WZAM Project
Literature Review
Journals Reviewed
All volumes and issues of the following journals were reviewed from 2001-Present unless otherwise
noted.
Zoo Biology
Visitor Studies*
Curator
Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association
Australian Journal of Environmental Education**
Journal of Environmental Education
Environmental Education Research
*Only articles from 2001 to 2006 were reviewed.
**Only articles from 2007 to 2009 were reviewed.
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Summary of Questions
ABUNDANT RESOURCES (15+ articles)
Page
1
How do we move audiences up the learning/engagement pyramid? (36) ……………………………………………... 4
What are best practices, and how are they implemented? (24)1…………………………………………………………….17
Does program animal use impact attitudes and emotions? (16)1……………………………………………………………27
What is the role of interpreters and how do they affect learning? (16)1…………………………………………………34
What are the impacts of specific types of programs, e.g.; touch vs. not? (15)1, 2…………………………………….40
What is the role of zoos and aquariums (ZA) in the community? (15)…………………………………………………… 46
MODERATE RESOURCES (5 to 14 articles)
How do visitors engage during an animal program? (11)1……………………………………………………………………… 52
Are we making a difference in the welfare of elephants and marine mammals? (11)3……………………………57
How are ZA perceived in the community? (10) ………………….………………….………………….…………………………..62
How do we create empathy, and does it result in conservation action? (7)1…………………………………………. 67
LITTLE TO NO RESOURCES (0 to 4 articles)
How can existing research be turned into useful tools for educators? (4) ……………………………………………..70
Does the frequency and duration of contacts impact efficacy? (4) ………………………………………………………..72
What are people getting from social media? (4)1………………………………………………………………………………….. 74
How important are first person stories to best possible conservation outcomes? (4)1………………………….. 76
Does cross-training staff impact visitors’ perception or willingness to act? (4)1……………………………………..78
Are we looking for empathy? (3)1………….……………….………………………………………………………………………………80
Do we standardize messages for all audiences? (3)1………….………………………………………………………………….. 82
How effective is media messaging vs. live animal programs? (2)1………….……………………………………………….84
How do we continually inform ourselves and what do we do with this information? (2) ………….………….. 85
How well are detractor’s messages resonating with audiences? (1) ………………………………………………………86
What are the strongest messages to proactively disseminate to diffuse detractors? (0)
What are visitors learning at touch tanks? How does the experience affect intent to take action? (0)
How do behind-the-scenes tours affect visitors’ perceptions of ZA care? (0)
Does visitor knowledge/attitude change seasonally? (0)
Does the perception of facility wealth affect what the visitors feel? (0)
1. Articles that take place outside of zoos and aquariums are separated.
2. Articles that discuss the impacts of a specific program or programs, but do not compare program impacts are separated.
3. Articles that do not refer to social services, activism, or guest learning are separated.
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How do we move audiences up the learning/engagement pyramid?
Moss, A. and Esson, M. (2010). Visitor interest in zoo animals and the implications for collection planning
and zoo education programmes. Zoo Biology, 29(6): 715-731.
Abstract: As zoos have sought to further their conservation missions, they have become powerful
providers of environmental education. Outside of “formal” education initiatives, such as those designed
for school and other organized groups, or structured public talks programmes, much of the learning
potential that the zoo has to offer is around the viewing of animals and the response of visitors to them.
In this, zoo learning is a very personal construct, develops from the previous knowledge, and
experiences and motivations of each individual. In this article, we make the assertion that learning
potential, although difficult to quantify, is very much related to the attractiveness of animal species and
the interest that visitors show in them. Using standard behaviorist measures of attraction and interest
(the proportion of visitors that stop and for how long), we analyzed the relative interest in 40 zoo
species held in a modern UK zoo and the variables that are significant in predicting that popularity.
Further to this, the suggestion is made that the zoo collection planning process could use such
information to make more informed decisions about which species should be housed for their
educational value. Taxonomic grouping was found to be the most significant predictor of visitor
interest—that is, visitors were far more interested in mammals than any other group—although body
size (length), increasing animal activity and whether the species was the primary or “flagship” species in
an exhibit or not, were all found to have a significant bearing on visitor interest.
Price, E. A., Vining, J., and Saunders, C. D. (2009). Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in a nonformal
environmental education program. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 361-376.
Abstract: Humans are surrounded by threats to the environment, many of their own making. The
severity of environmental problems will not decrease unless action is taken to develop and encourage
greater environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) in the general populace. Environmental education
(EE) is one method for strengthening precursors to ERB such as knowledge and attitudes, but research
on the connection is currently unclear. In this paper we present the results of a study investigating the
role played by rewards in encouraging ERB precursors for adults and children involved in a zoo-based
Nature Swap program. We used semistructured interviews to question 91 participants, including 38
children, 38 adult guardians, and 15 staff members regarding the importance of rewards in the program.
We content analyzed the interviews to identify and describe major themes and then coded them. We
found that adult guardians and Play Partners perceived intrinsic and extrinsic rewards as aiding in
maintaining motivation and interest in the nonformal Nature Swap program. In addition, both children
and adult companion participants in the program mentioned strengthened precursors to ERB. Overall
we found that adult companions perceived that children who participated in the program spent more
quality time outdoors and had a heightened awareness of their surroundings as a result of programbased rewards. Implications for other EE and conservation education programs are discussed.
Penn, L. (2009). Zoo theater's influence on affect and cognition: A case study from the Central Park Zoo
in New York. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 412-428.
Abstract: Zoo theater is used by zoos as a means to influence visitor feelings and knowledge gain about
wildlife and environmental themes. This study examined whether and to what extent zoo theater
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fulfilled these aims by investigating its impact on affect and cognition. The study consisted of an indepth case study at the Central Park Zoo in New York, a location that has one of the most diverse zoo
theater programs in the United States. Using a multimethod approach the study explored many facets of
the Central Park Zoo's extensive zoo theater program. These included performances at a main stage, at
exhibits, and in the children's zoo. The study found that the extent of zoo theater's influence on affect
and cognition is dependent on a combination of a variety of characteristics that include the length of a
performance, audience participation, the level of structure of a performance, the presence of song and
dance elements, and the scale of the productions.
Wagner, K., Chessler, M., York, P., and Raynor, J. (2009). Development and implementation of an
evaluation strategy for measuring conservation outcomes. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 473-487.
Abstract: The Philadelphia Zoo's Measuring Mission project assessed the conservation-related impacts
of a visit to the Zoo and documented the results in a way that would provide a set of easily actionable
planning strategies. A logic model provided a theoretical framework and guided the development of
survey items. Three groups were surveyed using a pre–post retrospective instrument: zoo visitors,
members, and volunteers. This report includes findings from the visitor surveys only. Data were
analyzed using factor analysis, correlations, and t-tests. Results revealed that the Philadelphia Zoo has
been most successful in providing its guests with a satisfying animal viewing experience, facilitated by
accessible informative interpretive staff, but that guests do not always take advantage of opportunities
to interact with staff. Success in achieving the Zoo's conservation mission was measured by comparing
pre and posttest scores on five outcome factors (conservation motivation, conservation knowledge, proconservation consumer skills, conservation attitudes/values, readiness to take conservation action). The
greatest gains were found in conservation knowledge and conservation motivation. Quality of exhibits
and quality of staff stand out as the most important factors in influencing conservation outcomes. To
ensure that results would be accessible to a wide variety of Zoo employees for planning, program and
exhibit development, and staff training, nine strategies were identified as key to achieving success in the
Zoo's mission. Measuring Mission has created a process for assessing the Zoo's mission impact, and has
confirmed that high-quality exhibits interpreted by expert, readily available staff can influence
conservation knowledge and motivation in particular.
Visscher, N. C., Snider, R., and Vander Stoep, G. (2009). Comparative analysis of knowledge gain
between interpretive and fact-only presentations at an animal training session: An exploratory study.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 488-495.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have recognized the importance of integrating living collections with
personally delivered interpretation. One way for zoos to accomplish this is by conducting public animal
training sessions accompanied by personal interpretation. Many institutions offer these types of
interactions, but the term “interpretation” is used loosely and without clear definition. This exploratory
study compared knowledge gain of individual students in three different fifth grade school groups
visiting the Potter Park Zoo in Lansing, Michigan. Each group observed an animal training session, with
two groups receiving two types of presentations and one group serving as a control group. Although
hearing the same facts, the two treatment groups received different program types: an interpretive
presentation and a fact-only presentation. The third group viewed the training session but received no
presentation. Results showed that individuals who received the interpretive presentation retained more
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information immediately after the training session than individuals in either of the other two groups.
This exploratory study suggests that using an interpretive presentation style is more effective in
producing knowledge gain than fact-only presentations in informal learning environments such as zoos
and aquariums.
Kutska, D. (2009). Variation in visitor perceptions of a polar bear enclosure based on the presence of
natural vs. un-natural enrichment items. Zoo Biology, 28(4): 292-306.
Abstract: A debate exists among modern zoo staff as to whether or not the addition of un-naturalistic
enrichment takes away from, or even defeats, the educational messages designers are trying to
incorporate in naturalistic exhibits. A visitor study was conducted at the Central Park Zoo's polar bear
exhibit in order to determine whether or not the type of enrichment in an enclosure actually alters guest
perceptions. Visitors were exposed to one of two enrichment treatments in the bear enclosure:
Naturalistic or Un-naturalistic. The results of this study suggest that enrichment type did not alter the
perceptions of visitors. However, it did identify some of the different ways adults and youths perceive
animals and zoos. Additionally, the study highlighted the varying perceptions individuals have of the
concept of polar bears vs. their perceptions of the captive individuals at the Central Park Zoo.
Implications for enrichment usage and exhibit design are discussed.
*Article above suggests using staff to encourage guest learning about enrichment.
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.
Packer, J., Ballantyne, R., and Falk, J. (2010). Exploring the impacts of wildlife tourism on visitors’ long
term environmental learning and behavior. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association, 46:
12-15.
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First Paragraph: The study investigated how visitors’ entering attributes and specific aspects of the
experience contribute to changes in visitors’ knowledge, attitudes, and engagement in environmentally
responsible behaviours. Visitors’ memories of their experiences were also analysed to reveal the
processes which lead to long-term changes in environmentally responsible behaviours. The study
investigated these impacts at four marine-based wildlife tourism venues in South-East Queensland in
order to identify the nature and extent of long-term learning and environmental behavior change
outcomes.
Yocco, V., Heimlich, J. E., Myers, C., and Jenike, D. (2010). Let’s go to the zoo! Visitors’ social
expectations of a trip to the zoo. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association, 46: 34-40.
First Paragraph: It has been noted that education is a prominent theme in US zoo mission statements,
and that zoos are in a unique position to provide environmental education to a large number of visitors
(Patrick et al. 2007). It is critical for zoos to understand their visitors and provide them with unique and
engaging experiences designed to further the education of visitors. Wild Research – A whole zoo exhibit
and inquiry program is a National Science Foundation funded collaboration between Project Dragonfly
out of Miami University, the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden (CZBG), the Institute for Learning
Innovation and a consortium of zoos and aquariums nationwide (Myers et al. 2007; Myers et al. 2009). A
major premise of Wild Research is to build on the social interactions that take place in a zoo to improve
visitor learning and engagement. Visitors participate in inquiry: make predictions, gather data, and
compare results all within the very social context of observing animals at different exhibits surrounded
by other zoo visitors engaging in similar activities.
Tunnicliffe, S. and Scheersoi, A. (2009). Engaging the interest of zoo visitors as a key to biological
education. Journal of the International Zoo Education Association, 45: 18-20.
Introduction and First Paragraph: Conservation education is a key role of zoos, but it is too specialized
for visitors who rarely attend zoos with learning as their main objective (Patrick et al. 2007). To hold the
visitor’s attention and to encourage learning, it is crucial to engage and develop their interest.
Therefore, we examined which specific features in zoos support the development of interest for
different categories of learners.
Conservation of endangered species and their habitats is a key role of zoos. Part of realizing this aim is to
inform and involve the public in understanding this mission. Zoos are in a unique position to provide
environmental and conservation education to large numbers of people (Patrick et al. 2007). However,
this educational task is difficult. Visitors have a limited knowledge of the complex field of conservation
biology (e.g. Swanagan 2000) and educators need to introduce them step by step to the issues to
overcome their knowledge and understanding deficit.
Vernon, C. (2009). Mission accomplished? Measuring Monterey Bay Aquarium’s role in inspiring ocean
conservation. Journal of the International Zoo Education Association, 45: 42-46.
First Paragraph: For the most part, we never hear from the vast majority of our visitors, and probably
won’t find out if their visit had any impact on their lives, either positive or negative. But since the
mission of the Monterey Bay Aquarium is ‘to inspire conservation of the oceans,’ we were determined
to learn – systematically – who we’re inspiring, to what extent we’re fulfilling our mission, and how. To
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find the answers, we embarked on a research project in 2006 called the ‘Inspiring Ocean Conservation
Study.’
Wilson, L. and Waldon, S. (2008). Engaging the community in our work: A successful zoo partnership
model. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association, 44: 18-22.
Project Description (2nd paragraph): The Orangutan Browse Plantation Project is a sustainable
partnership with schools to grow and harvest browse plants for the enrichment of Melbourne Zoo’s
orangutans. The project is sufficiently flexible to allow for schools with small urban garden spaces to
those with 10,000 trees in acreage plantations. A strong curriculum is incorporated to underpin and
support the project to ensure that the growth of plants is not a stand-alone activity. Educators at the
zoo support students and teachers in planning authentic learning experiences that address local and
global biodiversity issues. A flow on benefit of the project is that through connecting with the zoo’s
orangutans, students are more engaged to learn about local and global biodiversity issues and take
action towards effective solutions.
Francis, D. and Esson, M. (2006). Zoo Theatre: The effectiveness of performance art in delivering multitiered conservation messages to mixed zoo audiences. Journal of the International Zoo Educators
Association, 42: 16-19.
Introduction and First Paragraph: In 2005 Chester Zoo decided to add a new attraction to its summer
programme of educational activities, a theatrical show entitled Turtles Can’t Fly. Although the zoo
already provides numerous opportunities for cognitive learning, including interactive interpretation and
presenter talks, it was thought that those visitors who favour affective learning were less well catered
for.
Different people favour different styles of learning. Trying to appeal to the under 9s we aimed to reach
children affectively by making them emotionally connect with the characters and the storyline in an
attempt to influence their attitudes towards rainforest conservation as opposed to teaching them cold
facts.
Lehnhardt, K., Hauck, D., Wilson, S., Sellin, R., Kuhar, C., and Miller, L. (2004). Assessment of the
Bushmeat Message at Disney’s Animal Kingdom. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association,
40: 22-25.
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an animal keeper presentation
in communicating how overhunting of wildlife for bushmeat consumption and trade is producing a
conservation crisis. These survey findings will help to plan the next steps for improving the delivery of
information on this critical conservation issue.
Fraser, J., Bicknell, J., and Sickler, J. (2006). Assessing the connotative meaning of animals using semantic
differential techniques to aid in zoo exhibit development. Visitor Studies Today, 9(3): 1-9.
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Abstract: This paper presents results from the testing of a simple visitor survey tool modeled on
traditional semantic differential techniques to identify socially agreed traits or attributes that might
influence audience bias toward an exhibit species. The authors suggest that understanding these
connotative meanings can aid exhibit developers in the creation of experiences. Five tests were
conducted with this methodology, each focused on a different animal (dolphins, sharks, cheetahs,
zebras, and African wild dogs). With four of the subject animals, a set of traits emerged as those visitors
commonly associated with the animal. For the fifth animal, the African wild dog, only one trait emerged
as a strong descriptor, indicating a neutral response among the public. In each case, these findings were
used by exhibit developers to shape the interpretive messages and plan for an exhibit. This article
discusses the benefits and limitations of using this methodology in an exhibit design process and
concludes that the method is useful for addressing preconceptions about what visitors think.
Ross, S. and Lukas, K. (2005). Zoo visitor behavior at an African Ape exhibit. Visitor Studies Today, 8(1): 412.
Abstract: There is increasing interest in understanding the behavior of visitors to informal education
institutions such as zoos. Although some quantitative evaluations of zoo visitor behavior exist, the ability
to generalize across a wide range of zoos of varying size and composition remains questionable. A series
of “site-specific” research projects may be useful in determining the full range of visitor experiences at a
variety of institutions. This study tracked the behavior of 350 visitors to the Lester E. Fisher Great Ape
House at Lincoln Park Zoo over a 12-month period. Visit durations ranged from 32 sec to over 41 min
with a median of 7 min 23 sec. Children had significantly shorter visit durations than adults but the
presence of children did not affect the visit durations of adults. Both age groups spent significantly more
time watching the apes than reading interpretive graphics, but some types of interpretive graphics were
more effective than others. Graphics that involved “hands-on” interaction were used significantly more
frequently than expected based on their availability. These data add to the growing literature on visitor
behavior in zoological parks and have helped to guide several aspects of exhibit design for Lincoln Park
Zoo’s new ape facility.
Werntz, K. and Fraser, J. (2003). Children’s conception of color in wildlife. Visitor Studies Today, 6(1): 1317.
Abstract: Zoos frequently use geographic maps and science terms to educate visitors about animal
habitats. There is, however, very little about visitors’ ability to interpret these mapping conventions. This
study sought to discover how easily adult visitors to the Bronx Zoo were able to identify two continents
and countries on maps, and their interpretation of the term “range.” The results showed that although a
majority of visitors could identify both South America and Asia from the continent outline alone, 28% of
visitors could only identify one or both continents when viewing a map of the full hemisphere.
