Appendix 1. List of zoonotic pathogens of wildlife origin, which emerged in human populations between the years 1940-2004 as
defined by Jones et al. 2008; Host type – host in which pathogen was detected at the time of emergence (0 = detection in humans only;
1 = detection in non-human hosts prior to or concurrent with emergence in humans); Detectability – morbidity or mortality detection
in infected non-human hosts (N/U = infection is asymptomatic or there is insufficient information to support pathogenicity in nonhuman host; Y = infection causes morbidity and/or mortality in non-human hosts); Species – species of non-human hosts in which
pathogens have been reported to produce signs of morbidity/mortality.
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Andes virus
0
Detectability Species
Laboratory animals (syrian hamsters,
Reference
1
(Mesocricetus auratus)
Y
Angiostrongylus cantonensis
0
Anisakis simplex
0
N/U
None found
Marine mammals (harbour porpoises,
Y
Phocoena phocoena; minks
2, 3
Australian bat lyssavirus
0
Y
Flying foxes (Pteropus alecto), bats, pigs
4, 5, 6
Babesia microti
0
Y
Domestic animals
7
2
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
Babesia microti-like
0
Y
8
Babesia microti-like WA1-type
0
N/U
Bacillus anthracis
1
Domestic animals (dogs)
9
Domestic animals (sheep), wild ungulates,
Y
hippopotamus
Non-human primates (captive)
10, 11, 12
Balamuthia mandrillaris
0
Y
Barmah forest virus
0
N/U
14
Bartonella elizabethae
0
N/U
15
Borellia burgdorferi
0
Y
Domestic animals (dogs, cats)
16
Brucella melitensis
0
Y
Domestic animals (goats), wild ungulates
17, 18
Burkholderia pseudomallei
0
Y
Non-human primates
19
Californian encephalitis
0
Y
Snowshoe hare, laboratory animals
20, 21
Campylobacter fetus
0
Y
Domestic animals (livestock)
22
Campylobacter jejuni
0
Y
Domestic animals (dogs, cats)
23, 24
Campylobacter jejuni
0
fluoroquinolone-res
13
25, 26
N/U
3
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
Chikungunya
0
N/U
27
Clostridium botulinum
0
Y
Fish
28
Coccidioides immitis
0
Y
Marine mammals, wild felines & ungulates
29, 30, 31
Coxiella burnetii
0
Y
Domestic animals
32
Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic fever
0
N/U
Cryptococcus neoformans
0
33, 34
Captive wild birds; koalas (Phascolarctos
Y
35, 36
cinereus)
Dengue
0
N/U
None found
Ebola (Sudan)
0
Y
37, 38
Echinococcus granulosus
0
N/U
39, 40
Ehrlichia chaffeensis
0
Y
Domestic animals (dogs, cats)
41
Ehrlichia equi
0
Y
Domestic animals (dogs, cats); horses
41, 42
Ehrlichia ewingii
0
Y
Domestic animals (dogs, cats)
41
Ehrlichia phagocytophila
0
Y
Livestock (goats, sheep, cattle)
43
Encephalitozoon cuniculi
0
Y
Lagomorphs (rabbits)
44
4
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
Encephalitozoon hellem
0
Y
Wild birds
45
Escherichia coli non-O157:H7
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy cattle
46
Escherichia coli O103:H2
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy cattle
47
Escherichia coli O104:H2
0
N/U
None found
Escherichia coli O104:H21
0
N/U
None found
Escherichia coli 0111:H-
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy cattle
47
Escherichia coli 0111:H_
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy cattle
47
Escherichia coli O111:H2
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy cattle
47
Escherichia coli O111:H8
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy cattle
47
Escherichia coli O118:H12
0
N/U
*Not isolated in cattle
47
Escherichia coli O118:H16
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy cattle
47
Escherichia coli O118:H2
0
N/U
*Not isolated in cattle
47
Escherichia coli O118:H30
0
N/U
*Not isolated in cattle
47
Escherichia coli O145:H-
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy cattle
47
Escherichia coli O145:H5
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy cattle
48
5
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
Escherichia coli O153:H25
0
N/U
47
Escherichia coli O157:H7
0
N/U
Escherichia coli O163:H19
0
N/U
*Isolated in healthy cattle
51
Escherichia coli O26:H- (nonmotile) 0
N/U
*Diarrhoeic calves
48
Escherichia coli O26:H11
0
Y
*Mostly isolated from sick cattle
47, 48
Escherichia coli O4:H-
0
N/U
*Mostly isolated from healthy sheep
52
Escherichia coli O4:H5
0
N/U
Escherichia coli O45:H2
0
N/U
*Isolated in healthy cattle
51
Escherichia coli O5:H-
0
Y
*Isolated from sick cattle
47
Escherichia coli O55:H7
0
N/U
*Not isolated in cattle
53
Escherichia coli O91:H-
0
N/U
Mostly isolated from healthy sheep
47
European tick-borne encephalitis
0
Y
Non-human primates; domestic animals
54, 55, 56
Far eastern tick-borne encephalitis
