the Child Behavior Checklist, by
Achenbach and Edelbrock (1994), will be administered to measure other problem behaviors.
These items include: anxiety and withdrawal, social conflicts and aggression. This checklist also
measures withdrawn, aggressive, and delinquent behaviors in children – indicators of both the
bullied and the ones who bully. Children will be asked to rate these items from 0 (not true) to 2
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(very true) according to their own behaviors. The sample included is for parents, but I will be
using a self-report measure in my study. I will either order this, or create my own version based
off the sample.
Procedure
Before conducting research, the first task for my research study will be to travel to the
Depression Alliance of Scotland’s headquarters in Edinburgh, Scotland. They have agreed to
help assist me in my research once I am in Scotland. I hope that they will be able to read through
the questionnaires and translate/re-word anything that needs to be changed for Scottish children’s
comprehension. The Depression Alliance of Scotland is a non-profit organization that attempts to
improve depression statistics within their country. Established in 1997 due to the growing
numbers of people with depression, they are able to provide me with much information and
support for my research. Their insight will help me test my hypotheses within the country more
accurately. The Policy and Support Officer for the Depression Alliance of Scotland is my contact
at this organization and is willing to stay in touch and provide me with additional information I
may need for my research (see attached emails). I plan to meet with her before I even start my
research within the schools in Glasgow.
After every self-test and questionnaire has been read over and revised (if needed) by the
Depression Alliance, I will proceed into the school systems to administer the tests. I decided to
use self-assessments because research has shown that these are one of the best ways of
uncovering childhood depression. According to Reynolds and Johnston (1994), “given the
internalized nature of most depressive symptomatology and the nature of the depressive
experience, self-report measures appear to be a viable approach with young people. For the most
part, data suggest that children and adolescents are reliable reporters of their depressive
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symptoms.” Because the symptoms are so hard to observe, self-report measures are a very
effective way of determining depression, especially since I am unfamiliar with the children and
the school systems.
Since I will only have a few months in Scotland while going to school, I will be
conducting my research in just a few schools in Glasgow. The Glasgow schools that I am in
contact with are very large with many classrooms for each grade. Within these schools, I will be
distributing several questionnaires (listed above) to the children in Glasgow primary schools.
Children’s parents will be asked to complete a consent form before their children are able to
complete the surveys.
In order to gain this cooperation from the schools, I have been contacting schools in
Glasgow in order to gain their permission to conduct my research. The study abroad advisor here
at North Central has agreed to help me get in contact with a representative at the University of
Glasgow. This representative will then be able to help me with contacting the school and with
hopefully gaining their cooperation and support. Once I have established relationships with the
schools, I will be able to provide the schools with more detail of my research and also get the
consent forms to the teachers to have the children’s parents sign before I get there. Through these
tests I hope to gain a greater insight to the mental health within Scotland, specifically childhood
depression.
Lastly, I will spend some time observing the children within the classroom and on the
playground. I will not be formally measuring anything – only observing the children in their
natural environment. This supplement to my research will help me to make more connections
with the children and their social relationships. Things I will be observing on the playground
include:
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1. The amount of aggression shown between boys and girls on the playground
2. The play groups and play arrangements (are they playing alone or together?)
3. The social interactions between social groups
4. The amount of teasing and taunting that I can hear
5. The reactions/emotions of those who are victims of bullying
6. How teachers and faculty intervene in bullying/victimization situations
In the classroom I will be looking for:
1. Reactions to academic grades and feedback
2. Positive versus negative reinforcement
3. Reward systems and activities performed to improve self-esteem
4. Teacher/student interactions
5. Bullying/victimization that occurs within the classroom
6. The reactions of children who are victimized or who don’t succeed in academic areas
7. How those reactions are dealt with by teachers and other peer influences
I will only be making these observations to gain a connection with my research and what I
observe within the schools. I feel that these observations will only supplement my research and
will not serve as a primary source of data collection.
Timeline: The study abroad program at the University of Glasgow is set to take place in the fall
of 2010. I will be in Scotland for a little over three months, but I will be dedicating about three
weeks in October to perform my data collection. In late September I will make an appointment
with the Depression Alliance of Scotland and travel to Edinburgh for two days. This will begin
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my research with an orientation of sorts. After I have met with my colleagues at the Depression
Alliance, I will return to Glasgow to begin my research within the schools.
My plan is that by the time I get to Glasgow, I will have established relationships with the
schools in Glasgow; consent forms will already have been distributed and returned. This will
help my research to move according to schedule. I plan to stay two to three days at each school
to have enough time to run all of these tests, and also have sufficient time for observations and
interviews. Unfortunately, I am not yet sure what my schedule will be at the University of
Glasgow, but I’m assuming that I will have days off during the week to conduct my research.
Therefore, depending on my schedule, roughly 21 days of data collection could span the whole
month of October.