Additionally, 10% were unable to identify a continent from any of the maps provided. Graphic
representation of an animal range was better understood than the term “range” though a large
percentage of the participants still did not understand the information. These findings suggest a need to
revise maps in exhibit labels to improve visitor comprehension. Such changes would include showing at
least a hemisphere-level view, specifically identifying or labeling countries, and replacing the term range
with more accessible language.
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Mortan, S. and Yalowitz, S. (2003). Evaluating the kelp forest feeding program at Monterey Bay
Aquarium. Visitor Studies Today, 6(1): 6-9.
Introduction: This evaluation project was conducted to measure the effectiveness of particular
communication strategies in the Kelp Forest feeding program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. During the
Kelp Forest program a volunteer guide (docent) delivers a narration about the Kelp Forest exhibit and
has a conversation with a diver feeding the fish in the exhibit. The program concludes with the diver and
the volunteer taking questions from the audience. The communication strategies measured in this study
were identified by The Ocean Project (TOP), a collaborative initiative where the Monterey Bay Aquarium
is a supporting partner.
Stoinski, T., Allen, M., and Bloomsmith, M. (2002). Educating zoo visitors about complex environmental
issues: Should we do it and how? Curator, 45(2): 129-43.
Abstract: A report on a study of people's knowledge of wildlife in western and central Africa with a view
to addressing the bushmeat crisis. The study entailed showing zoo visitors one of six series of
photographs, three of which presented explicit, disturbing images of dead animals and the other three
benign images related to the bushmeat crisis, such as changes in hunting practices. Its results show that
the public believes that zoos ought to educate about bushmeat, that people's perception of an issue is
influenced by realistic images, and that zoos ought to provide on-site opportunities for people to turn
their conservation concerns into action.
Groff, A., Lockhart, D., Ogden, J., and Dierking, L. D. (2005). An exploratory investigation of the effect of
working in an environmentally themed facility on the conservation-related knowledge, attitudes and
behavior of staff. Environmental Education Research, 11(3): 371-387.
Abstract: In the past decade, we have seen an increased focus on measuring the impact of zoos,
aquariums, and other free-choice learning environments on the conservation-related knowledge,
attitudes and behavior of the visiting public. However, no such studies have been conducted on the
impact of such environments on the staff working in these facilities – the very staff that in turn interact
with the public on a daily basis. Clearly these interactions are recognized as being important; for
example, the thousands of staff employed by Disney’s Animal Kingdom are regularly provided with
conservation- related training – both formal, in-class experiences, as well as more informal experiences
with animals; these are a mixture of compulsory and freely chosen experiences. An exploratory
qualitative study was conducted to investigate the impact of working at Disney’s Animal Kingdom on
staff knowledge, attitudes, and behavior related to animals and their conservation. The resulting
findings offer preliminary evidence that working in an environmentally themed setting has a positive
impact on all of these variables, and that particular experiences – notably experiences in back-of-house
animal holding areas and with animal staff – are key. These findings suggest that further investigation
into the impact of working in such learning settings could be fruitful in understanding the role that the
work place plays in supporting the free-choice learning of staff. This is important both from the
perspective of the staff themselves, and in relation to the impact that these individuals may have on
visitors to free-choice learning settings.
*Article above addresses staff, rather than visitor, learning.
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Myers Jr., O. (2004). What do children think animals need? Developmental trends. Environmental
Education Research, 10(4): 545-562.
Abstract: Understanding how children think about the needs of animals may aid bridging from how they
care about individual animals to caring about the environment more generally. This study explored
changes with age in children's conceptions of animals' needs, including how such conceptions may
extend beyond the individual animal to larger systems and conservation. During attendance at a North
American zoo, 171 children between the ages of 4 and 14 years were interviewed and did drawings in
response to questions about the needs of a favorite animal. The results reported here focus on
developmental patterns. Animals' basic physiological needs were grasped at an early age. Understanding
ecological and conservation needs showed the strongest developmental trends across the full age range,
with some children showing early proficiency in ecological, but not conservation, concepts. Conservation
and ecological thinking appeared to follow different trajectories, especially through middle childhood,
when other dimensions than knowledge may cause increases in conservation conceptions. Educational
implications include building on interest in individual animals; not underestimating even young
children's ability to assemble ecological facts around an animal; emphasizing concrete ecological
connections; and highlighting animals that children experience in their own lives. Considering the needs
of animals offers a developmentally pre-potent way to increase how children know and value multiple
levels of biological organization.
****
The following studies explore education outside of zoos and aquariums (ZA).
Lewis, E., Baudains, C., and Mansfield, C. (2009). The impact of AuSSI-WA at a primary school. Australian
Journal of Environmental Education, 25: 45-57.
Abstract: This paper presents the findings of the first stage of research on the impact of the Australian
Sustainable Schools Initiative (AuSSI) at an independent primary school in Western Australia. A
longitudinal (20 year) case study is being conducted, utilising data related to Education for Sustainability
(EfS) at the school from 1990-2009. 2005 was a critical year for the school because it marked the
beginning of participation in the Sustainable Schools Initiative pilot in Western Australia (AuSSI-WA). The
research investigates elements of EfS in operation at the school pre- and post-AuSSI-WA, as well as
student and teacher outcomes after involvement in the Initiative. An analysis of the initial data suggests
that participation in AuSSI-WA enabled the school to engage with a growing commitment to EfS in the
context of a whole--school approach.
Davis, J. M. and Ferreira, J. A. (2009). Creating cultural change in education: A proposal for a continuum
for evaluating the effectiveness of sustainable schools implementation strategies in Australia. Australian
Journal of Environmental Education, 25: 59-70.
Abstract: Networks are increasingly recognised as advantageous when creating and embedding cultural
change within organisations. This paper explores and problematises ideas around networks for
education for sustainability (EfS), specifically in relation to the implementation of the Australian
Sustainable Schools Initiative (AuSSI), a national, whole-school approach to EfS. In three Australian
states--New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland--AuSSI has been implemented in different ways. In
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examining the use of products, facilitators and networks to embed initiatives such as AuSSI in Australian
schools, we propose a "continuum of cultural change strategies" as a framework for thinking about each
of these approaches to creating organisational and cultural change for sustainability. We anticipate that
such a framework may assist where choices need to be made in relation to the kinds of capacity building
processes that might best achieve "deep and wide" change within schools hoping to engender
significant cultural change.
Tooth, R. and Renshaw, P. (2009). Reflections on pedagogy and place: A journey into learning for
sustainability through environmental narrative and deep attentive reflection. Australian Journal of
Environmental Education, 25: 95-104.
Abstract: Narrative is fundamental to our diverse capacities to remember, to provide an account of self,
and to represent our actions, motivations and place in society. The narrative mode is concerned with
central aspects of the human condition--commitments and personal agency; motivations and emotions;
collective experiences and cultural histories and myths. As such it is concerned with relationships
between people, their activities within particular places and the ethics that arise in these specific
relationships. This paper explores the role of narrative as a pedagogical device and as a form of thinking
and valuing for students to use in their everyday interactions. In particular, it considers why a
combination of environmental narrative, drama and deep attentive reflection sits so well with the
emerging pedagogies of "place", and why this alliance is such an effective means for allowing individuals
to experience, understand and value for themselves the entwined and sensorial connections that exist
between people and place. Based on a year-long values education case study in eight primary schools,
we describe and theorise about why such a narrative approach to pedagogy, when linked to deep
attentive experiences in nature, is so effective in developing a new kind of place-based body/ mind
meaning-making and learning that inspires individuals to engage with both the inner and outer work of
sustainability.
Adcock, L. and Ballantyne, R. (2007). Drama as a tool in interpretation: Practitioner perceptions of its
strengths & limitations. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 23: 31-44.
Abstract: Although environmental and heritage interpretation aims to connect humans with their
natural and cultural heritage, and has the potential to contribute to a vision of sustainable living, it often
falls short of engaging and inspiring its audiences. Some interpreters advocate the use of artistic
approaches to create more affective (imaginary-emotional-sensory-aesthetic) experiences. One
approach considered compatible is drama. Powerful dramatic experiences can embed interpretive
stories in the emotions and leave enduring impressions. Drama is accepted as an interpretive tool
overseas, yet it is under-utilised in Australia. How can it be used to strengthen interpretation in this
country? This paper presents the outcomes of research investigating the perceptions of ten Queensland
practitioners of dramatised interpretation regarding drama's strengths, limitations and value as a tool in
interpretation. The authors contend that drama has much to offer interpretation, although further
evaluative studies are clearly needed.
Ballantyne, R., Fien, J., and Packer, J. (2001). School environmental education programme impacts upon
student and family learning: A case study analysis. Environmental Education Research, 7(1): 23-37.
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Abstract: This article uses a case study approach to explore the impact of two school environmental
education programmes, from the perspective of participating students, their teachers and their parents.
A total of 152 students (79 from primary schools and 73 from a secondary school), 3 teachers and 62
parents contributed their perceptions regarding the impact of the programmes. Each programme is
described in detail and students' responses compared across the two programmes and across different
class groups participating in each programme. It is concluded that both programmes were successful in
engaging students in thinking and learning about environmental issues, although some programme
features were more likely than others to lead to impacts beyond the bounds of the classroom.
Recommendations are made regarding those features that need to be included in school environmental
education programmes in order to maximise student and family learning outcomes.
Knapp, D. and Poff, R. (2001). A qualitative analysis of the immediate and short-term impact of an
environmental interpretive program. Environmental Education Research, 7(1): 55-65.
Abstract: This study utilized qualitative measures to further understand if an environmental interpretive
experience can enhance an environmental ethic. A discursive approach to emergent design was used to
generate grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In the methods used, the phenomenological data
gathered during the study directed the design of each step of the research as it evolved. Twenty-four
4th graders were randomly selected from three classes from a rural town in southern Indiana (USA).
These students participated in a field trip to a US Forest Service site near their school district.
Methodologies utilized in this program included ranger-led discussions, facilitated explorations, and
nature 'games'. The data was collected through post interviews (1 week following treatment) and post
post interviews (4 months after program). The findings indicated that the environmental interpretive
program had a strong positive impact on students' affect toward the resource site. The findings also
indicated retention of game mechanics and the content imbedded in these games. Cognitive and
behavioral impacts were limited.
Falk, J. H., Scott, C., Dierking, L., Rennie, L., and Jones, M. C. (2004). Interactives and visitor learning.
Curator, 47(2): 171-198.
Abstract: Interactives—computers and other multimedia components, physical manipulatives (including
whole-body and tabletop activities), and simulations—occur in all types of museums. There is
considerable interest in the nature of the learning that happens when visitors use interactives. Museum
professionals have enlisted constructivist theory to support the notion that interactive elements are
invaluable components of any exhibition experience, and are effective learning tools that enable active
visitor engagement. Interactives are also seen as vital to sustaining institutional image and expanding
institutional popularity. Despite the increasing use of interactives in exhibitions and the substantial
investments being made in their design and maintenance, there is a paucity of research as to whether
these constructivist assumptions are supported. There is little work exploring visitors' perceptions of
specific types of interactives, or the role of interactivity in the visitor experience generally. Museum staff
thus have a limited ability to make informed decisions about the level and type of interactivity that
might enhance exhibition experiences.
Everett, M. and Piscitelli, B. (2006). Hands-on trolleys: Facilitating learning through play. Visitor Studies
Today, 9(1): 10-17.
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Abstract: Museums offer children unique opportunities for meaningful learning, and over time, have
evolved from being adult oriented to child-friendly places. Today, museum vision statements often
include a commitment to lifelong learning and young visitors are viewed as an important museum-going
audience. Consequently, museums are looking for ways to design exhibitions and programs that
accommodate children’s learning needs. In this context, the Queensland Museum developed a set of
resource trolleys to introduce young visitors to museums and their collections. This paper reports
findings from a study that evaluated the impact child-centered discovery trolleys have on –8 year old
children’s museum experiences. Findings from this study add to the body of knowledge on this topic and
may have important implications for designing museum experiences that stimulate children’s interest in
museums and increase learning outcomes.
Kuhar, C. W., Bettinger, T. L., and Lehnhardt, K. (2007). Evaluating the impact of a conservation
education program in Kalinzu Forest Reserve, Uganda. Journal of the International Zoo Educators
Association, 43: 12-15.
First Paragraph: So when are all environmental education programs not created equally? How do we
know if an environmental education program is increasing knowledge or if it positively affects attitudes
and behavior? Frankly, the only way to know for sure is to conduct formal evaluations. Formal
evaluations in an informal education setting can be extremely challenging to accomplish, but the value
of this information is undeniable. Here, we report on a formal evaluation of a conservation education
program conducted at the Kalinzu Forest Reserve (KFR) through a partnership between the National
Forest Authority of Uganda, the Uganda Ministry of Education and Sports, Jane Goodall Institute –
Uganda, and Disney’s Animal Kingdom.
McNaughton, M. (2004). Educational drama in the teaching of education for sustainability.
Environmental Education Research, 10(2): 139-155.
Abstract: In this paper, I describe part of my research project that examines the use of Educational
Drama in Education for Sustainability in the upper stages of the primary school (10- and 11-year-olds).
Central to the research is a small-scale qualitative research study. Here, I describe the educational focus
of the study and outline the methodology. Central to the study was a series of drama lessons (taught by
me) based on environmental themes. The lessons link with some of the key aims in Education for
Sustainability—to help young people to develop awareness, knowledge and concepts, to encourage
positive attitudes and personal lifestyle decisions and to help them to acquire action skills in and for the
environment. The locus is within the Scottish education system. A number of key data were generated
during the teaching and evaluation of the lessons. These take the form of field notes, children’s
evaluations of their work and learning, observation schedules, taped interviews with participants and
observers and videotapes of the lessons. The analysis of the data is ongoing, but already there is
substantial evidence to suggest that the drama was instrumental in helping the children to achieve the
learning outcomes set for the lessons. Some of that evidence is presented here. I suggest that the active,
participative learning central to drama is particularly useful for allowing children to develop skills in
communication, collaboration and expressing ideas and opinions. Also, the immersion in the imagined
context and narrative, integral to the ‘stories’ in the drama, allows the children to feel sympathy for and
empathy with people who are affected by environmental issues and problems. In giving the children a
context for research and in helping them to plan solutions and to suggest alternatives, the drama allows
14
the participants opportunities to rehearse active citizenship and facilitates learning in Education for
Sustainability.
Parry, J. (2002). The mediating role of creating storyboards for multimedia presentations in relation to
local wildlife sites. Environmental Education Research, 8(4): 355-372.
Summary: The use of information technology in conjunction with school visits to a local wildlife area
offers a new way of thinking about such places and a richer learning experience. By comparing pupils
who were encouraged to plot storyboarded sequences for computer use during their visits to other
pupils who produced wall displays, this article suggests that the mediating process of planning
storyboards led to a more social and collaborative learning experience. In addition, pupils from
storyboarding groups displayed a deeper understanding of the wildlife site and showed greater
inclination towards taking part in management decisions than the conventional classes. Such use of
information technology in terms of learning processes linked to the generation of electronic sequences
by pupils for pupils about humble, local wildlife sites for future use could offer an important
contribution to the notion of environmental literacy and citizenship.
Reis, G. and Roth, W. (2010). A feeling for the environment: Emotion talk in/for the pedagogy of public
environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 41(2): 71-87.
Abstract: Emotions are important aspects in/for the pedagogy of environmental education (EE).
However, the literature on the relationship between emotions and EE has not explored how emotion
talk furnishes teaching identity claims and mediates instruction in/about the environment. Therefore,
the present study draws on two ethnographic case studies to investigate the rhetorical and situational
use of emotion discursive categories in interviews and authentic EE learning situations. Our findings
suggest that rather than just being an outcome of effective instructional models designed to instill an
environmental consciousness in students, emotion discourses are means to help account for and
concretely realize the pedagogy of EE.
DiEnno, C. M. and Hilton, S. C. (2005). High school students' knowledge, attitudes, and levels of
enjoyment of an environmental education unit on nonnative plants. The Journal of Environmental
Education, 37(1): 13-25.
Abstract: The authors applied constructivist learning theory to environmental education to explore
knowledge gains, student attitudes, and engagement among high school students exposed to a weeklong unit on nonnative plant species. The authors compared constructivist and traditional teaching
methods. Each class was given a pretest and a posttest. The constructivist group significantly increased
knowledge scores and attitudes, whereas the traditional group did not. The 2 groups did not differ
significantly on engagement.
Stern, M. J., Powell, R. B. and Ardoin, N. M. (2011). Evaluating a constructivist and culturally responsive
approach to environmental education for diverse audiences. The Journal of Environmental Education,
42(2): 109-122.
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Abstract: The NorthBay Adventure Center offers five-day residential programs that meld environmental
and character education using experiential techniques and multi-media messaging. This article explores
the influences of these programs on urban and non-urban middle-school participants in three areas:
character development and leadership; environmental responsibility, and attitudes toward school. The
authors found significant positive short-term effects on all outcomes of interest. Three-month delayed
posttests indicate retention of significant gains in character development and leadership and
environmental responsibility, while gains in school-related outcomes faded. Urban students responded
more positively to the NorthBay program than did students from suburban and rural areas.
Schusler, T. M. and Krasny, M. E. (2010). Environmental action as context for youth development. The
Journal of Environmental Education, 41(4): 208-223.