0
Y
Domestic animals
54, 55
Francisella tularensis
1
Y
Small rodents
57
Guama
0
N/U
*Isolated in healthy cattle only
49, 50
None found
55
6
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
Guanarito
0
N/U
58
Hantaan
0
N/U
59
Hendra
1
Y
Hepatitis E
0
N/U
Histoplasma capsulatum
0
Y
Some bat species (Tadaria brasiliensis)
62, 63
Human immunodeficiency virus
0
Y
Non-human primates
64
Influenza A virus; H5N1
1
Y
Birds; domestic animals (cats)
65, 66
Jamestown Canyon virus
0
N/U
Japanese encephalitis virus
0
Y
Domestic animals (pigs)
69, 54, 70
Kunjin virus
0
Y
Domestic animals (calves, horses)
71, 72
Kyasanur forest disease virus
1
Y
Wild non-human primates
73, 74
LaCrosse virus
0
N/U
75
Laguna Negra virus
0
N/U
76
Lassa virus
0
Horses
60
61
67, 68
Laboratory animals (rodents and non-human 77, 78
Y
primate)
7
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
Leishmania donovani
0
Y
Laboratory animals (non-human primates)
79
Leishmania infantum
0
Y
Laboratory animals (non-human primates)
79
Leishmania tropica
0
N/U
Leptospira interrogans
0
Y
Leptospira weilii
0
N/U
83
Lysteria monocytogene
0
N/U
84
Machupo virus
0
Y
Rodents
59
Malassezia pachydermatis
0
Y
Domestic animals (dogs)
85
Marburg virus
0
Y
Wild non-human primates
86, 87
Mayaro virus
0
N/U
Menangle virus
1
Y
Domestic animals (pigs)
89, 90
Metorchis conjunctus
0
Y
Wild canines (wolves)
91
Monkeypox virus
0
Y
Wild rodents; domestic animals
92, 93
Murray valley encephalitis virus
0
N/U
Mycobacterium asiaticum
0
Y
80
Domestic animals
81, 82
88
94
Laboratory animals (guinea pigs), non-
95, 96
8
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
human primates
Mycobacterium bovis
0
Y
Domestic animals (cattle); wildlife
Mycobacterium kansasii
0
N/U
Mycobacterium marinum
0
Y
Fish (farm & captive)
99, 100
Mycobacterium simiae
0
Y
Non-human primates
101
Mycobacterium tuberculosis
0
Y
Wild mammals
102
Nipah virus
0
Y
Domestic animals (pigs)
103
Ockelbo virus
0
N/U
Omsk virus
0
98
104
Wild mammals (muskrats); Laboratory
Y
97
105, 106
animals
O'nyong-nyong virus
0
N/U
107
Oropouche virus
0
N/U
108
Orungo virus
0
N/U
109, 110
Penicilium marneffei
0
Y
Picobirnavirus
0
N/U
Laboratory animals (hamsters)
111
112
9
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
Rabies virus
0
Y
Wild and domestic animals
113
Rhodococcus equi
0
Y
Domestic animals (foals)
114
Rickettsia africae
0
N/U
Rickettsia akari
0
Y
Laboratory animals
116, 117
Rickettsia felis
0
Y
Domestic animals (cats)
118
Rickettsia helvetica
0
N/U
119
Rickettsia honei
0
N/U
120, 121
Rickettsia japonica
0
N/U
121
Rickettsia mongolotimonae
0
N/U
121, 122
Rickettsia prowazekii
0
115
Laboratory animals (in natural host flying
Y
123
squirrel, Glaucomys volans)
Rickettsia typhi
0
N/U
55
Rift valley fever virus
0
Y
Domestic animals (sheep, dogs, cats)
55
Rotavirus A
0
Y
Domestic animals
54, 55
Sabia virus Brazilian Hemorrhagic
0
N/U
54, 55
10
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
Salmonella enteritidis
0
N/U
124
Salmonella enteritidis phage type 4
0
Y
Salmonella typhimurium drug-res
1
fever
Domestic animals (chickens)
125
Domestic animals (calves)
126, 127,
Y
Salmonella typhimurium multidrug-
1
res
128
Domestic animals (calves)
126, 127,
Y
128
129
SARS coronavirus
0
N/U
Schistosoma japonicum
0
Y
Schistosoma mansoni
0
N/U
132, 133
Seoul virus
1
N/U
59
Serratia odorifera biogroup 1
0
N/U
134, 135
Sin nombre virus
0
N/U
1
Sindbis virus
0
Y
Laboratory animals (mice)
136
Staphylococcus lugdunensis
0
Y
Laboratory animals (mice)
137
Laboratory animals, domestic animals (pigs) 130, 131
11
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
Reference
Tahyna virus
0
N/U
138, 55
Trichinella spiralis
0
N/U
139
Trypanosoma brucei gambiense
0
N/U
140
Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiensis
0
Y
Trypanosoma cruzi
0
N/U
Venezuelan Equine Encephalitis
1
virus
Domestic (cattle) and wild animals
140
141
Domestic animals (horses)
Y
142, 143,
144
Vibrio damsela
0
Y
Fish, turtles
145, 146
Vibrio vulnificus
0
Y
Wild fish (eels)
147, 148
West Nile virus
0
Y
Wild and domestic birds
149, 150
Whitewater Arroyo virus
1
N/U
Yellow fever virus
0
Y
Yersinia pestis
1
Yersinia pestis multiple drug-res
1
151, 152
Non-human primates
153, 154
Wild mammals (prarie dogs, Cynomys
155
Y
gunnisoni)
Y
Wild rodents (rats, Rattus rattus, Asiatic
156, 157
12
Zoonotic Pathogen
Host type
Detectability Species
shrews, Suncus murinus)
Reference
13
References
1. Wahl-Jensen V, Chapman J, Asher L, Fisher R, Zimmerman M, Larsen T, Hooper JW (2007) Temporal analysis of Andes virus and
Sin Nombre virus infections of Syrian hamsters. J Virol 81: 7449-7462.