Once my initial data collection is complete, I will begin to interpret and analyze the
findings of my research. If needed, I will return to the schools for any possible questions or
concerns that need follow-up. Most of my statistical analyses will be conducted using SPSS. In
the end I will be using correlational analysis to show related variables, but I will also be using
observational data to supplement these explanations.
IV. Results: The results of this study will be presented at the Rall Symposium for undergraduate
research. At the symposium, I will present background information on the issue of childhood
depression and the extent of my research in Scotland. There are several other conferences that I
would like to submit my final study to, including the Mid-America Undergraduate Psychology
Research Conference, Upper Midwest Honors Council Conference, and the Honors Council of
Illinois Region Research conference. I am going to strive to submit and present my research to
most of these organizations. I also plan to expand this research for my senior honors thesis.
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V. Relevant Experience: I have had several experiences that will aid me in completing this
research study through my education here at North Central College, as well as with various
organizations and clubs I have worked with over the years. During my high school years, I was
in a group called Peer Helpers; we went to various elementary schools and worked with the
children. We dealt with social and academic issues, including academic struggles and failures,
bullying, and peer pressure. We were immersed in the school setting where children spent most
of their time. Because of this experience, I have quite a bit of knowledge about what child social
interactions look like and how different personalities in children can alter situations. When I go
to the schools in Scotland I will have that prior knowledge of school settings. This organization
through my high school really introduced me to many potential situations that could occur within
schools.
At North Central I have taken many academic classes that will greatly help me in my
research. I have taken several psychology classes that have given me very valuable information
and insight. In the Fall of 2009, I took child development and learned about childhood
depression in more detail. I also learned a great deal about the fundamentals and essentials of
childhood that can be applied to my research. I also completed a research design and
experimentation class which has guided me through much of the development of this project. In
addition, I am currently taking Qualitative research design which will really help me with the
qualitative observations that I plan to conduct in order to supplement my research.
Currently, I am working with Professor Schacht and three other students on a research
project. We are examining the effects of parenting styles on children, including promiscuity,
dating styles, relationships and depression. Working on this project has helped me learn more
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about the design of experiments, data collection, analyses and understanding research in more
depth.
VI. Personal Application: The idea of this study resulted from my large interest in the
development of children. I also have an extremely personal connection to the purpose behind my
research. My sister was bullied throughout all of grade school and as a result suffered from what
my family always thought was depression. I was always curious to see how these social issues
that my sister faced in elementary school actually affected her mentally. However, the idea for
my current research came to me when I stumbled across an article on BBC News about the
growing numbers of depressed children in Scotland. My interest was further sparked when I
discovered that they believed social issues and bullying were contributing factors.
In addition, I have other personal connections to this research. I am planning to go on to
graduate school after I graduate from North Central College to study Developmental Psychology.
The research I am planning to conduct would be very beneficial for my subject of interest.
Working with children, especially in school settings is my main area of focus. This research
study would be very valuable and beneficial for my professional future and it would lay a
foundation for all my future research that I plan to conduct. I am a huge fan of research, and
enjoy coming up with ideas and theories for future research studies. I hope that this project will
help start me off in an exciting career!
VII. Annotated Bibliography
Bandura, A., Pastorelli, C., Barbaranelli, C. & Caprara, G.V. (1999). Self-Efficacy Pathways to
Childhood Depression. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 258-269.
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The authors examine how concerns of self-efficacy can lead to childhood depression.
Research found that social and academic inefficacy influenced feelings of depression.
More specifically, it was found that children were depressed mostly about lack of
academic achievement. The topic of this article highlights one of the aspects I am
examining in my research – how different components of school behaviors could lead to
depression, including self-inefficacy.
Bolvin, M., Hymel, S. & Bukowski, W. (1995). The Roles of Social Withdrawal, Peer Rejection,
and Victimization by Peers in Predicting Loneliness and Depressed Mood in Childhood.
Development and Psychopathology, 7, 765-785.
This article focuses on social issues that contribute to and/or predict depressed moods in
children. Social withdrawal and negative peer experiences are two of the most prominent
factors that can lead to depression. The study found that these social conditions did lead
to feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction – and in some cases these then led to
depression. The research found that socioemotional adjustments play a central role in
peer experiences and in one’s mental health. I found the contents of this article very
useful; this topic is something that I am examining in my own research. The results will
be able to provide a framework for some of my theories.
Children of Scotland. (2009). Current Research. Retrieved from
http://www.childreninscotland.org.uk/html/hom_rech.htm
There are a quite a few research projects displayed on this website discussing the growing
problem of depression in adults and children in Scotland. I am using much of the research
presented as a current source of information and statistics for my own research.
Depression Alliance of Scotland. (2009). Depression Alliance: Depression Affects Us All.
Retrieved from http://www.dascot.org/index.html
This organization is solely dedicated to the outstanding problem of depression and mental
health in the Scottish population. They have many articles about recent history and
statistics of children with depression. I found this website most useful when looking at
current issues in Scotland.