Abstract: This study explored the practices of teachers, nonformal science educators, community
organizers, youth program managers, and other educators facilitating youth participation in local
environmental action, as well as the experiences of some of the youth involved. We conducted narrative
interviews with 33 educators facilitating youth environmental action in communities throughout the
United States and group interviews with 46 youth participating in nine environmental action programs
in New York State. Through interpretation of educators' stories and youths' reflections, we discovered
strong parallels with theory and empirical research in the youth development literature suggesting
environmental action is a valuable context for positive youth development.
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What are best practices, and how are they implemented?
Price, E. A., Vining, J., and Saunders, C. D. (2009). Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in a nonformal
environmental education program. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 361-376.
Abstract: Humans are surrounded by threats to the environment, many of their own making. The
severity of environmental problems will not decrease unless action is taken to develop and encourage
greater environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) in the general populace. Environmental education
(EE) is one method for strengthening precursors to ERB such as knowledge and attitudes, but research
on the connection is currently unclear. In this paper we present the results of a study investigating the
role played by rewards in encouraging ERB precursors for adults and children involved in a zoo-based
Nature Swap program. We used semistructured interviews to question 91 participants, including 38
children, 38 adult guardians, and 15 staff members regarding the importance of rewards in the program.
We content analyzed the interviews to identify and describe major themes and then coded them. We
found that adult guardians and Play Partners perceived intrinsic and extrinsic rewards as aiding in
maintaining motivation and interest in the nonformal Nature Swap program. In addition, both children
and adult companion participants in the program mentioned strengthened precursors to ERB. Overall
we found that adult companions perceived that children who participated in the program spent more
quality time outdoors and had a heightened awareness of their surroundings as a result of programbased rewards. Implications for other EE and conservation education programs are discussed.
Kemmerly, J. D. and Macfarlane, V. (2009). The elements of a consumer-based initiative in contributing
to positive environmental change: Monterey Bay Aquarium's Seafood Watch program. Zoo Biology,
28(5): 398-411.
Abstract: Monterey Bay Aquarium launched the Seafood Watch® program in 2000. The program's
Seafood Watch pocket guide is a simple tool that visitors can use to identify seafood from
environmentally responsible sources. Since its inception, more than 2 million pocket guides have been
distributed to Monterey Bay Aquarium visitors and 20 million have been distributed through
partnerships across the United States. Partner institutions such as aquariums, conservation
organizations, and businesses also conduct outreach and are working to influence their local seafood
purveyors. An evaluation conducted in 2003 and 2004 assessed the program's strategies for increasing
awareness and shifting consumer buying habits as they relate to sustainable seafood, including use of
the pocket guide. Visitors who picked up pocket guides were surveyed immediately after their aquarium
visit, and again four months later. The evaluation found that most visitors continued to use the guides
and had changed their seafood buying habits in several respects. Those interviewed also reported some
barriers to using the guides. The elements that appear to be critical to the success of the strategy with
respect to changing consumer purchasing habits include: a focused distribution approach; providing
credible and specific information on problems and solutions to increase action-related knowledge;
providing a trigger or prompt that is available at the time of purchase; and reducing barriers to action, at
the point of action, by working with seafood purveyors and the broader sustainable seafood movement
to increase knowledge and available options. In response to the evaluation, Seafood Watch has
strengthened these elements and expanded to help meet the needs of the broader sustainable seafood
movement. A process of strategic planning, evaluation, cooperation among partners, and adaptability to
the movement's natural evolution has proven to be critical to the program's success in contributing to
the development of a marketplace for sustainable seafood.
17
Penn, L. (2009). Zoo theater's influence on affect and cognition: A case study from the Central Park Zoo
in New York. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 412-428.
Abstract: Zoo theater is used by zoos as a means to influence visitor feelings and knowledge gain about
wildlife and environmental themes. This study examined whether and to what extent zoo theater
fulfilled these aims by investigating its impact on affect and cognition. The study consisted of an indepth case study at the Central Park Zoo in New York, a location that has one of the most diverse zoo
theater programs in the United States. Using a multimethod approach the study explored many facets of
the Central Park Zoo's extensive zoo theater program. These included performances at a main stage, at
exhibits, and in the children's zoo. The study found that the extent of zoo theater's influence on affect
and cognition is dependent on a combination of a variety of characteristics that include the length of a
performance, audience participation, the level of structure of a performance, the presence of song and
dance elements, and the scale of the productions.
Owen, K., Murphy, D., and Parsons, C. (2009). ZATPAC: A model consortium evaluates teen programs.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 429-446.
Abstract: How do we advance the environmental literacy of young people, support the next generation
of environmental stewards and increase the diversity of the leadership of zoos and aquariums? We
believe it is through ongoing evaluation of zoo and aquarium teen programming and have founded a
consortium to pursue those goals. The Zoo and Aquarium Teen Program Assessment Consortium
(ZATPAC) is an initiative by six of the nation's leading zoos and aquariums to strengthen institutional
evaluation capacity, model a collaborative approach toward assessing the impact of youth programs,
and bring additional rigor to evaluation efforts within the field of informal science education. Since its
beginning in 2004, ZATPAC has researched, developed, pilot-tested and implemented a pre–post
program survey instrument designed to assess teens' knowledge of environmental issues, skills and
abilities to take conservation actions, self-efficacy in environmental actions, and engagement in
environmentally responsible behaviors. Findings from this survey indicate that teens who join
zoo/aquarium programs are already actively engaged in many conservation behaviors. After
participating in the programs, teens showed a statistically significant increase in their reported
knowledge of conservation and environmental issues and their abilities to research, explain, and find
resources to take action on conservation issues of personal concern. Teens also showed statistically
significant increases pre-program to post-program for various conservation behaviors, including “I talk
with my family and/or friends about things they can do to help the animals or the environment,” “I save
water…,” “I save energy…,” “When I am shopping I look for recycled products,” and “I help with projects
that restore wildlife habitat.”
Askue, L., Heimlich, J., Yu, J. P., Wang, X., and Lakly, S. (2009). Measuring a professional conservation
education training program for zoos and wildlife parks in China. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 447-461.
Abstract: Designed and implemented in 2006, the Academy for Conservation Training (ACT) is a
conservation education academy modeled after the Association for Zoos and Aquariums' (AZA)
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professional conservation education course. ACT incorporates conservation education best practices
utilized by AZA-accredited institutions to provide zoo and wildlife park professionals in China with the
skills, knowledge, and tools needed to design, implement, and evaluate effective conservation education
programs at their facilities. Initial findings indicate that the ACT model is an effective approach to
connect these emerging educators with conservation education best practices. The strongest
satisfaction responses in this study were in perceptions of the program preparing the individual for work
and in personal development. In terms of the longitudinal survey conducted with ACT graduates after
the training, the lowest scoring items were the opportunities to meet other zoo educators in China and
the quantity of information provided. The most revealing trend in regards to preparedness in becoming
zoo educators was that specific pedagogical skills were those where perceived gain was consistent and
strong across all three academies.
Ross, S. R. and Gillespie, K. L. (2009). Influences on visitor behavior at a modern immersive zoo exhibit.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 462-472.
Abstract: Zoos serve as centers for both research and education. The challenge is to convey messages
about their conservation projects while meeting visitor expectations, which often include recreation and
entertainment. One way this can be achieved is through the design of immersive exhibits that draw
visitors in and engage them with interactive educational elements. Regenstein African Journey (RAJ)
opened at Lincoln Park Zoo in 2003 and was designed to take visitors on a simulated safari through
Africa. Because visitor experience was a major design goal, we conducted a timing and tracking study to
evaluate use of the building and educational components. For a 9-week period in 2003, we tracked 338
visitors to RAJ and recorded continuous data as they moved through the building. Data were collected
on handheld computers that provided precise timing data. The median visit was 11.08 min, 41% of which
was spent looking at animals and 9% of which was spent engaged with interpretive elements. We found
significant differences in the way visitors used signage: those in groups without children spent more of
their visit engaged with signage than those with children and visitors who spent more of their visit
interacting socially spent less time engaged with signage. By understanding how visitors use the
educational opportunities presented to them, we can better meet their expectations and more
effectively achieve the goal of conservation education.
Wagner, K., Chessler, M., York, P., and Raynor, J. (2009). Development and implementation of an
evaluation strategy for measuring conservation outcomes. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 473-487.
Abstract: The Philadelphia Zoo's Measuring Mission project assessed the conservation-related impacts
of a visit to the Zoo and documented the results in a way that would provide a set of easily actionable
planning strategies. A logic model provided a theoretical framework and guided the development of
survey items. Three groups were surveyed using a pre–post retrospective instrument: zoo visitors,
members, and volunteers. This report includes findings from the visitor surveys only. Data were
analyzed using factor analysis, correlations, and t-tests. Results revealed that the Philadelphia Zoo has
been most successful in providing its guests with a satisfying animal viewing experience, facilitated by
accessible informative interpretive staff, but that guests do not always take advantage of opportunities
to interact with staff. Success in achieving the Zoo's conservation mission was measured by comparing
pre and posttest scores on five outcome factors (conservation motivation, conservation knowledge, proconservation consumer skills, conservation attitudes/values, readiness to take conservation action). The
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greatest gains were found in conservation knowledge and conservation motivation. Quality of exhibits
and quality of staff stand out as the most important factors in influencing conservation outcomes. To
ensure that results would be accessible to a wide variety of Zoo employees for planning, program and
exhibit development, and staff training, nine strategies were identified as key to achieving success in the
Zoo's mission. Measuring Mission has created a process for assessing the Zoo's mission impact, and has
confirmed that high-quality exhibits interpreted by expert, readily available staff can influence
conservation knowledge and motivation in particular.
Visscher, N. C., Snider, R., and Vander Stoep, G. (2009). Comparative analysis of knowledge gain
between interpretive and fact-only presentations at an animal training session: An exploratory study.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 488-495.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have recognized the importance of integrating living collections with
personally delivered interpretation. One way for zoos to accomplish this is by conducting public animal
training sessions accompanied by personal interpretation. Many institutions offer these types of
interactions, but the term “interpretation” is used loosely and without clear definition. This exploratory
study compared knowledge gain of individual students in three different fifth grade school groups
visiting the Potter Park Zoo in Lansing, Michigan. Each group observed an animal training session, with
two groups receiving two types of presentations and one group serving as a control group. Although
hearing the same facts, the two treatment groups received different program types: an interpretive
presentation and a fact-only presentation. The third group viewed the training session but received no
presentation. Results showed that individuals who received the interpretive presentation retained more
information immediately after the training session than individuals in either of the other two groups.
This exploratory study suggests that using an interpretive presentation style is more effective in
producing knowledge gain than fact-only presentations in informal learning environments such as zoos
and aquariums.
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.
20
Ross, S. and Lukas, K. (2005). Zoo visitor behavior at an African Ape exhibit. Visitor Studies Today, 8(1): 412.
Abstract: There is increasing interest in understanding the behavior of visitors to informal education
institutions such as zoos. Although some quantitative evaluations of zoo visitor behavior exist, the ability
to generalize across a wide range of zoos of varying size and composition remains questionable. A series
of “site-specific” research projects may be useful in determining the full range of visitor experiences at a
variety of institutions. This study tracked the behavior of 350 visitors to the Lester E. Fisher Great Ape
House at Lincoln Park Zoo over a 12-month period. Visit durations ranged from 32 sec to over 41 min
with a median of 7 min 23 sec. Children had significantly shorter visit durations than adults but the
presence of children did not affect the visit durations of adults. Both age groups spent significantly more
time watching the apes than reading interpretive graphics, but some types of interpretive graphics were
more effective than others. Graphics that involved “hands-on” interaction were used significantly more
frequently than expected based on their availability. These data add to the growing literature on visitor
behavior in zoological parks and have helped to guide several aspects of exhibit design for Lincoln Park
Zoo’s new ape facility.
Mortan, S. and Yalowitz, S. (2003). Evaluating the kelp forest feeding program at Monterey Bay
Aquarium. Visitor Studies Today, 6(1): 6-9.
Introduction: This evaluation project was conducted to measure the effectiveness of particular
communication strategies in the Kelp Forest feeding program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. During the
Kelp Forest program a volunteer guide (docent) delivers a narration about the Kelp Forest exhibit and
has a conversation with a diver feeding the fish in the exhibit. The program concludes with the diver and
the volunteer taking questions from the audience. The communication strategies measured in this study
were identified by The Ocean Project (TOP), a collaborative initiative where the Monterey Bay Aquarium
is a supporting partner.
Stoinski, T., Allen, M., and Bloomsmith, M. (2002). Educating zoo visitors about complex environmental
issues: Should we do it and how? Curator, 45(2): 129-143.
Abstract: A report on a study of people's knowledge of wildlife in western and central Africa with a view
to addressing the bushmeat crisis. The study entailed showing zoo visitors one of six series of
photographs, three of which presented explicit, disturbing images of dead animals and the other three
benign images related to the bushmeat crisis, such as changes in hunting practices. Its results show that
the public believes that zoos ought to educate about bushmeat, that people's perception of an issue is
influenced by realistic images, and that zoos ought to provide on-site opportunities for people to turn
their conservation concerns into action.
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Groff, A., Lockhart, D., Ogden, J., and Dierking, L. D. (2005). An exploratory investigation of the effect of
working in an environmentally themed facility on the conservation-related knowledge, attitudes and
behavior of staff. Environmental Education Research, 11(3): 371-387.
Abstract: In the past decade, we have seen an increased focus on measuring the impact of zoos,
aquariums, and other free-choice learning environments on the conservation-related knowledge,
attitudes and behavior of the visiting public. However, no such studies have been conducted on the
impact of such environments on the staff working in these facilities – the very staff that in turn interact
with the public on a daily basis. Clearly these interactions are recognized as being important; for
example, the thousands of staff employed by Disney’s Animal Kingdom are regularly provided with
conservation- related training – both formal, in-class experiences, as well as more informal experiences
with animals; these are a mixture of compulsory and freely chosen experiences. An exploratory
qualitative study was conducted to investigate the impact of working at Disney’s Animal Kingdom on
staff knowledge, attitudes, and behavior related to animals and their conservation. The resulting
findings offer preliminary evidence that working in an environmentally themed setting has a positive
impact on all of these variables, and that particular experiences – notably experiences in back-of-house
animal holding areas and with animal staff – are key. These findings suggest that further investigation
into the impact of working in such learning settings could be fruitful in understanding the role that the
work place plays in supporting the free-choice learning of staff. This is important both from the
perspective of the staff themselves, and in relation to the impact that these individuals may have on
visitors to free-choice learning settings.
*Article above addresses staff, rather than visitor, learning.
*****
The following studies explore education outside of ZA.
Lewis, E., Baudains, C., and Mansfield, C. (2009). The impact of AuSSI-WA at a primary school. Australian
Journal of Environmental Education, 25: 45-57.
Abstract: This paper presents the findings of the first stage of research on the impact of the Australian
Sustainable Schools Initiative (AuSSI) at an independent primary school in Western Australia. A
longitudinal (20 year) case study is being conducted, utilising data related to Education for Sustainability
(EfS) at the school from 1990-2009. 2005 was a critical year for the school because it marked the
beginning of participation in the Sustainable Schools Initiative pilot in Western Australia (AuSSI-WA). The
research investigates elements of EfS in operation at the school pre- and post-AuSSI-WA, as well as
student and teacher outcomes after involvement in the Initiative. An analysis of the initial data suggests
that participation in AuSSI-WA enabled the school to engage with a growing commitment to EfS in the
context of a whole--school approach.
Davis, J. M. and Ferreira, J. A. (2009). Creating cultural change in education: A proposal for a continuum
for evaluating the effectiveness of sustainable schools implementation strategies in Australia. Australian
Journal of Environmental Education, 25: 59-70.
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Abstract: Networks are increasingly recognised as advantageous when creating and embedding cultural
change within organisations. This paper explores and problematises ideas around networks for
education for sustainability (EfS), specifically in relation to the implementation of the Australian
Sustainable Schools Initiative (AuSSI), a national, whole-school approach to EfS. In three Australian
states--New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland--AuSSI has been implemented in different ways. In
examining the use of products, facilitators and networks to embed initiatives such as AuSSI in Australian
schools, we propose a "continuum of cultural change strategies" as a framework for thinking about each
of these approaches to creating organisational and cultural change for sustainability. We anticipate that
such a framework may assist where choices need to be made in relation to the kinds of capacity building
processes that might best achieve "deep and wide" change within schools hoping to engender
significant cultural change.
Tooth, R. and Renshaw, P. (2009). Reflections on pedagogy and place: A journey into learning for
sustainability through environmental narrative and deep attentive reflection. Australian Journal of
Environmental Education, 25: 95-104.
Abstract: Narrative is fundamental to our diverse capacities to remember, to provide an account of self,
and to represent our actions, motivations and place in society. The narrative mode is concerned with
central aspects of the human condition--commitments and personal agency; motivations and emotions;
collective experiences and cultural histories and myths. As such it is concerned with relationships
between people, their activities within particular places and the ethics that arise in these specific
relationships. This paper explores the role of narrative as a pedagogical device and as a form of thinking
and valuing for students to use in their everyday interactions. In particular, it considers why a
combination of environmental narrative, drama and deep attentive reflection sits so well with the
emerging pedagogies of "place", and why this alliance is such an effective means for allowing individuals
to experience, understand and value for themselves the entwined and sensorial connections that exist
between people and place. Based on a year-long values education case study in eight primary schools,
we describe and theorise about why such a narrative approach to pedagogy, when linked to deep
attentive experiences in nature, is so effective in developing a new kind of place-based body/ mind
meaning-making and learning that inspires individuals to engage with both the inner and outer work of
sustainability.