2. Smith JW (1989) Ulcers associated with larval Anisakis simplex B (Nematoda: Ascaridoidea) in the forestomach of harbour
porpoises Phocoena phocoena (L.). Can J Zool 67: 2270-2276.
3. Margolis L, Beverley-Burton M (1977) Response of mink (Mustela vision) to larval Anisakis simplex (Nematoda: Ascaridida). Int J
Parasitol 7: 269-273.
4. Field H, McCall B, Barrett J (1999) Australian bat lyssavirus infection in a captive juvenile black flying fox. Emerg Infect Dis 5:
438-440.
5. Skerratt LF, Speare R, Berger L, Winsor H (1998) Lyssaviral infection and lead poisoning in black flying foxes from Queensland. J
Wildl Dis 34:355-361.
6. Philbey AW, Kirkland PD, Ross AD, Davis RJ, Gleeson AB, Love RJ, et al. (1998) An apparently new virus (family
Paramyxoviridae) infectious for pigs, humans, and fruit bats. Emerg Infect Dis 4: 269–271.
7. Taboada J, Merchant SR (1991) Babesiosis of companion animals and man. Vet Clin N Am-Small 21: 103-23.
8. Camacho AT, Guitián FJ, Pallas E, Gestal JJ, Olmeda AS, Goethert HK, Telford SR (2001) Infection of dogs in north-west Spain
with a Babesia microti-like agent. Vet Rec 149:552-555.
9. Kjemtrup AM, Conrad PA (2000) Human babesiosis: an emerging tick-borne disease. Int J Parasitol 30: 1323-37.
14
10. Clegg SB, Turnbull PCB, Foggin CM, Lindeque PM (2007) Massive outbreak of anthrax in wildlife in the Malilangwe Wildlife
Reserve, Zimbabwe. Vet Rec 160: 113-118.
11. Meselson M, Guillemin J, Hugh-Jones M, Langmuir A, Popova I, Shelokov A, Yampolskaya O (1994) The Sverdlovsk anthrax
outbreak of 1979. Science 266: 1202-1208.
12. Mapesa MW, Atimnedi P, Tumwesigye C (2007) Managing the 2004/05 anthrax outbreak in Queen Elizabeth and Lake Mburo
National Parks, Uganda. Afr J Ecol 46: 24-31.
13. Rideout BA, Gardiner CH, Stalis IH, Zuba JR, Hadfield T, Visvesvara GS (1997) Fatal infections with Balamuthia mandrillaris (a
free-living amoeba) in gorillas and other Old World primates. Vet Pathol 34: 15-22.
14. Lindsay M, Johansen C, Broom AK, Smith DW, Mackenzie JS (1995) Emergence of Barmah forest virus in western Australia.
Emerg Infect Dis 1: 22-26.
15. Jacomo V, Kelly PJ, Raoult D (2002) Natural History of Bartonella Infections (an Exception to Koch’s Postulate). Emerg Infect
Dis 9: 8-18.
16. Appel MJG (1990) Lyme disease in dogs and cats. Comp Cont Educ Pract 12: 617-626.
17. Moreno E, Moriyon I (2002) Brucella melitensis: A nasty bug with hidden credentials for virulence P Natl Acad Sci USA 99: 1-3.
18. Ferroglio E, Tolari F, Bollo E, Bassano B (1998) Isolation of Brucella melitensis from Alpine Ibex. J Wildl Dis 34: 400-402.
19. Kaufmann AF, Alexander AD, Allen AM, Moore TD, Cronin RJ, Dillingham LA, Douglas JD (1970) Melioidosis in imported
non-human primates. J Wildl Dis 6: 211-219.
15
20. Hammon WMD, Reeves WC, Sather G (1952) California encephalitis virus, a newly described agent II. Isolations and attempts to
identify and characterize the agent. J Immunol 69: 493-510.
21. Hoff GL, Yuill TM, Iversen JO, Hanson RP (1969) Snowshoe hares and the California encephalitis virus group in Alberta, 19611968. J Wildl Dis 5: 254-259.
22. Luechtefeld NA, Blaser MJ, Reller LB, Wen-Lan L (1980) Isolation of Campylobacter fetus subsp. jejuni from Migratory
waterfowl. J Clin Microbiol 12: 406-408.
23. Altekruse SF, Stern NJ, Fields PI, Swerdlow DL (1999) Campylobacter jejuni--an emerging foodborne pathogen. Emerg Infect
Dis 5: 28-35.
24. Burnens AP, Angeloz-Wick B, Nicolet J (1992) Comparison of Campylobacter carriage rates in diarrheic and healthy pet animals.
J Bet Med 39: 175-180.
25. Glünder G, Neumann U, Braune S (1992) Occurrence of Campylobacter spp. in young gulls, duration of Campylobacter infection
and reinfection by contact. J Vet Med B 39: 119–122.
26. Palmgren H, Broman T, Waldenström J, Lindberg P, Aspan A, Olsen B (2004) Salmonella amager, Campylobacter jejuni, and
urease-positive thermophilic Campylobacter found in free-flying peregrine falcons (Falco peregrinus) in Sweden. J Wildl Dis
40: 583-587.
27. Pialoux G, Gaüzère B-A, Jauréguiberry S, Strobel M (2007) Chikungunya, an epidemic arbovirosis. Lancet Infect Dis 7: 319-327.