Kistner, J.A., Ziegert, D.I., Castro, R. & Roberson, B. (2001). Helplessness in Early Childhood:
Prediction of Symptoms Associated With Depression and Negative Self-Worth. Merrill-
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Palmer Quarterly, 47, 336-354.
This article examines how helplessness in children can influence feelings of negative
thoughts and depressed feelings. There is a risk that helplessness could lead to depression
later on in life, as well as an overall negative self-worth. This article was useful to me as
it also looked at helplessness in the school setting. I can use the research as background
for my research.
Mash, E.J. & Barkley, R.A. (Eds.). (1996). Child Psychopathology. New York: Guilford Press.
The main section of this book that I will be utilizing is the section on Childhood
Depression. The section displays the DSM diagnostic criteria for the disorder and how to
approach the issue clinically. The section also includes differences in depression,
including gender, race and social classes. I will find this portion of the book very helpful
in the diagnostic procedure. Once I am to interpret my own results, I will have a greater
understanding of diagnosis.
McKnew, D. H., Cytryn, L. & Yahraes, H. (1983). Why Isn’t Johnny Crying? Coping with
Depression in Children. New York: WW Norton.
This book describes the definition of childhood depression, along with causes, risks and
guidelines. There are many stories within this book to highlight examples of the
symptoms and causes. I will use this book to define my project and have guidelines to
each aspect of depression. The authors give me a good starting place as to how to
understand depression on a more personal level.
Miller, Jeffrey A. (1998). The Childhood Depression Sourcebook. Los Angeles: Lowell House.
In this book, the author goes into great detail about problems that develop within the
schools that can lead to depression. His in-depth analysis of multiple theories provides
insight into what really goes on in schools with mentally ill students (including peer
victimization). I will use the ideas that the author presents to guide my own analysis
within schools.
Peterson, A.C., Compas, B.E., Brooks-Gunn, J., Stemmler, M., Ey, S. & Grant, K.E. (1993).
Depression in Adolescents. American Psychologist, 48, 155-168.
This article primarily focused on depression in adolescents; however, a small portion was
dedicated to school factors in early childhood that can influence the development of
depression in adolescence. Poor academic performance is often a strong indicator of the
development of depression in children. I will be examining this issue as well in my
research so I will take into account their research on this topic.
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Reynolds, W.M. & Johnston, H.F. (Eds.). (1994). Handbook of Depression in Children and
Adolescents. New York: Plenum Press.
The contents of this book include a wide fraction about the disorder depression: general
issues, theories and models of depression, approaches to diagnosis and treatment, and
various research studies to highlight all of these topics. This book is essential in my
research as it defines the essential components of depression.
Scottish Public Health Observatory. (2009). Mental Health: Children and Mental Health
Problems. Retrieved from http://www.scotpho.org.uk/home/home.asp
This website provides me with current statistics and surveys conducted in Scotland.
Specifically I examined the mental health statistics and depression numbers in children. I
find this website to be very helpful as it provides evidence for my claims of the alarming
numbers of depression in children.
Smith, S.R. & Handler, L. (Eds.). (2007). The Clinical Assessment of Children and Adolescents:
A Practitioner’s Handbook. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
The contents of this book are varied: from personality, family, school and play
assessments to understanding different tests used to diagnose depression. This book is a
compilation of many research articles. The variety of the information in this book is what
will be very helpful to me. The varying discussions and views will show me many
different ways to interpret and understand depression in children.
Snyder, J., Brooker, M., Patrick, M.R., Snyder, A., Schrepferman, L. & Stoolmiller, M. (2003).
Observed Peer Victimization during Early Elementary School: Continuity, Growth, and
Relation to Risk for Child Antisocial and Depressive Behavior. Child Development, 74,
1881-1898.
This article discusses how there are many factors shown that can contribute to depression
in children: negative consequences of victimization, social withdrawal, loneliness, peer
social problems, conduct problems, and poor school adjustment. The greatest contributor
to depression was found in this study to be peer victimization. I can use the research
findings in this study to help lay a foundation for my research and provide me with
research to back my claims.
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Stencel, S. (1999). Childhood Depression. CQ Researcher, 9, 593-616. 3
This article primarily focuses on the increasing number of prescriptions for children with
depression. The article looks at the growing numbers and tries to understand the
underlying reasons for the increase. There are many sections of this article also
discussing the causes for some children, and addresses if schools need more mental
health programs. I found this article useful in that addressed the drug increase in children.
This was very informative of this aspect of depression.
Sweeting, H., Young, R., West, P. & Der, G. (2006). Peer Victimization and Depression in
Early- Mid adolescence: A longitudinal study. British Journal of Educational
Psychology, 76, 577-594.
The contents of this article include the idea that peer victimization and distress are some
leading causes to problems later on in life, especially depression. The research set out to
discover the correlation between victimization and depression. This article was especially
helpful as it took place in Scottish schools. I will use the basics of this research to help
my own research.
Appendix Table of Content
A:
Email correspondence with Depression Alliance of Scotland
B:
Sample questionnaires (other samples available upon request)
C:
Consent form