Green, M. (2008). From wilderness to the educational heart: A Tasmanian story of place. Australian
Journal of Environmental Education, 24: 35-43.
Abstract: This paper discusses the emerging field of place-based education or place-based pedagogy--an
approach that seeks to enhance children’s perspective of 'place' via school and community related
environmental projects. Place-based education is proposed as an approach that enables students to
establish a connection to a place, its people, and to the world beyond the school gate. Through initiating
teaching and learning experiences that respond to the unique and local places where children live, play
and go to school, place-based education is notable as a significant educational tool. Gregory Smith's
place-based framework (2002) and a Tasmanian case study are put forward to highlight the significance
of place-based pedagogy for environmental education.
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Blair, M. (2008). Community environmental education as a model for effective environmental
programmes. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 24: 45-53.
Abstract: The benefits of community environmental education outlined in environmental education
literature are supported by the findings and implications of a research study undertaken in New
Zealand. Evidence from a two-case case study suggests that environmental programmes guided by the
key principles and practices of community environmental education, that is, public participation,
environmental adult education and environmental communication, can produce effective
environmental outcomes. Indeed, these cases indicate that the principles and practices of public
participation provide a catalyst for genuine collaborative efforts between different organisations and
local communities. Results also indicated that environmental adult education strategies can empower
community members to critically evaluate local environmental issues, which in turn resulted in a
commitment to improving the local environment. I thus argue in this paper that the principles and
practices of community environmental education can provide benchmarks for cross-sectoral
collaboration and assist communities in reaching environmental solutions.
Adcock, L. and Ballantyne, R. (2007). Drama as a tool in interpretation: Practitioner perceptions of its
strengths & limitations. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 23: 31-44.
Abstract: Although environmental and heritage interpretation aims to connect humans with their
natural and cultural heritage, and has the potential to contribute to a vision of sustainable living, it often
falls short of engaging and inspiring its audiences. Some interpreters advocate the use of artistic
approaches to create more affective (imaginary-emotional-sensory-aesthetic) experiences. One
approach considered compatible is drama. Powerful dramatic experiences can embed interpretive
stories in the emotions and leave enduring impressions. Drama is accepted as an interpretive tool
overseas, yet it is under-utilised in Australia. How can it be used to strengthen interpretation in this
country? This paper presents the outcomes of research investigating the perceptions of ten Queensland
practitioners of dramatised interpretation regarding drama's strengths, limitations and value as a tool in
interpretation. The authors contend that drama has much to offer interpretation, although further
evaluative studies are clearly needed.
Grimm, A., Mrosek, T., Martinsohn, A., and Schulte, A. (2011). Evaluation of the non-formal forest
education sector in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany: Organisations, programmes and
framework conditions. Environmental Education Research, 17(1): 19-33.
Abstract: Although a large number of different organisations offer various forest education programmes
within Germany, specific information (i.e., sectoral and programme content and provision at a state
level) is lacking. This study used a survey of all 61 forest education organisations (43 respondents) in the
state of North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, to evaluate its forest education sector, with a specific focus
on the organisations, demand for its services, forest educational programmes and framework
conditions. Input from expert interviews was also used to develop recommendations. The study
indicates that, especially with children as the main target group, many non-formal programmes are
offered to support the formal environmental education sector and to promote leisure activities in the
forest. Yet, despite a high demand for forest education, low personnel resources restrict the number of
visits and activities, principally owing to limited financial resource. We also discuss the provision of
24
innovative new educational programmes and supplementary services, combined with increased quality
management, that could be beneficial to the future development of the sector in NRW.
McNamara, K. and Prideaux, B. (2010). Reading, learning and enacting: Interpretation at visitor sites in
the Wet Tropics rainforest of Australia. Environmental Education Research, 16(2): 173-188.
Abstract: The northern Wet Tropics rainforest of Australia was declared a world heritage site in 1988
and now supports an extensive tourism industry that attracts an estimated 2.5 million local and
international visits annually. As part of the visitor experience, many sites include both environmental
and cultural interpretation experiences, which range from static displays to one-on-one guided tours.
This paper identifies visitor demand and level of satisfaction with the static signage and displays used at
rainforest sites throughout the Wet Tropics. The research involves visitor surveys conducted in 2007 and
2008 and observations at a number of rainforest sites. The results indicate that visitors consider the
level of interpretation to be adequate, but appear to use it poorly. While higher at commercial sites,
visitor interest in reading the interpretation is very low at public sites. Overall, this article seeks to
address whether the aims of nature-based interpretation, including education and the influencing of
attitudes and site behaviour, are being achieved.
Ballantyne, R., Fien, J., and Packer, J. (2001). School environmental education programme impacts upon
student and family learning: A case study analysis. Environmental Education Research, 7(1): 23-37.
Abstract: This article uses a case study approach to explore the impact of two school environmental
education programmes, from the perspective of participating students, their teachers and their parents.
A total of 152 students (79 from primary schools and 73 from a secondary school), 3 teachers and 62
parents contributed their perceptions regarding the impact of the programmes. Each programme is
described in detail and students' responses compared across the two programmes and across different
class groups participating in each programme. It is concluded that both programmes were successful in
engaging students in thinking and learning about environmental issues, although some programme
features were more likely than others to lead to impacts beyond the bounds of the classroom.
Recommendations are made regarding those features that need to be included in school environmental
education programmes in order to maximise student and family learning outcomes.
Knapp, D. and Poff, R. (2001). A qualitative analysis of the immediate and short-term impact of an
environmental interpretive program. Environmental Education Research, 7(1), 55-65.
Abstract: This study utilized qualitative measures to further understand if an environmental interpretive
experience can enhance an environmental ethic. A discursive approach to emergent design was used to
generate grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In the methods used, the phenomenological data
gathered during the study directed the design of each step of the research as it evolved. Twenty-four
4th graders were randomly selected from three classes from a rural town in southern Indiana (USA).
These students participated in a field trip to a US Forest Service site near their school district.
Methodologies utilized in this program included ranger-led discussions, facilitated explorations, and
nature 'games'. The data was collected through post interviews (1 week following treatment) and post
25
post interviews (4 months after program). The findings indicated that the environmental interpretive
program had a strong positive impact on students' affect toward the resource site. The findings also
indicated retention of game mechanics and the content imbedded in these games. Cognitive and
behavioral impacts were limited.
Johnson-Pynn, J. S. and Johnson, L. R. (2005). Successes and challenges in East African conservation
education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 36(2): 25-39.
Abstract: Environmental education (EE) programs that include service-learning components have great
potential to positively impact East African youth, their communities, and their ecology. This exploratory
study describes 2 programs in East Africa, The Jane Goodall Institute's Roots & Shoots (R&S) and Wildlife
Clubs of Uganda (WCU). The authors studied school-based programs in 10 communities adjacent to
national parks or wildlife sanctuaries by interviewing and surveying student members, teachers, and
program coordinators. Results indicate that despite the harsh context and unique challenges facing
programs in the developing countries of Tanzania and Uganda, groups showed remarkable strides in
increasing conservation knowledge, fostering members' personal and social development, and raising
community awareness. The successes and challenges of these East African programs highlight the
importance of considering contextual factors when designing best practices in conservation education.
26
Does program animal use impact attitudes and emotions?
Moss, A. and Esson, M. (2010). Visitor interest in zoo animals and the implications for collection planning
and zoo education programmes. Zoo Biology, 29(6): 715-731.
Abstract: As zoos have sought to further their conservation missions, they have become powerful
providers of environmental education. Outside of “formal” education initiatives, such as those designed
for school and other organized groups, or structured public talks programmes, much of the learning
potential that the zoo has to offer is around the viewing of animals and the response of visitors to them.
In this, zoo learning is a very personal construct, develops from the previous knowledge, and
experiences and motivations of each individual. In this article, we make the assertion that learning
potential, although difficult to quantify, is very much related to the attractiveness of animal species and
the interest that visitors show in them. Using standard behaviorist measures of attraction and interest
(the proportion of visitors that stop and for how long), we analyzed the relative interest in 40 zoo
species held in a modern UK zoo and the variables that are significant in predicting that popularity.
Further to this, the suggestion is made that the zoo collection planning process could use such
information to make more informed decisions about which species should be housed for their
educational value. Taxonomic grouping was found to be the most significant predictor of visitor
interest—that is, visitors were far more interested in mammals than any other group—although body
size (length), increasing animal activity and whether the species was the primary or “flagship” species in
an exhibit or not, were all found to have a significant bearing on visitor interest.
Price, E. A., Vining, J., and Saunders, C. D. (2009). Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in a nonformal
environmental education program. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 361-376.
Abstract: Humans are surrounded by threats to the environment, many of their own making. The
severity of environmental problems will not decrease unless action is taken to develop and encourage
greater environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) in the general populace. Environmental education
(EE) is one method for strengthening precursors to ERB such as knowledge and attitudes, but research
on the connection is currently unclear. In this paper we present the results of a study investigating the
role played by rewards in encouraging ERB precursors for adults and children involved in a zoo-based
Nature Swap program. We used semistructured interviews to question 91 participants, including 38
children, 38 adult guardians, and 15 staff members regarding the importance of rewards in the program.
We content analyzed the interviews to identify and describe major themes and then coded them. We
found that adult guardians and Play Partners perceived intrinsic and extrinsic rewards as aiding in
maintaining motivation and interest in the nonformal Nature Swap program. In addition, both children
and adult companion participants in the program mentioned strengthened precursors to ERB. Overall
we found that adult companions perceived that children who participated in the program spent more
quality time outdoors and had a heightened awareness of their surroundings as a result of programbased rewards. Implications for other EE and conservation education programs are discussed.
Clayton, S., Fraser, J., and Saunders, C. D. (2009). Zoo experiences: Conversations, connections, and
concern for animals. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 377-397.
27
Abstract: One way in which zoos attempt to fulfill their goal of conservation is by educating visitors
about the importance of protecting wildlife. Research has only begun to examine the effectiveness of
zoos in place-based learning, and there has been much debate about how such informal learning is
defined and measured. Free-choice learning research has demonstrated that educational outcomes are
often indirect, constructed by the visitor as much as they are influenced by the zoo's educational staff.
This constructivist definition of education includes emotional dimensions and personal meaning-making
that occur in the social context of visiting, as well as any structured interpretive material provided on
signs and through live presentations. This paper presents an examination of how the zoo is experienced
by the visitor, through surveys and through observations of how visitors watch animals and incorporate
those viewings into their social experience. Results from surveys of 206 zoo visitors show that support
for protecting both individual animals and species is associated with learning, with wanting to know
more, and with a feeling of connection to the animal. An analysis of 1,900 overheard visitor
conversations suggests that zoo animals are used to facilitate topical interaction among social groups
and to explore the connections that people share with nonhuman animals. The authors propose that
these perceived positive connections may be related to support for conservation initiatives, and
conclude that a visit to the zoo appears to be a positive emotional experience that leaves visitors
interested in learning more about animals, irrespective of their reading the exhibit labels.
Penn, L. (2009). Zoo theater's influence on affect and cognition: A case study from the Central Park Zoo
in New York. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 412-428.
Abstract: Zoo theater is used by zoos as a means to influence visitor feelings and knowledge gain about
wildlife and environmental themes. This study examined whether and to what extent zoo theater
fulfilled these aims by investigating its impact on affect and cognition. The study consisted of an indepth case study at the Central Park Zoo in New York, a location that has one of the most diverse zoo
theater programs in the United States. Using a multimethod approach the study explored many facets of
the Central Park Zoo's extensive zoo theater program. These included performances at a main stage, at
exhibits, and in the children's zoo. The study found that the extent of zoo theater's influence on affect
and cognition is dependent on a combination of a variety of characteristics that include the length of a
performance, audience participation, the level of structure of a performance, the presence of song and
dance elements, and the scale of the productions.
Owen, K., Murphy, D., and Parsons, C. (2009). ZATPAC: A model consortium evaluates teen programs.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 429-446.
Abstract: How do we advance the environmental literacy of young people, support the next generation
of environmental stewards and increase the diversity of the leadership of zoos and aquariums? We
believe it is through ongoing evaluation of zoo and aquarium teen programming and have founded a
consortium to pursue those goals. The Zoo and Aquarium Teen Program Assessment Consortium
(ZATPAC) is an initiative by six of the nation's leading zoos and aquariums to strengthen institutional
evaluation capacity, model a collaborative approach toward assessing the impact of youth programs,
and bring additional rigor to evaluation efforts within the field of informal science education. Since its
beginning in 2004, ZATPAC has researched, developed, pilot-tested and implemented a pre–post
program survey instrument designed to assess teens' knowledge of environmental issues, skills and
28
abilities to take conservation actions, self-efficacy in environmental actions, and engagement in
environmentally responsible behaviors. Findings from this survey indicate that teens who join
zoo/aquarium programs are already actively engaged in many conservation behaviors. After
participating in the programs, teens showed a statistically significant increase in their reported
knowledge of conservation and environmental issues and their abilities to research, explain, and find
resources to take action on conservation issues of personal concern. Teens also showed statistically
significant increases pre-program to post-program for various conservation behaviors, including “I talk
with my family and/or friends about things they can do to help the animals or the environment,” “I save
water…,” “I save energy…,” “When I am shopping I look for recycled products,” and “I help with projects
that restore wildlife habitat.”
Wagner, K., Chessler, M., York, P., and Raynor, J. (2009). Development and implementation of an
evaluation strategy for measuring conservation outcomes. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 473-487.
Abstract: The Philadelphia Zoo's Measuring Mission project assessed the conservation-related impacts
of a visit to the Zoo and documented the results in a way that would provide a set of easily actionable
planning strategies. A logic model provided a theoretical framework and guided the development of
survey items. Three groups were surveyed using a pre–post retrospective instrument: zoo visitors,
members, and volunteers. This report includes findings from the visitor surveys only. Data were
analyzed using factor analysis, correlations, and t-tests. Results revealed that the Philadelphia Zoo has
been most successful in providing its guests with a satisfying animal viewing experience, facilitated by
accessible informative interpretive staff, but that guests do not always take advantage of opportunities
to interact with staff. Success in achieving the Zoo's conservation mission was measured by comparing
pre and posttest scores on five outcome factors (conservation motivation, conservation knowledge, proconservation consumer skills, conservation attitudes/values, readiness to take conservation action). The
greatest gains were found in conservation knowledge and conservation motivation. Quality of exhibits
and quality of staff stand out as the most important factors in influencing conservation outcomes. To
ensure that results would be accessible to a wide variety of Zoo employees for planning, program and
exhibit development, and staff training, nine strategies were identified as key to achieving success in the
Zoo's mission. Measuring Mission has created a process for assessing the Zoo's mission impact, and has
confirmed that high-quality exhibits interpreted by expert, readily available staff can influence
conservation knowledge and motivation in particular.
Visscher, N. C., Snider, R., and Vander Stoep, G. (2009). Comparative analysis of knowledge gain
between interpretive and fact-only presentations at an animal training session: An exploratory study.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 488-495.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have recognized the importance of integrating living collections with
personally delivered interpretation. One way for zoos to accomplish this is by conducting public animal
training sessions accompanied by personal interpretation. Many institutions offer these types of
interactions, but the term “interpretation” is used loosely and without clear definition. This exploratory
study compared knowledge gain of individual students in three different fifth grade school groups
visiting the Potter Park Zoo in Lansing, Michigan. Each group observed an animal training session, with
two groups receiving two types of presentations and one group serving as a control group. Although
29
hearing the same facts, the two treatment groups received different program types: an interpretive
presentation and a fact-only presentation. The third group viewed the training session but received no
presentation. Results showed that individuals who received the interpretive presentation retained more
information immediately after the training session than individuals in either of the other two groups.
This exploratory study suggests that using an interpretive presentation style is more effective in
producing knowledge gain than fact-only presentations in informal learning environments such as zoos
and aquariums.
Wilson, M., Kelling, A., Poline, L., Bloomsmith, M., and Maple, T. (2003). Post-occupancy evaluation of
zoo Atlanta's Giant Panda Conservation Center: Staff and visitor reactions. Zoo Biology, 22(4): 365-382.
Abstract: Construction of a new zoo animal exhibit impacts animals, visitors, and staff, and considerable
attention should be paid to evaluation of the exhibit. In November 1999, Zoo Atlanta received two giant
pandas from the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Sichuan, China, which presented an
opportunity to evaluate the new giant panda exhibit. The present study documents the reactions of staff
and visitors to Zoo Atlanta's Giant Panda Conservation Center by a post-occupancy evaluation (POE).
Confidential interviews were conducted with 23 staff, and 145 zoo visitors completed questionnaires.
Staff and visitors were asked to assign quality ratings to specific areas of the exhibit, and complete a
series of open-ended questions. The findings suggest that staff and visitors evaluated Zoo Atlanta's giant
panda exhibit favorably. On a five-point scale, the exhibit received mean ratings of 3.64 from the staff
and 4.50 from the visitors. With a few exceptions, most areas of the exhibit met or exceeded staff
expectations. Staff and visitors identified a number of strengths and weaknesses of the exhibit. Staff
most frequently recommended changes to the pandas' space and the ability to address husbandry
issues, while a large number of visitors did not suggest any changes, or did not respond to the question.