16
28. Yule AM, Barker IK, Austin JW, Moccia RD (2006) Toxicity of Clostridium botulinum type E Neurotoxin to great lakes fish:
implications for avian botulism. J Wildl Dis 42: 479-493.
29. Reidarson TH, Griner LA, Pappagianis D, McBain J (1998) Coccidioidomycosis in a bottlenose dolphin. J Wildl Dis 34: 629-631.
30. Adaska JM (1999) Peritoneal coccidioidomycosis in a mountain lion in California. J Wildl Dis 35: 75-77.
31. Jessup DA, Kock N, Berbach M (1989) Coccidioidomycosis in a desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis nelson) from California. J
Zoo Wildl Med 20: 471-473.
32. Van der Hoek W, Meekelenkamp JCE, Dijkstra F, Notermans DW, Bom B, Vellema P, et al. (2011) Proximity to goat farms and
Coxiella burnetii seroprevalence among pregnant women. Emerg Infect Dis 17: 2360-2362
33. Sonenshine DE, Mather TN (1994) Ecological dynamics of tick-borne zoonoses. New York: Oxford University Press. 464 p.
34. Hubálek Z (2004) An annotated checklist of pathogenic microorganisms associated with migratory birds J Wildl Dis 40: 639-659.
35. Griner LA, Walch HA (1978) Cryptococcosis in columbiformes at the San Diego zoo. J Wildl Dis 14: 389-394.
36. Bolliger A, Finkh ES (1962) The prevalence of cryptococcosis in the koala (Phascolarctos cinereus) Aust J Sci 24: 35.
37. Walsh PD, Abernethy KA, Bermejo M, Beyers R, De Wachter P, Akou ME, et al. (2003) Catastrophic ape decline in western
equatorial Africa. Nature 422: 611–614.
38. Leroy EM, Rouquet P, Formenty P, Souquiere S, Kilbourne A, Froment J-M, et al. (2004) Multiple Ebola virus transmission
events and rapid decline of central African wildlife. Science 303: 387-390.
39. Eckert J, Conraths FJ, Tackmann K (2000) Echinococcosis: an emerging or re-emerging zoonosis? Int J Parasitol 30: 1283-94.
17
40. Schweiger A, Ammann RW, Candinas D, Clavien P-A, Eckert J, Gottstein B, et al. (2007) Human alveolar Echinococcosis after
fox population increase, Switzerland. Emerg Infect Dis 13: 878-882.
41. Neer TM, Breitschwerdt EB, Greene RT, Lappin MR (2002) Consensus statement on Ehrlichial disease of small animals from the
infectious disease study group of the ACVIM. J Vet Intern Med 16: 309-315.
42. Barlough JE, Madigan JE, DeRock E, Dumler JS, Bakken JS (1995) Protection against Ehrlichia equi is conferred by prior
infection with the human granulocytotropic Ehrlichia (HGE Agent). J Clin Microbiol 33: 3333-3334.
43. Pusterla N, Huder JB, Leutenegger CM, Braun U, Madigan JE, Lutz H (1999) Quantitative Real-Time PCR for Detection of
Members of the Ehrlichia phagocytophila Genogroup in Host Animals and Ixodes ricinus Ticks. J Clin Microbiol 37: 13291331.
44. Deplazes P, Mathis A, Baumgartner R, Tanner I, Weber R (1996) Immunologic and molecular characteristics of Encephalitozoonlike microsporidia isolated from humans and rabbits indicate that Encephalitozoon cuniculi is a zoonotic parasite. Clin Infect
Dis 22: 557-559.
45. Snowden K, Daft B, Nordhausen RW (2001) Morphological and molecular characterization of Encephalitozoon hellem in
hummingbirds. Avian Pathol 30: 251-255.
46. Naylor SW, Low JC, Besser TE, Mahajan A, Gunn GJ, Pearce MC, McKendrick IJ, et al. (2003) Lymphoid follicle-dense mucosa
at the terminal rectum is the principal site of colonization of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli o157:h7 in the bovine host.
Infect Imm 71: 1505-1512.
18
47. Bettelheim KA (2003) Non-O157 verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli: a problem, paradox, and paradigm. Exp Biol Med.
(Maywood) 228: 333-44.
48. Mainil JG, Daube G (2005) Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli from animals, humans and foods: who’s who? J Appl Microbiol 98:
1332-1344.
49. Linggood MA, Thompson JM (1987) Verotoxin production among porcine strains of Escherichia coh and its association with
oedema disease. J Med Microbiol 25: 359-362.
50. Gannon VPJ, Gyles CL, Friendship RW (1988) Characteristics of Verotoxigenic Escherichia coli from Pigs. Can J Vet Res 52:
331-337.
51. Wells JG, Shipman LD, Greene KD, Sowers EG, Green JH, Cameron DN, et al. (1991) Isolation of Escherichia coli serotype
O157:H7 and other Shiga-like-toxin producing E. coli from dairy cattle. J Clin Microbiol 29: 985.
52. Orden JA, Domínguez-Bernal G, Martínez-Pulgarín S, Blanco M, Blanco JE, Mora A, et al. (2007) Necrotoxigenic Escherichia
coli from sheep and goats produce a new type of cytotoxic necrotizing factor (CNF3) associated with the eae and ehxA genes.
Int Microbiol 10: 47-55.
53. Blanco M, Schumacher S, Tasara T, Zweifel C, Blanco JE, Dahbi G, et al. (2005) Serotypes, intimin variants and other virulence
factors of eae positive Escherichia coli strains isolated from healthy cattle in Switzerland. Identification of a new intimin
variant gene (eae-η2). BMC Microbiol 5: 23.
54. Murphy FA, Gibbs EPJ, Horzinek MC, Studdert MJ (1999) Veterinary virology, 3rd ed. San Diego: Academic Press. pp. 403, 557.
19
55. Acha PN, Szyfres B (2003) Zoonoses and communicable diseases common to man and animals. Pan American Health
Organization, Washington D.C. pp. 10, 67, 278, 291, 298.
56. Süss J, Dobler G, Zöller G, Essbauer S, Pfeffer M, Klaus C, et al. (2008) Genetic characterization of a tick-borne encephalitis virus
isolated from the brain of a naturally exposed monkey (Macaca sylvanus). Int J Med Microbiol 298: 295–300.
57. Dahlstrand S, Ringertz O, Zetterberg B (1971) Airborne tularemia in Sweden. Scand J Infect Dis 3: 7-16.
58. Fulhorst CF, Ksiazek TG, Peters CJ, Tesh RB (1999) Experimental infection of the cane mouse Zygodontomys brevicauda (Family
Muridae) with Guanarito virus (Arenaviridae), the etiologic agent of Venezuelan hemorrhagic fever. J Infect Dis 180: 966-969.
59. Childs JE, Glass GE, LeDuc JW (1989) Effects of hantaviral infection on survival, growth and fertility in wild rat (Rattus
norvegicus) populations of Baltimore, Maryland. J Wildl Dis 25: 469-476.
60. Murray K, Rogers R, Selvey L, Selleck P, Hyatt A, Gould A, et al. (1995) A novel morbillivirus pneumonia of horses and its
transmission to humans. Emerg Infect Dis 1: 31-33.
61. Goens SD, Perdue ML (2004) Hepatitis E viruses in humans and animals. Anim Health Res Rev 5: 145-156.
62. Hoff GL, Bigler WJ (1981) The role of bats in the propagation and spread of histoplasmosis: a review. J Wildl Dis 17: 191-196.
63. Tesh RB, Schneidau JD (1966) Experimental infection of North American insectivorous bats (Tadaria braziliensis) with
Histoplasma capsulatum. Am J Trop Med Hyg 15: 544-550.
64. Fultz PN (1993) Nonhuman primate models for AIDS. Clin Infect Dis 17 (Suppl 1): S230-S235.
20
65. Kuiken T, Rimmelzwaan G, van Riel D, van Amerongen V, Baars M, Fouchier R, Osterhaus A (2004) Avian H5N1 influenza in
cats. Science 306: 241.
66. Olsen B, Munster VJ, Wallensten A, Waldenström J, Osterhaus ADME, Fouchier RAM (2006) Global patterns of influenza A
virus in wild birds. Science 312: 384-388.
67. Watts DM, LeDuc JW, Bailey CL, Dalrymple JM, Gargan TP II (1982) Serological evidence of Jamestown Canyon and Keystone
virus infection in vertebrates in the Delmarva Peninsula. Am J Trop Med Hyg 31: 1254–1251.
68. Bennett RS, Nelson JT, Gresko AK, Murphy BR, Whitehead SS (2011) The full genome sequence of three strains of Jamestown
Canyon virus and their pathogenesis in mice or monkeys. Virology J 8: 136 DOI: 10.1186/1743-422X-8-136.
69. Kodama K, Sasaki N, Inoue YK (1968) Studies of live attenuated Japanese encephalitis vaccine in swine. J Immunol 100: 194200.
70. Umenai T, Krzysko R, Bektimirov TA, Assaad FA (1985) Japanese encephalitis: current worldwide status. Bull WHO 63: 625631.
71. Spradbrow PB, Clark L (1966) Experimental infection of calves with a group B arbovirus (Kunjin virus). Aust Vet J 42: 339-342.
72. Hall RA, Scherret JH, Mackenzie JS (2006) Kunjin virus. Ann Ny Acad Sci 951: 153-160.
73. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention factsheet. Available:
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/spb/mnpages/dispages/kyasanur.htm
21
74. Mehla R, Kumar SRP, Yadav P, Barde PV, Yergolkar PN, Erickson BR, et al. (2009) Recent ancestry of Kyasanur forest disease
virus. Emerg Infect Dis 15: 1431-1437.
75. Seymour C, Amundson TE, Yuill TM, Bishop DH (1983) Experimental infection of chipmunks and snowshoe hares with La
Crosse and snowshoe hare viruses and four of their reassortants. Am J Trop Med Hyg 32: 1147-53.
76. Yahnke CJ, Meserve PL, Ksiazek TG, Mills JN (2001) Patterns of infection with Laguna Negra virus in wild populations of
Calomys laucha in the central Paraguayan chaco. Am J Trop Med Hyg 65: 768-776.
77. Walker DH, Wulff H, Lange JV, Murphy FA (1975) Comparative pathology of Lassa virus infection in monkeys, guinea-pigs, and
Mastomys natalensis. Bull WHO 52: 523-534.
78. Jahrling PB, Smith S, Richard AH, Rhoderick JB (1982) Pathogenesis of Lassa virus infection in guinea pigs. Infect Immun 37:
771-778.
79. Binhazim AA, Shin SS, Chapman Jr. WL, Olobo J (1993) Comparative susceptibility of African green monkeys (Cercopithecus
aethiops) to experimental infection with Leishmania leishmania donovani and Leishmania leishmania infantum. Lab Anim Sci
43: 37-47.