Visitors that did respond to the question most often recommended that the zoo display additional
pandas and modify the pandas' space. There were no significant differences in visitors' ratings of the
different areas of the enclosure, or in their overall impressions of the exhibit, as a function of the
pandas' location. The results are examined in terms of general implications for zoo exhibit design,
construction, and evaluation, and in light of the goals of this facility. The study highlights the benefits of
conducting POEs in a zoo setting.
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
30
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.
Wilson, L. and S. Waldon (2008). Engaging the community in our work: a successful zoo partnership
model. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association, 44: 18-22.
Project Description (2nd paragraph): The Orangutan Browse Plantation Project is a sustainable
partnership with schools to grow and harvest browse plants for the enrichment of Melbourne Zoo’s
orangutans. The project is sufficiently flexible to allow for schools with small urban garden spaces to
those with 10,000 trees in acreage plantations. A strong curriculum is incorporated to underpin and
support the project to ensure that the growth of plants is not a stand-alone activity. Educators at the
zoo support students and teachers in planning authentic learning experiences that address local and
global biodiversity issues. A flow on benefit of the project is that through connecting with the zoo’s
orangutans, students are more engaged to learn about local and global biodiversity issues and take
action towards effective solutions.
Myers, O., Saunders, C., and Birjulin, A. (2004). Emotional dimensions of watching zoo animals: An
experience sampling study building on insights from psychology. Curator, 47(3), 299-321.
Abstract: There is little research about how visitors to zoos and aquariums respond emotionally to the
animals they experience. The research that does exist has seldom been informed by current
psychological literature on affect, which examines the nature and roles of sentiments, moods, emotions,
and affective traits. Emotion is multi-dimensional: it focuses on a person's core goals; directs attention
and interest; arouses the body for action; and integrates social group and cultural factors. It is thus a
central component of meaning-making. This article provides an overview of the literature on emotion as
it applies to human emotional responses to animals. Informed by this literature, this paper presents
results from a research study conducted at a zoo. Subjects (2979 adults) were each electronically paged
once while viewing one of three zoo animals (snake, okapi, or gorilla). Subjects completed scales on 17
specific emotions, seven items measuring evaluation and arousal, and other scales and responses to the
animal. Four patterns of emotions emerged, ranging from “equal opportunity” emotions to “highly
selective” emotions. The variables that were most important in influencing emotions were not
demographic ones, but the kind of animal, subject's emotionality, relation to the animal, and other
items predicted by emotion theory. Implications for biophilia, conservation, and the study of emotional
responses to animals are discussed.
Groff, A., Lockhart, D., Ogden, J., and Dierking, L. D. (2005). An exploratory investigation of the effect of
working in an environmentally themed facility on the conservation-related knowledge, attitudes and
behavior of staff. Environmental Education Research, 11(3): 371-387.
31
Abstract: In the past decade, we have seen an increased focus on measuring the impact of zoos,
aquariums, and other free-choice learning environments on the conservation-related knowledge,
attitudes and behavior of the visiting public. However, no such studies have been conducted on the
impact of such environments on the staff working in these facilities – the very staff that in turn interact
with the public on a daily basis. Clearly these interactions are recognized as being important; for
example, the thousands of staff employed by Disney’s Animal Kingdom are regularly provided with
conservation- related training – both formal, in-class experiences, as well as more informal experiences
with animals; these are a mixture of compulsory and freely chosen experiences. An exploratory
qualitative study was conducted to investigate the impact of working at Disney’s Animal Kingdom on
staff knowledge, attitudes, and behavior related to animals and their conservation. The resulting
findings offer preliminary evidence that working in an environmentally themed setting has a positive
impact on all of these variables, and that particular experiences – notably experiences in back-of-house
animal holding areas and with animal staff – are key. These findings suggest that further investigation
into the impact of working in such learning settings could be fruitful in understanding the role that the
work place plays in supporting the free-choice learning of staff. This is important both from the
perspective of the staff themselves, and in relation to the impact that these individuals may have on
visitors to free-choice learning settings.
*Article above addresses staff, rather than visitor, learning.
Kruse, C. K. and Card, J. A. (2004). Effects of a conservation education camp program on campers' selfreported knowledge, attitude, and behavior. The Journal of Environmental Education, 35(4): 33-45.
Abstract: In this study, the authors examined the effects of a conservation education camp program
offered through one zoo education department. The conservation education program included 4 levels
of camps with increasing levels of animal husbandry. Campers rated their conservation knowledge,
attitude, and behavior prior to, immediately after, and 1 month after the camp experience. Results
indicated that conservation knowledge scores increased over the study period, as did attitude and
behavior, though patterns of change were varied in each level of camp. Campers' self-reported
knowledge, attitude, and behavior also increased with increased levels of animal husbandry. And,
campers with previous conservation education camp experience had higher knowledge and attitude
self-ratings than did those without experience. However, as knowledge, attitude, and behavior are
complex characteristics and difficult to assess, more research is needed to verify the effectiveness of
conservation education programs in effecting change.
*****
The following studies explore education outside of ZA.
Adcock, L. and Ballantyne, R. (2007). Drama as a tool in interpretation: Practitioner perceptions of its
strengths & limitations. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 23: 31-44.
Abstract: Although environmental and heritage interpretation aims to connect humans with their
natural and cultural heritage, and has the potential to contribute to a vision of sustainable living, it often
falls short of engaging and inspiring its audiences. Some interpreters advocate the use of artistic
32
approaches to create more affective (imaginary-emotional-sensory-aesthetic) experiences. One
approach considered compatible is drama. Powerful dramatic experiences can embed interpretive
stories in the emotions and leave enduring impressions. Drama is accepted as an interpretive tool
overseas, yet it is under-utilised in Australia. How can it be used to strengthen interpretation in this
country? This paper presents the outcomes of research investigating the perceptions of ten Queensland
practitioners of dramatised interpretation regarding drama's strengths, limitations and value as a tool in
interpretation. The authors contend that drama has much to offer interpretation, although further
evaluative studies are clearly needed.
McNamara, K. and Prideaux, B. (2010). Reading, learning and enacting: Interpretation at visitor sites in
the Wet Tropics rainforest of Australia. Environmental Education Research, 16(2): 173-188.
Abstract: The northern Wet Tropics rainforest of Australia was declared a world heritage site in 1988
and now supports an extensive tourism industry that attracts an estimated 2.5 million local and
international visits annually. As part of the visitor experience, many sites include both environmental
and cultural interpretation experiences, which range from static displays to one-on-one guided tours.
This paper identifies visitor demand and level of satisfaction with the static signage and displays used at
rainforest sites throughout the Wet Tropics. The research involves visitor surveys conducted in 2007 and
2008 and observations at a number of rainforest sites. The results indicate that visitors consider the
level of interpretation to be adequate, but appear to use it poorly. While higher at commercial sites,
visitor interest in reading the interpretation is very low at public sites. Overall, this article seeks to
address whether the aims of nature-based interpretation, including education and the influencing of
attitudes and site behaviour, are being achieved.
Reis, G. and Roth, W. (2010). A feeling for the environment: Emotion talk in/for the pedagogy of public
environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 41(2): 71-87.
Abstract: Emotions are important aspects in/for the pedagogy of environmental education (EE).
However, the literature on the relationship between emotions and EE has not explored how emotion
talk furnishes teaching identity claims and mediates instruction in/about the environment. Therefore,
the present study draws on two ethnographic case studies to investigate the rhetorical and situational
use of emotion discursive categories in interviews and authentic EE learning situations. Our findings
suggest that rather than just being an outcome of effective instructional models designed to instill an
environmental consciousness in students, emotion discourses are means to help account for and
concretely realize the pedagogy of EE.
33
What is the role of interpreters and how do they affect learning?
Penn, L. (2009). Zoo theater's influence on affect and cognition: A case study from the Central Park Zoo
in New York. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 412-428.
Abstract: Zoo theater is used by zoos as a means to influence visitor feelings and knowledge gain about
wildlife and environmental themes. This study examined whether and to what extent zoo theater
fulfilled these aims by investigating its impact on affect and cognition. The study consisted of an indepth case study at the Central Park Zoo in New York, a location that has one of the most diverse zoo
theater programs in the United States. Using a multimethod approach the study explored many facets of
the Central Park Zoo's extensive zoo theater program. These included performances at a main stage, at
exhibits, and in the children's zoo. The study found that the extent of zoo theater's influence on affect
and cognition is dependent on a combination of a variety of characteristics that include the length of a
performance, audience participation, the level of structure of a performance, the presence of song and
dance elements, and the scale of the productions.
Wagner, K., Chessler, M., York, P., and Raynor, J. (2009). Development and implementation of an
evaluation strategy for measuring conservation outcomes. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 473-487.
Abstract: The Philadelphia Zoo's Measuring Mission project assessed the conservation-related impacts
of a visit to the Zoo and documented the results in a way that would provide a set of easily actionable
planning strategies. A logic model provided a theoretical framework and guided the development of
survey items. Three groups were surveyed using a pre–post retrospective instrument: zoo visitors,
members, and volunteers. This report includes findings from the visitor surveys only. Data were
analyzed using factor analysis, correlations, and t-tests. Results revealed that the Philadelphia Zoo has
been most successful in providing its guests with a satisfying animal viewing experience, facilitated by
accessible informative interpretive staff, but that guests do not always take advantage of opportunities
to interact with staff. Success in achieving the Zoo's conservation mission was measured by comparing
pre and posttest scores on five outcome factors (conservation motivation, conservation knowledge, proconservation consumer skills, conservation attitudes/values, readiness to take conservation action). The
greatest gains were found in conservation knowledge and conservation motivation. Quality of exhibits
and quality of staff stand out as the most important factors in influencing conservation outcomes. To
ensure that results would be accessible to a wide variety of Zoo employees for planning, program and
exhibit development, and staff training, nine strategies were identified as key to achieving success in the
Zoo's mission. Measuring Mission has created a process for assessing the Zoo's mission impact, and has
confirmed that high-quality exhibits interpreted by expert, readily available staff can influence
conservation knowledge and motivation in particular.
Visscher, N. C., Snider, R., and Vander Stoep, G. (2009). Comparative analysis of knowledge gain
between interpretive and fact-only presentations at an animal training session: An exploratory study.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 488-495.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have recognized the importance of integrating living collections with
personally delivered interpretation. One way for zoos to accomplish this is by conducting public animal
34
training sessions accompanied by personal interpretation. Many institutions offer these types of
interactions, but the term “interpretation” is used loosely and without clear definition. This exploratory
study compared knowledge gain of individual students in three different fifth grade school groups
visiting the Potter Park Zoo in Lansing, Michigan. Each group observed an animal training session, with
two groups receiving two types of presentations and one group serving as a control group. Although
hearing the same facts, the two treatment groups received different program types: an interpretive
presentation and a fact-only presentation. The third group viewed the training session but received no
presentation. Results showed that individuals who received the interpretive presentation retained more
information immediately after the training session than individuals in either of the other two groups.
This exploratory study suggests that using an interpretive presentation style is more effective in
producing knowledge gain than fact-only presentations in informal learning environments such as zoos
and aquariums.
Wilson, M., Kelling, A., Poline, L., Bloomsmith, M., and Maple, T. (2003), Post-occupancy evaluation of
zoo Atlanta's Giant Panda Conservation Center: Staff and visitor reactions. Zoo Biology, 22(4): 365-382.
Abstract: Construction of a new zoo animal exhibit impacts animals, visitors, and staff, and considerable
attention should be paid to evaluation of the exhibit. In November 1999, Zoo Atlanta received two giant
pandas from the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Sichuan, China, which presented an
opportunity to evaluate the new giant panda exhibit. The present study documents the reactions of staff
and visitors to Zoo Atlanta's Giant Panda Conservation Center by a post-occupancy evaluation (POE).
Confidential interviews were conducted with 23 staff, and 145 zoo visitors completed questionnaires.
Staff and visitors were asked to assign quality ratings to specific areas of the exhibit, and complete a
series of open-ended questions. The findings suggest that staff and visitors evaluated Zoo Atlanta's giant
panda exhibit favorably. On a five-point scale, the exhibit received mean ratings of 3.64 from the staff
and 4.50 from the visitors. With a few exceptions, most areas of the exhibit met or exceeded staff
expectations. Staff and visitors identified a number of strengths and weaknesses of the exhibit. Staff
most frequently recommended changes to the pandas' space and the ability to address husbandry
issues, while a large number of visitors did not suggest any changes, or did not respond to the question.
Visitors that did respond to the question most often recommended that the zoo display additional
pandas and modify the pandas' space. There were no significant differences in visitors' ratings of the
different areas of the enclosure, or in their overall impressions of the exhibit, as a function of the
pandas' location. The results are examined in terms of general implications for zoo exhibit design,
construction, and evaluation, and in light of the goals of this facility. The study highlights the benefits of
conducting POEs in a zoo setting.
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
35
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.
Francis, D. and Esson, M. (2006). Zoo Theatre: The effectiveness of performance art in delivering multitiered conservation messages to mixed zoo audiences. Journal of the International Zoo Educators
Association, 42: 16-19.
Introduction and First Paragraph: In 2005 Chester Zoo decided to add a new attraction to its summer
programme of educational activities, a theatrical show entitled Turtles Can’t Fly. Although the zoo
already provides numerous opportunities for cognitive learning, including interactive interpretation and
presenter talks, it was thought that those visitors who favour affective learning were less well catered
for.
Different people favour different styles of learning. Trying to appeal to the under 9s we aimed to reach
children affectively by making them emotionally connect with the characters and the storyline in an
attempt to influence their attitudes towards rainforest conservation as opposed to teaching them cold
facts.
Lehnhardt, K., Hauck, D., Wilson, S., Sellin, R., Kuhar, C., and Miller, L. (2004). Assessment of the
Bushmeat Message at Disney’s Animal Kingdom. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association,
40: 22-25.
Purpose: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effectiveness of an animal keeper presentation
in communicating how overhunting of wildlife for bushmeat consumption and trade is producing a
conservation crisis. These survey findings will help to plan the next steps for improving the delivery of
information on this critical conservation issue.
Mortan, S. and Yalowitz, S. (2003). Evaluating the kelp forest feeding program at Monterey Bay
Aquarium. Visitor Studies Today, 6(1): 6-9.
Introduction: This evaluation project was conducted to measure the effectiveness of particular
communication strategies in the Kelp Forest feeding program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. During the
Kelp Forest program a volunteer guide (docent) delivers a narration about the Kelp Forest exhibit and
has a conversation with a diver feeding the fish in the exhibit. The program concludes with the diver and
the volunteer taking questions from the audience. The communication strategies measured in this study
were identified by The Ocean Project (TOP), a collaborative initiative where the Monterey Bay Aquarium
is a supporting partner.
36
Groff, A., Lockhart, D., Ogden, J., and Dierking, L. D. (2005). An exploratory investigation of the effect of
working in an environmentally themed facility on the conservation-related knowledge, attitudes and
behavior of staff. Environmental Education Research, 11(3): 371-387.
Abstract: In the past decade, we have seen an increased focus on measuring the impact of zoos,
aquariums, and other free-choice learning environments on the conservation-related knowledge,
attitudes and behavior of the visiting public. However, no such studies have been conducted on the
impact of such environments on the staff working in these facilities – the very staff that in turn interact
with the public on a daily basis. Clearly these interactions are recognized as being important; for
example, the thousands of staff employed by Disney’s Animal Kingdom are regularly provided with
conservation- related training – both formal, in-class experiences, as well as more informal experiences
with animals; these are a mixture of compulsory and freely chosen experiences. An exploratory
qualitative study was conducted to investigate the impact of working at Disney’s Animal Kingdom on
staff knowledge, attitudes, and behavior related to animals and their conservation. The resulting
findings offer preliminary evidence that working in an environmentally themed setting has a positive
impact on all of these variables, and that particular experiences – notably experiences in back-of-house
animal holding areas and with animal staff – are key. These findings suggest that further investigation
into the impact of working in such learning settings could be fruitful in understanding the role that the
work place plays in supporting the free-choice learning of staff. This is important both from the
perspective of the staff themselves, and in relation to the impact that these individuals may have on
visitors to free-choice learning settings.
*Article above addresses staff, rather than visitor, learning.
*****
The following studies explore education outside of ZA.
Adcock, L. and Ballantyne, R. (2007). Drama as a tool in interpretation: Practitioner perceptions of its
strengths & limitations. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 23: 31-44.
Abstract: Although environmental and heritage interpretation aims to connect humans with their
natural and cultural heritage, and has the potential to contribute to a vision of sustainable living, it often
falls short of engaging and inspiring its audiences. Some interpreters advocate the use of artistic
approaches to create more affective (imaginary-emotional-sensory-aesthetic) experiences. One
approach considered compatible is drama. Powerful dramatic experiences can embed interpretive
stories in the emotions and leave enduring impressions. Drama is accepted as an interpretive tool
overseas, yet it is under-utilised in Australia. How can it be used to strengthen interpretation in this
country? This paper presents the outcomes of research investigating the perceptions of ten Queensland
practitioners of dramatised interpretation regarding drama's strengths, limitations and value as a tool in
interpretation. The authors contend that drama has much to offer interpretation, although further
evaluative studies are clearly needed.