80. Magill AJ, Grogl M, Gasser RA Jr, Sun W, Oster CN (1993) Visceral infection caused by Leishmania tropica in veterans of
Operation Desert Storm. N Engl J Med 328: 1383-1387.
81. Kistner TP (1982) Diseases and parasites. In: Thomas JW, Toweill DE, editors. Elk of North America: Ecology and management.
Harrisburg: Stackpole Books. pp. 181-217.
22
82. Shafighi T, Abdollahpour G, Zahraei Salehi T, Tadjbakhsh H (2010) Serological and bacteriological study of leptospirosis in
slaughtered cattle in north of Iran (Rasht). African J Microbiol Res 4: 2118-2121.
83. Roberts MW, Smythe L, Dohnt M, Symonds M, Slack A (2010) Serologic-based investigation of leptospirosis in a population of
free-ranging eastern grey kangaroos (Macropus giganteus) indicating the presence of Leptospira weilii Serovar Topaz. J Wildl
Dis 46: 564-569.
84. Farber JM, Losos JZ (1988) Listeria monocytogenes: a foodborne pathogen. Can Med Assoc J 138: 413–418.
85. Abou-Gabal M, Chastain CB, Hogle RM (1979) Pityrosporum pachydermatis "canis" as a major cause of otitis externa in dogs.
Mykosen 22: 192-199.
86. Feldmann H, Jones S, Klenk HD, Schnittler HJ (2003) Ebola virus: from discovery to vaccine. Nat Rev Immunol 3: 677–685.
87. Geisbert TW Jahrling PB (2004) Exotic emerging viral diseases: progress and challenges. Nat Med 10: S110–S121.
88. de Thoisy B, Gardon J, Salbas RA, Morvan J, Kazanji M (2003) Mayaro virus in wild mammals, French Guiana. Emerg Infect Dis
9: 1326-1329.
89. Chant K, Chan R, Smith M, Dwyer DE, Kirkland P, the NSW Expert Group (1998) Probable human infection with a newly
described virus in the family Paramyxoviridae. Emerg Infect Dis 4: 273-275.
90. Mackenzie JS, Chua KB, Daniels PW, Eaton BT, Field HE, Hall RA, et al. (2001) Emerging viral diseases of Southeast Asia and
the Western Pacific. Emerg Infect Dis 7: 497-504.
23
91. Wobeser G, Runge W, Stewart RR (1983) Metorchis conjunctus (Cobbold, 1860) infection in wolves (Canis lupus), with
pancreatic involvement in two animals. J Wildl Dis 19: 353-356.
92. Khodakevich L, Ježek Z, Messinger D (1988) Monkeypox virus: ecology and public health significance. Bull WHO 66: 747-752.
93. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention information for Monkeypox. Available:
http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/monkeypox/animalbasics.htm
94. Kay BH, Pollitt CC, Fanning ID, Hall RA (1987) The experimental infection of horses with Murray Valley encephalitis and Ross
River viruses. Aust Vet J 64: 52-55.
95. Weiszfeiler JG, Karasseva V (1981) Mixed mycobacterial infections. Clin Infect Dis 3: 1081-1083.
96. Siegal-Willott J, Isaza R, Fiorello C, Reinhard M (2006) Mycobacterium asiaticum infection in a red-handed tamarin (Saguinus
midas). J Zoo Wildlife Med 37: 413-415.
97. Witmer G, Fine AE, Gionfriddo J, Pipas M, Shively K, Piccolo K, Burke P (2010) Epizootiologic survey of mycobacterium bovis
in wildlife and farm environments in northern Michigan. J Wildl Dis 46: 368-378.
98. Waters WR, Palmer MV, Thacker TC, Payeur JB, Harris NB, Minion FC, et al. (2006) Immune responses to defined antigens of
Mycobacterium bovis in cattle experimentally infected with Mycobacterium kansasii. Clin Vaccine Immunol 13: 611-619.
99. Hedrick RP, McDowekk T, Groff J (1987) Mycobacteriosis in cultured striped bass from California. J Wildl.Dis 23: 391-395.
100. Giavenni R, Finazzi M, Poli G, Grimaldi E (1980) Tuberculosis in marine tropical fishes in an aquarium. J Wildl Dis 16: 161168.
24
101. Karasseva V, Weiszfeiler J , Krasznay E (1965) Occurrence of atypical mycobacteria in Macacus rhesus. Acta Microbiol Acad
Sci Hung 12: 275–82.
102. Alexander KA, Pleydell E, Williams MC, Lane EP, Nyange JFC, Michel AL (2002) Mycobacterium tuberculosis: an emerging
disease of free-ranging wildlife. Emerg Infect Dis 8: 598-601.
103. Chua KB, Bellini WJ, Rota PA, Harcourt BH, Tamin A, Lam SK, et al. (2000) Nipah Virus: A recently emergent deadly
paramyxovirus. Science 288: 1432-1435.
104. Lundstrom JO, Turell MJ, Niklasson B (1993) Viremia in three orders of birds (Anseriformes, Galliformes, and Passeriformes)
inoculated with Ockelbo virus. J Wildl Dis 29: 189-95.
105. Solomon T, Mallewa M (2001) Dengue and other emerging flaviviruses. J Infect 42: 104-115.
106. Holbrook MR, Aronson JF, Campbell GA, Jones S, Feldmann H, Barrett ADT (2005) An Animal Model for the Tickborne
Flavivirus—Omsk Hemorrhagic Fever Virus. J Infect Dis 191: 100-108.
107. Vanlandingham DL, Hong C, Klingler K, Tsetsarkin K, Mcelroy KL, Powers AM, et al. (2005) Differential infectivities of
O’nyong-Nyong and Chikungunya virus isolates in anopheles Gambiae and Aedes aegypti mosquitoes. Am J Trop Med Hyg
72: 616-621.
108. Vasconcelos PFC, Travassos Da Rosa APA, Dégallier N, Travassos Da Rosa JFS, Pinheiro FP (1992) Clinical and
ecoepidemiological situation of human arboviruses in Brazilian Amazonia. J Brazil Assoc Adv Sci 44: 117-124.
25
109. Tomori O, Fabiyi A (1976) Neutralizing antibodies to Orungo virus in man and animals in Nigeria. Trop Geogr Med 28: 233238.
110. Ezeifeka GO, Umoh JU, Belino ED, Ezeokoli CD (1984) Complement fixing antibodies to Orungo virus in food animals of
Northern Nigeria. Int J Zoonoses 11: 149-154.
111. Capponi M, Sgretain G, Sureau P (1956) Penicillosis from Rhizomys sinensis. Bull Soc Pathol Exot Filiales 49: 418-21.
112. Masachessi G, Martínez LC, Giordano MO, Barril PA, Isa BM, Ferreyra L, et al. (2007) Picobirnavirus (PBV) natural hosts in
captivity and virus excretion pattern in infected animals. Arch Virol 152: 989-998.
113. Niezgoda M, Hanlon CA, Rupprecht CE (2002) Animal rabies. In: Jackson AC, Wunner WH, editors. Rabies. San Diego:
Academic Press. pp. 163–218.
114. Prescott J (1991) Rhodococcus equi: an animal and human pathogen. Clin Microbiol Rev 4: 20-34.
115. Kelly PJ, Mason PR, Rhode C, Dziva F, Matthewman L (1991) Transient infections of goats with a novel spotted fever group
rickettsia from Zimbabwe. Res Vet Sci 51: 268-271.
116. Huebner RJ, Jellison WI, Pomerantz C (1946) Rickettsialpox, a newly recognized rickettsial disease; isolation of a Rickettsia
apparently identical with the causative agent of rickettsialpox from Allodermanyssus sanguineus, a rodent mite. Public Health
Rep 61: 1677-82.
117. Rose HM (1949) The clinical manifestations and laboratory diagnosis of Rickettsialpox. Ann Intern Med 31: 871-883.
118. Beugnet F, Marié J-L (2009) Emerging arthropod-borne diseases of companion animals in Europe. Vet Parasitol 163: 298-305.
26
119. Inokuma H, Seino N, Suzuki M, Kaji K, Takahash H, Igota H, Inoue S (2008) Detection of Rickettsia helvetica DNA from
peripheral blood of sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) in Japan. J Wildl Dis 44: 164-167.
120. Whitworth T, Popov V, Han V, Bouyer D, Stenos J, Graves S, Ndip L, Walker D (2003) Ultrastructural and genetic evidence of a
reptilian tick, Aponomma hydrosauri, as a host of Rickettsia honei in Australia: possible transovarial transmission. Ann NY
Acad Sci 990: 67-74.
121. Parola P, Paddock CD, Raoult D (2005) Tick-borne rickettsioses around the world: emerging diseases challenging old concepts.
Clin. Microbiol Rev 18: 719-756.
122. Psaroulaki A, Germanakis A, Gikas A, Scoulica E, Tselentis Y (2005) Simultaneous Detection of “Rickettsia mongolotimonae”
in a Patient and in a Tick in Greece. J Clin Microbiol 43: 3558-3559.
123. Bozeman FM, Masiello SA, Williams MS, Elisberg BL (1975) Epidemic typhus rickettsia isolated from flying squirrels. Nature
255: 545-547.
124. Angulo FJ, Swerdlow DL (1999) Epidemiology of human Salmonella serovar enteritidis infections in the United States. In: Gast
RK, Potter ME, Wall PG, editors. Salmonella enteritidis in humans and animals: epidemiology, pathogenesis and control.
Ames: Iowa State University Press. pp. 33-41.
125. Barrow PA (1991) Experimental infection of chickens with Salmonella enteritidis. Avian Pathol 20: 145-153.
126. Anderson ES (1968) Drug resistance in Salmonella typhimurium and its implications. Brit Med J 3: 333-339.
127. Rabsch W, Tschape H, Baumler AJ (2001) Non-typhoidal salmonellosis: emerging problems. Microbes Infect 3: 237-247.
27
128. Mølbak K (2006) The clinical importance of animal-related resistance. In: Antimicrobial resistance in bacteria of animal origin.
Aarestrup FM, editor. Washington: ASM Press. pp. 329-338.
129. Holmes KV (2003) SARS coronavirus: a new challenge for prevention and therapy. J Clin Invest 111: 1605-1609.
130. Von Lichtenberg F, Erickson DG, Sadun EH (1973) Comparative histopathology of schistosome granulomas in the hamster. Am
J Path 72: 149-178.
131. Johansen M, Bøghb HØ, Nansenb P, Christensena NØ (2000) Schistosoma japonicum infection in the pig as a model for human
schistosomiasis japonica. Acta Tropica 76: 85-99.
132. Njenga MN, Farah IO, Muchemi GK, Nyindo M (1998) Peri-portal fibrosis of the liver due to natural or experimental infection
with Schistosoma mansoni occurs in the Kenyan baboon. Ann Trop Med Parasitol 92: 187.