37
McNamara, K. and Prideaux, B. (2010). Reading, learning and enacting: Interpretation at visitor sites in
the Wet Tropics rainforest of Australia. Environmental Education Research, 16(2): 173-188.
Abstract: The northern Wet Tropics rainforest of Australia was declared a world heritage site in 1988
and now supports an extensive tourism industry that attracts an estimated 2.5 million local and
international visits annually. As part of the visitor experience, many sites include both environmental
and cultural interpretation experiences, which range from static displays to one-on-one guided tours.
This paper identifies visitor demand and level of satisfaction with the static signage and displays used at
rainforest sites throughout the Wet Tropics. The research involves visitor surveys conducted in 2007 and
2008 and observations at a number of rainforest sites. The results indicate that visitors consider the
level of interpretation to be adequate, but appear to use it poorly. While higher at commercial sites,
visitor interest in reading the interpretation is very low at public sites. Overall, this article seeks to
address whether the aims of nature-based interpretation, including education and the influencing of
attitudes and site behaviour, are being achieved.
Knapp, D. and Poff, R. (2001). A qualitative analysis of the immediate and short-term impact of an
environmental interpretive program. Environmental Education Research, 7(1): 55-65.
Abstract: This study utilized qualitative measures to further understand if an environmental interpretive
experience can enhance an environmental ethic. A discursive approach to emergent design was used to
generate grounded theory (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). In the methods used, the phenomenological data
gathered during the study directed the design of each step of the research as it evolved. Twenty-four
4th graders were randomly selected from three classes from a rural town in southern Indiana (USA).
These students participated in a field trip to a US Forest Service site near their school district.
Methodologies utilized in this program included ranger-led discussions, facilitated explorations, and
nature 'games'. The data was collected through post interviews (1 week following treatment) and post
post interviews (4 months after program). The findings indicated that the environmental interpretive
program had a strong positive impact on students' affect toward the resource site. The findings also
indicated retention of game mechanics and the content imbedded in these games. Cognitive and
behavioral impacts were limited.
Teisl, M., Anderson, M., Noblet, C., Criner, G., Rubin, J., and Dalton, T. (2011). Are environmental
professors unbalanced? Evidence from the field. The Journal of Environmental Education, 42(2): 67-83.
Abstract: Most outcomes assessment in higher education has focused on content knowledge or skills
development; however, attitudinal change is also a legitimate focus of assessment. We use the New
Ecological Paradigm (NEP) to test whether courses designed to meet the same university environmental
literacy requirement changed student environmental attitudes, and whether these changes resulted
from instructor and/or course-content effects. We found student environmental attitudes did change
significantly but in different directions depending upon who taught the course. The ability to measure
such changes adds to the discussion in the environmental education community on the desired nature
of attitudinal change and of the responsibilities of higher education instructors.
38
Reis, G. and Roth, W. (2010). A feeling for the environment: Emotion talk in/for the pedagogy of public
environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 41(2): 71-87.
Abstract: Emotions are important aspects in/for the pedagogy of environmental education (EE).
However, the literature on the relationship between emotions and EE has not explored how emotion
talk furnishes teaching identity claims and mediates instruction in/about the environment. Therefore,
the present study draws on two ethnographic case studies to investigate the rhetorical and situational
use of emotion discursive categories in interviews and authentic EE learning situations. Our findings
suggest that rather than just being an outcome of effective instructional models designed to instill an
environmental consciousness in students, emotion discourses are means to help account for and
concretely realize the pedagogy of EE.
Schusler, T. M. and Krasny, M. E. (2010). Environmental action as context for youth development. The
Journal of Environmental Education, 41(4): 208-223.
Abstract: This study explored the practices of teachers, nonformal science educators, community
organizers, youth program managers, and other educators facilitating youth participation in local
environmental action, as well as the experiences of some of the youth involved. We conducted narrative
interviews with 33 educators facilitating youth environmental action in communities throughout the
United States and group interviews with 46 youth participating in nine environmental action programs
in New York State. Through interpretation of educators' stories and youths' reflections, we discovered
strong parallels with theory and empirical research in the youth development literature suggesting
environmental action is a valuable context for positive youth development.
Ernst, J. (2007). Factors associated with K-12 teachers' use of environment-based education. The Journal
of Environmental Education, 38(3): 15-32.
Abstract: The term environment-based education describes a form of school-based environmental
education in which an instructor uses the local environment as a context for integrating subjects and a
source of real world learning experiences. Despite the growing body of evidence that supports the
educational efficacy of this instructional approach and its foundation of high-quality environmental
education, relatively few teachers seem to practice environment-based education (University of
Maryland Survey Research Center, 2000). In the context of encouraging more widespread adoption of
this formal instructional approach, the author used exploratory survey research with a convenience
sample of 287 teachers to investigate influences on teachers' decisions to use and their abilities to
implement environment-based education. The author used analysis of variance and discriminant
function analyses, and results suggest that environmental literacy knowledge and skills and
environmental sensitivity are important in teachers' decisions to use and their abilities to implement
environment-based education.
39
What are the impacts of specific types of programs, e.g.; touch vs. not?
Visscher, N. C., Snider, R., and Vander Stoep, G. (2009). Comparative analysis of knowledge gain
between interpretive and fact-only presentations at an animal training session: An exploratory study.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 488-495.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have recognized the importance of integrating living collections with
personally delivered interpretation. One way for zoos to accomplish this is by conducting public animal
training sessions accompanied by personal interpretation. Many institutions offer these types of
interactions, but the term “interpretation” is used loosely and without clear definition. This exploratory
study compared knowledge gain of individual students in three different fifth grade school groups
visiting the Potter Park Zoo in Lansing, Michigan. Each group observed an animal training session, with
two groups receiving two types of presentations and one group serving as a control group. Although
hearing the same facts, the two treatment groups received different program types: an interpretive
presentation and a fact-only presentation. The third group viewed the training session but received no
presentation. Results showed that individuals who received the interpretive presentation retained more
information immediately after the training session than individuals in either of the other two groups.
This exploratory study suggests that using an interpretive presentation style is more effective in
producing knowledge gain than fact-only presentations in informal learning environments such as zoos
and aquariums.
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.
Ross, S. and Lukas, K. (2005). Zoo visitor behavior at an African Ape exhibit. Visitor Studies Today, 8(1): 412.
Abstract: There is increasing interest in understanding the behavior of visitors to informal education
institutions such as zoos. Although some quantitative evaluations of zoo visitor behavior exist, the ability
40
to generalize across a wide range of zoos of varying size and composition remains questionable. A series
of “site-specific” research projects may be useful in determining the full range of visitor experiences at a
variety of institutions. This study tracked the behavior of 350 visitors to the Lester E. Fisher Great Ape
House at Lincoln Park Zoo over a 12-month period. Visit durations ranged from 32 sec to over 41 min
with a median of 7 min 23 sec. Children had significantly shorter visit durations than adults but the
presence of children did not affect the visit durations of adults. Both age groups spent significantly more
time watching the apes than reading interpretive graphics, but some types of interpretive graphics were
more effective than others. Graphics that involved “hands-on” interaction were used significantly more
frequently than expected based on their availability. These data add to the growing literature on visitor
behavior in zoological parks and have helped to guide several aspects of exhibit design for Lincoln Park
Zoo’s new ape facility.
Kruse, C. K. and Card, J. A. (2004). Effects of a conservation education camp program on campers' selfreported knowledge, attitude, and behavior. The Journal of Environmental Education, 35(4): 33-45.
Abstract: In this study, the authors examined the effects of a conservation education camp program
offered through one zoo education department. The conservation education program included 4 levels
of camps with increasing levels of animal husbandry. Campers rated their conservation knowledge,
attitude, and behavior prior to, immediately after, and 1 month after the camp experience. Results
indicated that conservation knowledge scores increased over the study period, as did attitude and
behavior, though patterns of change were varied in each level of camp. Campers' self-reported
knowledge, attitude, and behavior also increased with increased levels of animal husbandry. And,
campers with previous conservation education camp experience had higher knowledge and attitude
self-ratings than did those without experience. However, as knowledge, attitude, and behavior are
complex characteristics and difficult to assess, more research is needed to verify the effectiveness of
conservation education programs in effecting change.
Groff, A., Lockhart, D., Ogden, J., and Dierking, L. D. (2005). An exploratory investigation of the effect of
working in an environmentally themed facility on the conservation-related knowledge, attitudes and
behavior of staff. Environmental Education Research, 11(3): 371-387.
Abstract: In the past decade, we have seen an increased focus on measuring the impact of zoos,
aquariums, and other free-choice learning environments on the conservation-related knowledge,
attitudes and behavior of the visiting public. However, no such studies have been conducted on the
impact of such environments on the staff working in these facilities – the very staff that in turn interact
with the public on a daily basis. Clearly these interactions are recognized as being important; for
example, the thousands of staff employed by Disney’s Animal Kingdom are regularly provided with
conservation- related training – both formal, in-class experiences, as well as more informal experiences
with animals; these are a mixture of compulsory and freely chosen experiences. An exploratory
qualitative study was conducted to investigate the impact of working at Disney’s Animal Kingdom on
staff knowledge, attitudes, and behavior related to animals and their conservation. The resulting
findings offer preliminary evidence that working in an environmentally themed setting has a positive
impact on all of these variables, and that particular experiences – notably experiences in back-of-house
animal holding areas and with animal staff – are key. These findings suggest that further investigation
into the impact of working in such learning settings could be fruitful in understanding the role that the
41
work place plays in supporting the free-choice learning of staff. This is important both from the
perspective of the staff themselves, and in relation to the impact that these individuals may have on
visitors to free-choice learning settings.
*Article above addresses staff, rather than visitor, learning.
*****
The following studies explore education outside of ZA.
Lewis, E., Baudains, C., and Mansfield, C. (2009). The impact of AuSSI-WA at a primary school. Australian
Journal of Environmental Education, 25: 45-57.
Abstract: This paper presents the findings of the first stage of research on the impact of the Australian
Sustainable Schools Initiative (AuSSI) at an independent primary school in Western Australia. A
longitudinal (20 year) case study is being conducted, utilising data related to Education for Sustainability
(EfS) at the school from 1990-2009. 2005 was a critical year for the school because it marked the
beginning of participation in the Sustainable Schools Initiative pilot in Western Australia (AuSSI-WA). The
research investigates elements of EfS in operation at the school pre- and post-AuSSI-WA, as well as
student and teacher outcomes after involvement in the Initiative. An analysis of the initial data suggests
that participation in AuSSI-WA enabled the school to engage with a growing commitment to EfS in the
context of a whole--school approach.
Davis, J. M. and Ferreira, J. A. (2009). Creating cultural change in education: A proposal for a continuum
for evaluating the effectiveness of sustainable schools implementation strategies in Australia. Australian
Journal of Environmental Education, 25: 59-70.
Abstract: Networks are increasingly recognised as advantageous when creating and embedding cultural
change within organisations. This paper explores and problematises ideas around networks for
education for sustainability (EfS), specifically in relation to the implementation of the Australian
Sustainable Schools Initiative (AuSSI), a national, whole-school approach to EfS. In three Australian
states--New South Wales, Victoria and Queensland--AuSSI has been implemented in different ways. In
examining the use of products, facilitators and networks to embed initiatives such as AuSSI in Australian
schools, we propose a "continuum of cultural change strategies" as a framework for thinking about each
of these approaches to creating organisational and cultural change for sustainability. We anticipate that
such a framework may assist where choices need to be made in relation to the kinds of capacity building
processes that might best achieve "deep and wide" change within schools hoping to engender
significant cultural change.
Blair, M. (2008). Community environmental education as a model for effective environmental
programmes. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 24: 45-53.
42
Abstract: The benefits of community environmental education outlined in environmental education
literature are supported by the findings and implications of a research study undertaken in New
Zealand. Evidence from a two-case case study suggests that environmental programmes guided by the
key principles and practices of community environmental education, that is, public participation,
environmental adult education and environmental communication, can produce effective
environmental outcomes. Indeed, these cases indicate that the principles and practices of public
participation provide a catalyst for genuine collaborative efforts between different organisations and
local communities. Results also indicated that environmental adult education strategies can empower
community members to critically evaluate local environmental issues, which in turn resulted in a
commitment to improving the local environment. I thus argue in this paper that the principles and
practices of community environmental education can provide benchmarks for cross-sectoral
collaboration and assist communities in reaching environmental solutions.
Ballantyne, R., Fien, J., and Packer, J. (2001). School environmental education programme impacts upon
student and family learning: A case study analysis. Environmental Education Research, 7(1): 23-37.
Abstract: This article uses a case study approach to explore the impact of two school environmental
education programmes, from the perspective of participating students, their teachers and their parents.
A total of 152 students (79 from primary schools and 73 from a secondary school), 3 teachers and 62
parents contributed their perceptions regarding the impact of the programmes. Each programme is
described in detail and students' responses compared across the two programmes and across different
class groups participating in each programme. It is concluded that both programmes were successful in
engaging students in thinking and learning about environmental issues, although some programme
features were more likely than others to lead to impacts beyond the bounds of the classroom.
Recommendations are made regarding those features that need to be included in school environmental
education programmes in order to maximise student and family learning outcomes.
Falk, J. H., Scott, C., Dierking, L., Rennie, L., and Jones, M. C. (2004). Interactives and visitor learning.
Curator, 47(2): 171-198.
Abstract: Interactives—computers and other multimedia components, physical manipulatives (including
whole-body and tabletop activities), and simulations—occur in all types of museums. There is
considerable interest in the nature of the learning that happens when visitors use interactives. Museum
professionals have enlisted constructivist theory to support the notion that interactive elements are
invaluable components of any exhibition experience, and are effective learning tools that enable active
visitor engagement. Interactives are also seen as vital to sustaining institutional image and expanding
institutional popularity. Despite the increasing use of interactives in exhibitions and the substantial
investments being made in their design and maintenance, there is a paucity of research as to whether
these constructivist assumptions are supported. There is little work exploring visitors' perceptions of
specific types of interactives, or the role of interactivity in the visitor experience generally. Museum staff
thus have a limited ability to make informed decisions about the level and type of interactivity that
might enhance exhibition experiences.
43
*****
The following studies discuss the impacts of a specific program or programs, but do not compare
program impacts.
Penn, L. (2009). Zoo theater’s influence on affect and cognition: A case study from the Central Park Zoo
in New York. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 412-428.
Abstract: Zoo theater is used by zoos as a means to influence visitor feelings and knowledge gain about
wildlife and environmental themes. This study examined whether and to what extent zoo theater
fulfilled these aims by investigating its impact on affect and cognition. The study consisted of an indepth case study at the Central Park Zoo in New York, a location that has one of the most diverse zoo
theater programs in the United States. Using a multimethod approach the study explored many facets of
the Central Park Zoo’s extensive zoo theater program. These included performances at a main stage, at
exhibits, and in the children’s zoo. The study found that the extent of zoo theater’s influence on affect
and cognition is dependent on a combination of a variety of characteristics that include the length of a
performance, audience participation, the level of structure of a performance, the presence of song and
dance elements, and the scale of the productions.
Fernandez, E. J. and Timberlake, W. (2008), Mutual benefits of research collaborations between zoos
and academic institutions. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 470-487.
Abstract: Zoos focus on welfare, conservation, education, and research related to animals they keep.
Academic institutions emphasize description, experimentation, modeling, and teaching of general and
specific animal biology and behavior through work in both laboratory and field. The considerable
overlap in concerns and methods has increased interest in collaborative projects, but there is ample
room for closer and more extensive interactions. The purpose of this article is to increase awareness of
potential research collaborations in three areas: (1) control and analysis of behavior, (2) conservation
and propagation of species, and (3) education of students and the general public. In each area, we
outline (a) research in zoos, (b) research in academics, and (c) potential collaborative efforts.
Wilson, L. and Waldon, S. (2008). Engaging the community in our work: A successful zoo partnership
model. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association, 44: 18-22.
Project Description (2nd paragraph): The Orangutan Browse Plantation Project is a sustainable
partnership with schools to grow and harvest browse plants for the enrichment of Melbourne Zoo’s
orangutans. The project is sufficiently flexible to allow for schools with small urban garden spaces to
those with 10,000 trees in acreage plantations. A strong curriculum is incorporated to underpin and
support the project to ensure that the growth of plants is not a stand-alone activity. Educators at the
zoo support students and teachers in planning authentic learning experiences that address local and
global biodiversity issues. A flow on benefit of the project is that through connecting with the zoo’s
orangutans, students are more engaged to learn about local and global biodiversity issues and take
action towards effective solutions.
44
Adcock, L. and Ballantyne, R. (2007). Drama as a tool in interpretation: Practitioner perceptions of its
strengths & limitations. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 23: 31-44.
Abstract: Although environmental and heritage interpretation aims to connect humans with their
natural and cultural heritage, and has the potential to contribute to a vision of sustainable living, it often
falls short of engaging and inspiring its audiences. Some interpreters advocate the use of artistic
approaches to create more affective (imaginary-emotional-sensory-aesthetic) experiences. One
approach considered compatible is drama. Powerful dramatic experiences can embed interpretive
stories in the emotions and leave enduring impressions. Drama is accepted as an interpretive tool
overseas, yet it is under-utilised in Australia. How can it be used to strengthen interpretation in this
country? This paper presents the outcomes of research investigating the perceptions of ten Queensland
practitioners of dramatised interpretation regarding drama's strengths, limitations and value as a tool in
interpretation. The authors contend that drama has much to offer interpretation, although further
evaluative studies are clearly needed.
Everett, M. and Piscitelli, B. (2006). Hands-on trolleys: Facilitating learning through play. Visitor Studies
Today, 9(1): 10-17.
Abstract: Museums offer children unique opportunities for meaningful learning, and over time, have
evolved from being adult oriented to child-friendly places. Today, museum vision statements often
include a commitment to lifelong learning and young visitors are viewed as an important museum-going
audience. Consequently, museums are looking for ways to design exhibitions and programs that
accommodate children’s learning needs. In this context, the Queensland Museum developed a set of
resource trolleys to introduce young visitors to museums and their collections. This paper reports
findings from a study that evaluated the impact child-centered discovery trolleys have on –8 year old
children’s museum experiences. Findings from this study add to the body of knowledge on this topic and
may have important implications for designing museum experiences that stimulate children’s interest in
museums and increase learning outcomes.
45
What is the role of ZA in the community?
Clayton, S., Fraser, J., and Saunders, C. D. (2009). Zoo experiences: Conversations, connections, and
concern for animals. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 377-397.
Abstract: One way in which zoos attempt to fulfill their goal of conservation is by educating visitors
about the importance of protecting wildlife. Research has only begun to examine the effectiveness of
zoos in place-based learning, and there has been much debate about how such informal learning is
defined and measured. Free-choice learning research has demonstrated that educational outcomes are
often indirect, constructed by the visitor as much as they are influenced by the zoo’s educational staff.
This constructivist definition of education includes emotional dimensions and personal meaning-making
that occur in the social context of visiting, as well as any structured interpretive material provided on
signs and through live presentations. This paper presents an examination of how the zoo is experienced
by the visitor, through surveys and through observations of how visitors watch animals and incorporate
those viewings into their social experience. Results from surveys of 206 zoo visitors show that support
for protecting both individual animals and species is associated with learning, with wanting to know
more, and with a feeling of connection to the animal. An analysis of 1,900 overheard visitor
conversations suggests that zoo animals are used to facilitate topical interaction among social groups
and to explore the connections that people share with nonhuman animals. The authors propose that
these perceived positive connections may be related to support for conservation initiatives, and
conclude that a visit to the zoo appears to be a positive emotional experience that leaves visitors
interested in learning more about animals, irrespective of their reading the exhibit labels.
Penn, L. (2009). Zoo theater’s influence on affect and cognition: A case study from the Central Park Zoo
in New York. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 412-428.
Abstract: Zoo theater is used by zoos as a means to influence visitor feelings and knowledge gain about
wildlife and environmental themes. This study examined whether and to what extent zoo theater
fulfilled these aims by investigating its impact on affect and cognition. The study consisted of an indepth case study at the Central Park Zoo in New York, a location that has one of the most diverse zoo
theater programs in the United States. Using a multimethod approach the study explored many facets of
the Central Park Zoo’s extensive zoo theater program. These included performances at a main stage, at
exhibits, and in the children’s zoo. The study found that the extent of zoo theater’s influence on affect
and cognition is dependent on a combination of a variety of characteristics that include the length of a
performance, audience participation, the level of structure of a performance, the presence of song and
dance elements, and the scale of the productions.
Owen, K., Murphy, D., and Parsons, C. (2009). ZATPAC: A model consortium evaluates teen programs.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 429-446.
Abstract: How do we advance the environmental literacy of young people, support the next generation
of environmental stewards and increase the diversity of the leadership of zoos and aquariums? We
believe it is through ongoing evaluation of zoo and aquarium teen programming and have founded a
consortium to pursue those goals. The Zoo and Aquarium Teen Program Assessment Consortium
46
(ZATPAC) is an initiative by six of the nation’s leading zoos and aquariums to strengthen institutional
evaluation capacity, model a collaborative approach toward assessing the impact of youth programs,
and bring additional rigor to evaluation efforts within the field of informal science education. Since its
beginning in 2004, ZATPAC has researched, developed, pilot-tested and implemented a pre–post
program survey instrument designed to assess teens’ knowledge of environmental issues, skills and
abilities to take conservation actions, self-efficacy in environmental actions, and engagement in
environmentally responsible behaviors. Findings from this survey indicate that teens who join
zoo/aquarium programs are already actively engaged in many conservation behaviors. After
participating in the programs, teens showed a statistically significant increase in their reported
knowledge of conservation and environmental issues and their abilities to research, explain, and find
resources to take action on conservation issues of personal concern. Teens also showed statistically
significant increases pre-program to post-program for various conservation behaviors, including “I talk
with my family and/or friends about things they can do to help the animals or the environment,” “I save
water…,” “I save energy…,” “When I am shopping I look for recycled products,” and “I help with projects
that restore wildlife habitat.”
Askue, L., Heimlich, J., Yu, J. P., Wang, X., and Lakly, S. (2009). Measuring a professional conservation
education training program for zoos and wildlife parks in China. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 447-461.
Abstract: Designed and implemented in 2006, the Academy for Conservation Training (ACT) is a
conservation education academy modeled after the Association for Zoos and Aquariums’ (AZA)
professional conservation education course. ACT incorporates conservation education best practices
utilized by AZA-accredited institutions to provide zoo and wildlife park professionals in China with the
skills, knowledge, and tools needed to design, implement, and evaluate effective conservation education
programs at their facilities. Initial findings indicate that the ACT model is an effective approach to
connect these emerging educators with conservation education best practices. The strongest
satisfaction responses in this study were in perceptions of the program preparing the individual for work
and in personal development. In terms of the longitudinal survey conducted with ACT graduates after
the training, the lowest scoring items were the opportunities to meet other zoo educators in China and
the quantity of information provided. The most revealing trend in regards to preparedness in becoming
zoo educators was that specific pedagogical skills were those where perceived gain was consistent and
strong across all three academies.
Ross, S. R. and Gillespie, K. L. (2009). Influences on visitor behavior at a modern immersive zoo exhibit.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 462-472.
Abstract: Zoos serve as centers for both research and education. The challenge is to convey messages
about their conservation projects while meeting visitor expectations, which often include recreation and
entertainment. One way this can be achieved is through the design of immersive exhibits that draw
visitors in and engage them with interactive educational elements. Regenstein African Journey (RAJ)
opened at Lincoln Park Zoo in 2003 and was designed to take visitors on a simulated safari through
Africa. Because visitor experience was a major design goal, we conducted a timing and tracking study to
evaluate use of the building and educational components. For a 9-week period in 2003, we tracked 338
visitors to RAJ and recorded continuous data as they moved through the building. Data were collected
47
on handheld computers that provided precise timing data. The median visit was 11.08 min, 41% of which
was spent looking at animals and 9% of which was spent engaged with interpretive elements. We found
significant differences in the way visitors used signage: those in groups without children spent more of
their visit engaged with signage than those with children and visitors who spent more of their visit
interacting socially spent less time engaged with signage. By understanding how visitors use the
educational opportunities presented to them, we can better meet their expectations and more
effectively achieve the goal of conservation education.
Wagner, K., Chessler, M., York, P., and Raynor, J. (2009). Development and implementation of an
evaluation strategy for measuring conservation outcomes. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 473-487.
Abstract: The Philadelphia Zoo’s Measuring Mission project assessed the conservation-related impacts
of a visit to the Zoo and documented the results in a way that would provide a set of easily actionable
planning strategies. A logic model provided a theoretical framework and guided the development of
survey items. Three groups were surveyed using a pre–post retrospective instrument: zoo visitors,
members, and volunteers. This report includes findings from the visitor surveys only. Data were
analyzed using factor analysis, correlations, and t-tests. Results revealed that the Philadelphia Zoo has
been most successful in providing its guests with a satisfying animal viewing experience, facilitated by
accessible informative interpretive staff, but that guests do not always take advantage of opportunities
to interact with staff. Success in achieving the Zoo’s conservation mission was measured by comparing
pre and posttest scores on five outcome factors (conservation motivation, conservation knowledge, proconservation consumer skills, conservation attitudes/values, readiness to take conservation action). The
greatest gains were found in conservation knowledge and conservation motivation. Quality of exhibits
and quality of staff stand out as the most important factors in influencing conservation outcomes. To
ensure that results would be accessible to a wide variety of Zoo employees for planning, program and
exhibit development, and staff training, nine strategies were identified as key to achieving success in the
Zoo’s mission. Measuring Mission has created a process for assessing the Zoo’s mission impact, and has
confirmed that high-quality exhibits interpreted by expert, readily available staff can influence
conservation knowledge and motivation in particular.
Lawson, D. P., Ogden, J., and Snyder, R. J. (2008). Maximizing the contribution of science in zoos and
aquariums: Organizational models and perceptions. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 458-469.
First Paragraph: Scientific research in zoos and aquariums is important because it drives and informs the
ever-increasing standards of care and quality of programs (i.e., animal management and welfare,
education, and conservation). The need for zoo and aquarium-based research programs has been
argued for at least two decades [Finlay and Maple, 1986; Benirschke, 1987; Chiszar et al., 1993;
Benirschke, 1996; Kleiman, 1996], and the utility of such programs is demonstrated daily by the
quantifiable achievements in animal care, education, and conservation of Association of Zoo and
Aquarium (AZA) accredited institutions. However, despite an apparent growing appreciation for and
preponderance of research in zoos and aquariums [Stoinski et al., 1998], researchers and research
funding are still often considered a luxury and often are amongst the first cut during difficult financial
times. In addition, despite that the prevalence of zoo-based research has occurred in the biological
48
realm, the art and science of animal management and welfare is still perceived as an uncomfortable
marriage, and negative perceptions of science and scientists in our institutions persist.
Fernandez, E. J. and Timberlake, W. (2008). Mutual benefits of research collaborations between zoos
and academic institutions. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 470-487.
Abstract: Zoos focus on welfare, conservation, education, and research related to animals they keep.
Academic institutions emphasize description, experimentation, modeling, and teaching of general and
specific animal biology and behavior through work in both laboratory and field. The considerable
overlap in concerns and methods has increased interest in collaborative projects, but there is ample
room for closer and more extensive interactions. The purpose of this article is to increase awareness of
potential research collaborations in three areas: (1) control and analysis of behavior, (2) conservation
and propagation of species, and (3) education of students and the general public. In each area, we
outline (a) research in zoos, (b) research in academics, and (c) potential collaborative efforts.
Hutchins, M. and Thompson, S. D. (2008). Zoo and aquarium research: Priority setting for the coming
decades. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 488-497.
Abstract: Scientific study within contemporary zoos and aquariums has developed ad hoc as an
extremely broad, academically oriented mixture of basic and applied research spanning a wide array of
concepts and disciplines. Several papers have considered prioritization of present or future research
efforts within disciplines, but only a few have touched on prioritization across institutions, disciplines,
and species. This lack of prioritization across institutions and disciplines is surprising given the growing
interdependence of zoos and aquariums to maintain populations through exchange of animals,
standardization of animal care procedures, and maintenance of self-sustaining populations. The purpose
of this paper is to explore prioritization of scientific research, and support of that prioritized research,
within and among the professionally managed zoo and aquarium members of the Association of Zoos
and Aquariums (AZA).
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
49
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.
Fraser, J. (2009). The anticipated utility of zoos for developing moral concern in children. Curator, 52(2):
349-361.
Abstract: This study asked why parents value zoo experiences for themselves and their children. It
proposes a new theory regarding the psychological value of such experiences for the development of
identity. The study used a constructivist grounded theory approach to explore parenting perspectives on
the value of zoo visits undertaken by eight families from three adjacent inner-city neighborhoods in a
major American city. The results suggest that parents use zoo visits as tools for promoting family values.
These parents felt that experiences with live animals were necessary to encourage holistic empathy, to
extend children's sense of justice to include natural systems, and to model the importance of family
relationships. The author concludes that parents find zoos useful as a tool for helping their children to
develop skills with altruism, to transfer environmental values, to elevate children's self-esteem, and to
inculcate social norms that they believe will aid in their children's social success in the future.
Yocco, V., Heimlich, J. E., Myers, C., and Jenike, D. (2010). Let’s go to the zoo! Visitors’ social
expectations of a trip to the zoo. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association, 46: 34-40.
Introduction and First Paragraph: Data were collected from zoo visitors regarding their interests and
social expectations of a zoo visit and the expectations they feel others they are visiting with have.
Findings suggest that visitors rate themselves as having a higher level of interest for some activities such
as spending time with family. Social expectations that visitors have include interacting with others they
are visiting with, learning about animals, and watching animals.
It has been noted that education is a prominent theme in US zoo mission statements, and that zoos are
in a unique position to provide environmental education to a large number of visitors (Patrick et al.
2007). It is critical for zoos to understand their visitors and provide them with unique and engaging
experiences designed to further the education of visitors. Wild Research – A whole zoo exhibit and
inquiry program is a National Science Foundation funded collaboration between Project Dragonfly out of
Miami University, the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden (CZBG), the Institute for Learning Innovation
and a consortium of zoos and aquariums nationwide (Myers et al. 2007; Myers et al. 2009). A major
premise of Wild Research is to build on the social interactions that take place in a zoo to improve visitor
learning and engagement. Visitors participate in inquiry: make predictions, gather data, and compare
results all within the very social context of observing animals at different exhibits surrounded by other
zoo visitors engaging in similar activities.
Yalowitz, S. (2004). Evaluating visitor conservation research at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. Curator,
47(3): 283-98.
50
Abstract: In 1997 the Monterey Bay Aquarium refined its mission to one concise statement: The mission
of the Monterey Bay Aquarium is to inspire conservation of the oceans. This has led to increased
conservation content in exhibitions and more evaluation studies focused on visitors' conservation
knowledge, understanding, attitudes and behavior. This article reviews conservation-related findings
from the aquarium's exhibition evaluation efforts over the last 14 years, summarizing the major themes
that emerge from this body of work. Findings suggest that visitors to the Monterey Bay Aquarium are
interested in and receptive to conservation content and learn new conservation information from
exhibitions. Visitors' interest is most influenced by their personal involvement with conservation issues
and previous visitation to the aquarium. After leaving the aquarium, there is evidence that visitors retain
specific conservation information and maintain levels of concern about conservation topics for weeks,
and even months, after their visit. Additionally, some visitors use the Seafood Watch pocket guide to
choose sustainable seafood months after visiting the aquarium.
Vernon, C. (2009). Mission accomplished? Measuring Monterey Bay Aquarium’s role in inspiring ocean
conservation. Journal of the International Zoo Education Association, 45: 42-46.
First Paragraph: For the most part, we never hear from the vast majority of our visitors, and probably
won’t find out if their visit had any impact on their lives, either positive or negative. But since the
mission of the Monterey Bay Aquarium is ‘to inspire conservation of the oceans,’ we were determined
to learn – systematically – who we’re inspiring, to what extent we’re fulfilling our mission, and how. To
find the answers, we embarked on a research project in 2006 called the ‘Inspiring Ocean Conservation
Study.’
Patrick, P., Matthews, C., Ayers, D., and Tunnicliffe, S. (2007). Conservation and education: Prominent
themes in zoo mission statements. The Journal of Environmental Education, 38(3): 53-60.
Abstract: In this study, the authors examine the mission statements of 136 zoos in the United States
that the American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) has accredited, and report on the predominant
themes of education and conservation in the statements. To explore the relation between these two
themes, the authors present a literature review of the roles and purposes of zoos and discuss how the
literature compares with the roles and purposes of zoos as found in the zoo mission statements. They
conclude that with more than 134 million visitors a year, zoos are in a unique position to provide
environmental education and conservation education to large numbers of people.
51
How do visitors engage during an animal program?
Price, E. A., Vining, J., and Saunders, C. D. (2009). Intrinsic and extrinsic rewards in a nonformal
environmental education program. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 361-376.
Abstract: Humans are surrounded by threats to the environment, many of their own making. The
severity of environmental problems will not decrease unless action is taken to develop and encourage
greater environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) in the general populace. Environmental education
(EE) is one method for strengthening precursors to ERB such as knowledge and attitudes, but research
on the connection is currently unclear. In this paper we present the results of a study investigating the
role played by rewards in encouraging ERB precursors for adults and children involved in a zoo-based
Nature Swap program. We used semistructured interviews to question 91 participants, including 38
children, 38 adult guardians, and 15 staff members regarding the importance of rewards in the program.
We content analyzed the interviews to identify and describe major themes and then coded them. We
found that adult guardians and Play Partners perceived intrinsic and extrinsic rewards as aiding in
maintaining motivation and interest in the nonformal Nature Swap program. In addition, both children
and adult companion participants in the program mentioned strengthened precursors to ERB. Overall
we found that adult companions perceived that children who participated in the program spent more
quality time outdoors and had a heightened awareness of their surroundings as a result of programbased rewards. Implications for other EE and conservation education programs are discussed.
Penn, L. (2009). Zoo theater's influence on affect and cognition: A case study from the Central Park Zoo
in New York. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 412-428.
Abstract: Zoo theater is used by zoos as a means to influence visitor feelings and knowledge gain about
wildlife and environmental themes. This study examined whether and to what extent zoo theater
fulfilled these aims by investigating its impact on affect and cognition. The study consisted of an indepth case study at the Central Park Zoo in New York, a location that has one of the most diverse zoo
theater programs in the United States. Using a multimethod approach the study explored many facets of
the Central Park Zoo's extensive zoo theater program. These included performances at a main stage, at
exhibits, and in the children's zoo. The study found that the extent of zoo theater's influence on affect
and cognition is dependent on a combination of a variety of characteristics that include the length of a
performance, audience participation, the level of structure of a performance, the presence of song and
dance elements, and the scale of the productions.