133. Farah I, Börjesson A, Kariuki T, Yole D, Suleman M, Hau J, Carlsson H-E (2003) Morbidity and immune response to natural
schistosomiasis in baboons (Papio anubis). Parasitol Res 91: 344-348.
134. Bangert RL, Ward ACS, Stauber EH, Cho BR, Widders PR (1988) A survey of the aerobic bacteria in the feces of captive
raptors. Avian Dis 32: 53-62.
135. Chmel H (1988) Serratia odorifera Biogroup 1 causing an invasive human infection. J Clin Microbiol 26: 1244-45.
136. Griffin DE (1989) Molecular pathogenesis of Sindbis virus encephalitis in experimental animals. Adv Virus Res 36: 1070-1075.
28
137. Lambe DW Jr, Ferguson KP, Keplinger JL, Gemmell CG, Kalbfleisch JH (1990) Pathogenicity of Staphylococcus lugdunensis,
Staphylococcus schleifen, and three other coagulase-negative staphylococci in a mouse model and possible virulence factors.
Can J Microbiol 36: 455-463.
138. Hubalek Z, Juricova Z, Svobodova S, Halouzka J (1993) A serologic survey for some bacterial and viral zoonoses in game
animals in the Czech Republic. J Wildl Dis 29: 604-607.
139. Pozio E (2007) World distribution of Trichinella spp. infections in animals and humans. Vet Parasitol 149: 3-21.
140. Woo PTK, Soltys MA (1970) Animals as reservoir hosts of human trypanosomes. J Wildl Dis 6: 313-322.
141. Davis DS, Russell LH, Adams LG, Yaeger RG, Robinson RM (1980) An experimental infection of Trypanosoma cruzi in striped
skunks (Mephitis mephitis). J Wildl Dis 16: 403-406.
142. Kisslicng RE (1956) Chamberlain RW, Nelson DB, Stamm DD. Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis in horses. Am J
Epidemiol 63: 274–287.
143. Walton TE, Alvarez O Jr, Buckwalter RM, Johnson KM (1973) Experimental infection of horses with enzootic and epizootic
strains of Venezuelan equine encephalomyelitis virus. Infect Dis 128: 271-282.
144. Oberste MS, Fraire M, Navarro R, Zepeda C, Zarate ML, Ludwig GV, et al. (1998) Association of Venezuelan equine
encephalitis virus subtype IE with two equine epizootics in Mexico. Am J Trop Med Hyg 59: 100-107.
145. Love M, Teebken-Fisher D, Hose JE, Farmer JJ III, Hickman FW, Fanning GR (1981) Vibrio damsela, a marine bacterium,
causes skin ulcers on the damselfish Chromis punctipinnis. Science 214: 1139-1140.
29
146. Obendorf DL, Carson J, McManus TJ (1987) Vibrio damsela infection in a stranded leatherback turtle (Dermochelys coriacea). J
Wildl Dis 23: 666-68.
147. Amaro C, Biosca EG, Fouz B, Alcaide E, Esteve C (1995) Evidence that water transmits Vibrio vulnificus biotype 2 infections to
eels. Appl Environ Microbiol 61: 1133-1137.
148. Amaro C, Biosca EG (1996) Vibrio vulnificus biotype 2, pathogenic for eels, is also an opportunistic pathogen for humans. Appl
Environ Microbiol 62: 1454-1457.
149. Anderson JF, Andreadis TG, Vossbrinck CR, Tirrell S, Wakem EM, French RA, et al. (1999) Isolation of West Nile virus from
mosquitoes, crows, and a Cooper’s hawk in Connecticut. Science 286: 2331-2333.
150. LaDeau SL, Kilpatrick AM, Marra PP (2007) West Nile virus emergence and large-scale declines of North American bird
populations. Nature 447: 710-713.
151. Fulhorst CF, Bowen MD, Ksiazek TG, Rollin PE, Nichol ST, Kosoy MY, Peters CJ (1996) Isolation and characterization of
Whitewater Arroyo virus, a novel North American arenavirus. Virology 224: 114–120.
152. Fulhorst CF, Milazzo ML, Bradley RD, Peppers LL (2001) Experimental infection of Neotoma albigula (Muridae) with
Whitewater Arroyo virus (Arenaviridae). Am J Trop Med Hyg 65: 147-151.
153. Dennis LH, Reisberg BE, Crosbie J, Crozier D, Conrad ME (1969) The original haemorrhagic fever: yellow fever. Brit J
Haematol 17: 455-62.
154. Johnson HN (1970) Keynote address: The ecological approach to the study of zoonotic diseases. J Wildl Dis 6: 194-204.
30
155. Cully JF, Barnes AM, Quan TJ, Maupin G (1997) Dynamics of plague in a Gunnison’s prairie dog colony complex from New
Mexico. J Wildl Dis 33: 706-719.
156. Chanteau S, Ratsifasoamanana L, Rasoamanana B, Rahalison L, Randriambelosoa J, Roux J, Rabeson D (1998) Plague, a
reemerging disease in Madagascar. Emerg Infect Dis 4: 101–104.
157. Boisier P, Rahalison L, Rasolomaharo M, Ratsitorahina M, Mahafaly M, Razafimahefa M, et al. (2002) Epidemiologic features
of four successive annual outbreaks of bubonic plague in Mahajanga, Madagascar. Emerg Infect Dis 8: 311-316.