Owen, K., Murphy, D. and Parsons, C. (2009). ZATPAC: A model consortium evaluates teen programs.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 429-446.
Abstract: How do we advance the environmental literacy of young people, support the next generation
of environmental stewards and increase the diversity of the leadership of zoos and aquariums? We
believe it is through ongoing evaluation of zoo and aquarium teen programming and have founded a
consortium to pursue those goals. The Zoo and Aquarium Teen Program Assessment Consortium
(ZATPAC) is an initiative by six of the nation's leading zoos and aquariums to strengthen institutional
evaluation capacity, model a collaborative approach toward assessing the impact of youth programs,
52
and bring additional rigor to evaluation efforts within the field of informal science education. Since its
beginning in 2004, ZATPAC has researched, developed, pilot-tested and implemented a pre–post
program survey instrument designed to assess teens' knowledge of environmental issues, skills and
abilities to take conservation actions, self-efficacy in environmental actions, and engagement in
environmentally responsible behaviors. Findings from this survey indicate that teens who join
zoo/aquarium programs are already actively engaged in many conservation behaviors. After
participating in the programs, teens showed a statistically significant increase in their reported
knowledge of conservation and environmental issues and their abilities to research, explain, and find
resources to take action on conservation issues of personal concern. Teens also showed statistically
significant increases pre-program to post-program for various conservation behaviors, including “I talk
with my family and/or friends about things they can do to help the animals or the environment,” “I save
water…,” “I save energy…,” “When I am shopping I look for recycled products,” and “I help with projects
that restore wildlife habitat.”
Ross, S. R. and Gillespie, K. L. (2009). Influences on visitor behavior at a modern immersive zoo exhibit.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 462-472.
Abstract: Zoos serve as centers for both research and education. The challenge is to convey messages
about their conservation projects while meeting visitor expectations, which often include recreation and
entertainment. One way this can be achieved is through the design of immersive exhibits that draw
visitors in and engage them with interactive educational elements. Regenstein African Journey (RAJ)
opened at Lincoln Park Zoo in 2003 and was designed to take visitors on a simulated safari through
Africa. Because visitor experience was a major design goal, we conducted a timing and tracking study to
evaluate use of the building and educational components. For a 9-week period in 2003, we tracked 338
visitors to RAJ and recorded continuous data as they moved through the building. Data were collected
on handheld computers that provided precise timing data. The median visit was 11.08 min, 41% of which
was spent looking at animals and 9% of which was spent engaged with interpretive elements. We found
significant differences in the way visitors used signage: those in groups without children spent more of
their visit engaged with signage than those with children and visitors who spent more of their visit
interacting socially spent less time engaged with signage. By understanding how visitors use the
educational opportunities presented to them, we can better meet their expectations and more
effectively achieve the goal of conservation education.
Wagner, K., Chessler, M., York, P., and Raynor, J. (2009). Development and implementation of an
evaluation strategy for measuring conservation outcomes. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 473-487.
Abstract: The Philadelphia Zoo's Measuring Mission project assessed the conservation-related impacts
of a visit to the Zoo and documented the results in a way that would provide a set of easily actionable
planning strategies. A logic model provided a theoretical framework and guided the development of
survey items. Three groups were surveyed using a pre–post retrospective instrument: zoo visitors,
members, and volunteers. This report includes findings from the visitor surveys only. Data were
analyzed using factor analysis, correlations, and t-tests. Results revealed that the Philadelphia Zoo has
been most successful in providing its guests with a satisfying animal viewing experience, facilitated by
accessible informative interpretive staff, but that guests do not always take advantage of opportunities
to interact with staff. Success in achieving the Zoo's conservation mission was measured by comparing
53
pre and posttest scores on five outcome factors (conservation motivation, conservation knowledge, proconservation consumer skills, conservation attitudes/values, readiness to take conservation action). The
greatest gains were found in conservation knowledge and conservation motivation. Quality of exhibits
and quality of staff stand out as the most important factors in influencing conservation outcomes. To
ensure that results would be accessible to a wide variety of Zoo employees for planning, program and
exhibit development, and staff training, nine strategies were identified as key to achieving success in the
Zoo's mission. Measuring Mission has created a process for assessing the Zoo's mission impact, and has
confirmed that high-quality exhibits interpreted by expert, readily available staff can influence
conservation knowledge and motivation in particular.
Visscher, N. C., Snider, R., and Vander Stoep, G. (2009). Comparative analysis of knowledge gain
between interpretive and fact-only presentations at an animal training session: An exploratory study.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 488-495.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have recognized the importance of integrating living collections with
personally delivered interpretation. One way for zoos to accomplish this is by conducting public animal
training sessions accompanied by personal interpretation. Many institutions offer these types of
interactions, but the term “interpretation” is used loosely and without clear definition. This exploratory
study compared knowledge gain of individual students in three different fifth grade school groups
visiting the Potter Park Zoo in Lansing, Michigan. Each group observed an animal training session, with
two groups receiving two types of presentations and one group serving as a control group. Although
hearing the same facts, the two treatment groups received different program types: an interpretive
presentation and a fact-only presentation. The third group viewed the training session but received no
presentation. Results showed that individuals who received the interpretive presentation retained more
information immediately after the training session than individuals in either of the other two groups.
This exploratory study suggests that using an interpretive presentation style is more effective in
producing knowledge gain than fact-only presentations in informal learning environments such as zoos
and aquariums.
Kutska, D. (2009). Variation in visitor perceptions of a polar bear enclosure based on the presence of
natural vs. un-natural enrichment items. Zoo Biology, 28(4): 292-306.
Abstract: A debate exists among modern zoo staff as to whether or not the addition of un-naturalistic
enrichment takes away from, or even defeats, the educational messages designers are trying to
incorporate in naturalistic exhibits. A visitor study was conducted at the Central Park Zoo's polar bear
exhibit in order to determine whether or not the type of enrichment in an enclosure actually alters guest
perceptions. Visitors were exposed to one of two enrichment treatments in the bear enclosure:
Naturalistic or Un-naturalistic. The results of this study suggest that enrichment type did not alter the
perceptions of visitors. However, it did identify some of the different ways adults and youths perceive
animals and zoos. Additionally, the study highlighted the varying perceptions individuals have of the
concept of polar bears vs. their perceptions of the captive individuals at the Central Park Zoo.
Implications for enrichment usage and exhibit design are discussed.
54
Fernandez, E. J. and Timberlake, W. (2008). Mutual benefits of research collaborations between zoos
and academic institutions. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 470-487.
Abstract: Zoos focus on welfare, conservation, education, and research related to animals they keep.
Academic institutions emphasize description, experimentation, modeling, and teaching of general and
specific animal biology and behavior through work in both laboratory and field. The considerable
overlap in concerns and methods has increased interest in collaborative projects, but there is ample
room for closer and more extensive interactions. The purpose of this article is to increase awareness of
potential research collaborations in three areas: (1) control and analysis of behavior, (2) conservation
and propagation of species, and (3) education of students and the general public. In each area, we
outline (a) research in zoos, (b) research in academics, and (c) potential collaborative efforts.
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.
*****
The following studies explore education outside of ZA.
Adcock, L. and Ballantyne, R. (2007). Drama as a tool in interpretation: Practitioner perceptions of its
strengths & limitations. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 23: 31-44.
Abstract: Although environmental and heritage interpretation aims to connect humans with their
natural and cultural heritage, and has the potential to contribute to a vision of sustainable living, it often
falls short of engaging and inspiring its audiences. Some interpreters advocate the use of artistic
approaches to create more affective (imaginary-emotional-sensory-aesthetic) experiences. One
approach considered compatible is drama. Powerful dramatic experiences can embed interpretive
55
stories in the emotions and leave enduring impressions. Drama is accepted as an interpretive tool
overseas, yet it is under-utilised in Australia. How can it be used to strengthen interpretation in this
country? This paper presents the outcomes of research investigating the perceptions of ten Queensland
practitioners of dramatised interpretation regarding drama's strengths, limitations and value as a tool in
interpretation. The authors contend that drama has much to offer interpretation, although further
evaluative studies are clearly needed.
Reis, G. and Roth, W. (2010). A feeling for the environment: Emotion talk in/for the pedagogy of public
environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 41(2): 71-87.
Abstract: Emotions are important aspects in/for the pedagogy of environmental education (EE).
However, the literature on the relationship between emotions and EE has not explored how emotion
talk furnishes teaching identity claims and mediates instruction in/about the environment. Therefore,
the present study draws on two ethnographic case studies to investigate the rhetorical and situational
use of emotion discursive categories in interviews and authentic EE learning situations. Our findings
suggest that rather than just being an outcome of effective instructional models designed to instill an
environmental consciousness in students, emotion discourses are means to help account for and
concretely realize the pedagogy of EE.
56
Are we making a difference in the welfare of elephants and marine mammals?
Hutchins, M. and Thompson, S. D. (2008). Zoo and aquarium research: Priority setting for the coming
decades. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 488-497.
Abstract: Scientific study within contemporary zoos and aquariums has developed ad hoc as an
extremely broad, academically oriented mixture of basic and applied research spanning a wide array of
concepts and disciplines. Several papers have considered prioritization of present or future research
efforts within disciplines, but only a few have touched on prioritization across institutions, disciplines,
and species. This lack of prioritization across institutions and disciplines is surprising given the growing
interdependence of zoos and aquariums to maintain populations through exchange of animals,
standardization of animal care procedures, and maintenance of self-sustaining populations. The purpose
of this paper is to explore prioritization of scientific research, and support of that prioritized research,
within and among the professionally managed zoo and aquarium members of the Association of Zoos
and Aquariums (AZA).
Packer, J., Ballantyne, R., and Falk, J. (2010). Exploring the impacts of wildlife tourism on visitors’ long
term environmental learning and behavior. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association, 46:
12-15.
First Paragraph: The study investigated how visitors’ entering attributes and specific aspects of the
experience contribute to changes in visitors’ knowledge, attitudes, and engagement in environmentally
responsible behaviours. Visitors’ memories of their experiences were also analysed to reveal the
processes which lead to long-term changes in environmentally responsible behaviours. The study
investigated these impacts at four marine-based wildlife tourism venues in South-East Queensland in
order to identify the nature and extent of long-term learning and environmental behavior change
outcomes.
*****
The following studies explore elephant welfare in zoos but do not specifically refer to social
services/activism or guest learning.
Dale, R. H. I. (2010). Birth statistics for African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus)
elephants in human care: History and implications for elephant welfare. Zoo Biology, 29(2): 87-103.
Abstract: African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian elephants (Elephas maximus) have lived in the care of
humans for many years, yet there is no consensus concerning some basic parameters describing their
newborn calves. This study provides a broad empirical basis for generalizations about the birth heights,
birth weights, birth times and gestation periods of elephant calves born in captivity. I obtained data
concerning at least one of these four characteristics for 218 newborn calves from 74 institutions. Over
the past 30 years, newborn Asian elephants have been taller and heavier than newborn African
elephants. Neonatal African elephants exhibited sex differences in both weight and height, whereas
neonatal Asian elephants have exhibited sex differences only in height. Primiparous dams ex situ are at
57
least as old as their in situ counterparts, whereas ex situ sires appear to be younger than sires in range
countries. Confirming earlier anecdotal evidence, both African [N=47] and Asian [N=91] dams gave birth
most often at night.
Kowalski, N. L., Dale, R. H. I., and Mazur, C. L. H. (2010). A survey of the management and development
of captive African elephant (Loxodonta africana) calves: Birth to three months of age. Zoo Biology,
29(2): 104-119.
Abstract: We used four surveys to collect information about the birth, physical growth, and behavioral
development of 12 African elephant calves born in captivity. The management of the birth process and
neonatal care involved a variety of standard procedures. All of the calves were born at night, between
7PM and 7AM. The calves showed a systematic progression in behavioral and physical development,
attaining developmental milestones at least a quickly as calves in situ. This study emphasized birthrelated events, changes in the ways that calves used their trunks, first instances of behaviors, and
interactions of the calves with other, usually adult, elephants. Several behaviors, such as the dam
covering her calf with hay and the calf sucking its own trunk, were common in the captive situation and
have been observed in situ. Overall, the behaviors of the calves resembled those observed for African
elephant calves in situ. These data should help in the management of African elephants under human
care by providing systematic reference values for the birth and development of elephant calves.
Proctor, C. M., Freeman, E. W., and Brown, J. L. (2010). Results of a second survey to assess the
reproductive status of female Asian and African elephants in North America. Zoo Biology, 29(2): 127139.
Abstract: Surveys are being conducted to monitor the reproductive health of elephants managed by the
TAG/SSP. This study summarizes results of a 2005 survey and compares data to one conducted in 2002.
Surveys were returned for 100% and 79.0% of Asian and African elephants, respectively. Of those, 79.3%
of Asian and 92.1% of African elephants had weekly progestagen data to assess ovarian cyclicity. For
Asian elephants, acyclicity rates were similar between the 2002 and 2005 surveys (13.3% versus 10.9%),
whereas irregular cycling increased in 2005 (2.6% versus 7.6%), respectively. For African elephants, the
percentages of both acyclicity (22.0% versus 31.2%) and irregular cycling females (5.2% versus 11.8%)
increased. In both species, ovarian inactivity was more prevalent in the older age categories (>30 years
of age), but for African elephants also occurred in the reproductive aged groups. Reproductive tract
pathologies did not account for the majority of acyclicity problems. Several females changed cyclicity
status between the two surveys, including from noncycling to cycling, suggesting this is not an
irreversible condition. However, seven African females went from cycling to abnormal or no cyclic
activity. In summary, the incidence of ovarian acyclicity in Asian elephants is low and stable, but appears
to be increasing in African females. These findings reinforce the need for long-term reproductive
monitoring programs and continuous reproductive surveys, even for females not being considered for
breeding. With more data we hope to determine what factors are related to changes in ovarian status
and how to reverse the trend towards acyclicity.
58
Plotnik, J. M., de Waal, F. B., Moore, D., and Reiss, D. (2010). Self-recognition in the Asian elephant and
future directions for cognitive research with elephants in zoological settings. Zoo Biology, 29(2): 179191.
Abstract: The field of animal cognition has grown steadily for nearly four decades, but the primary focus
has centered on easily kept lab animals of varying cognitive capacity, including rodents, birds and
primates. Elephants (animals not easily kept in a laboratory) are generally thought of as highly social,
cooperative, intelligent animals, yet few studies—with the exception of long-term behavioral field
studies—have been conducted to directly support this assumption. In fact, there has been remarkably
little cognitive research conducted on Asian (Elephas maximus) or African (Loxodonta africana or L.
cyclotis) elephants. Here, we discuss the opportunity and rationale for conducting such research on
elephants in zoological facilities, and review some of the recent developments in the field of elephant
cognition, including our recent study on mirror self-recognition in E. maximus.
Leighty, K. A., Soltis, J., and Savage, A. (2010). GPS assessment of the use of exhibit space and resources
by African elephants (Loxodonta africana). Zoo Biology, 29(2): 210-220.
Abstract: In public discussions of animal rights and welfare, we as members and proponents of
zoological institutions often face significant challenges addressing the concerns of our detractors due to
an unfortunate deficiency in systematically collected and published data on the animals in our
collections. In the case of elephants, there has been a paucity of information describing their use of
space within captive environments. Here, using collar-mounted GPS recording devices, we documented
the use of exhibit space and resources by a herd of five adult female African elephants (Loxodonta
africana) housed at Disney's Animal Kingdom®. We found that dominant animals within the herd used a
greater percentage of the available space and subordinate females avoided narrow or enclosed regions
of the enclosure that we termed “restricted flow areas.” In their use of other resources, dominant
females demonstrated increased occupation of the watering hole over subordinate females, but all
females demonstrated relatively equivalent use of the mud wallow. Overall, our results provide
preliminary evidence that position within the dominancy hierarchy impacts the percentage of space
occupied in a captive setting and may contribute to resource accessibility. These findings can be applied
to future decisions on exhibit design and resource distribution for this species.
Lewis, K. D., Shepherdson, D. J., Owens, T. M., and Keele, M. (2010). A survey of elephant husbandry and
foot health in North American zoos. Zoo Biology, 29(2): 221-236.
Abstract: The foot health of elephants in human care is a longstanding concern. In 2001, the AZA
Standards for Elephant Management and Care were published recommending husbandry to improve
foot health. This article reports the results of a 2006 survey: basic statistics describing facility,
husbandry, and foot health attributes are reported and relationships among variables are investigated.
Median area available to elephants exceeded Standard recommendations (755 ft2 per elephant indoor
and 10,000 ft2 outdoor). Concrete makes up 69% of indoor area and natural substrates account for 85%
of outdoor area. Elephants in AZA facilities received an average of 45.5 min/day of exercise, and facilities
with a structured exercise plan provided significantly more exercise than did facilities without a
structured exercise plan (z=−2.522, P=0.012). Enrichment is important to psychological health and may
59
also stimulate activity beneficial to foot health; 95% of institutions had a structured enrichment
program. Preventative foot care was nearly universal, and 100% of facilities performed routine nail and
pad trimming. However, foot pathology has not been eradicated; 33% of institutions reported at least
one pathology in the previous year. This study found a strong inverse relationship between foot
pathology and exercise (χ2(3)=24.34, P<0.001). Younger herds were less likely to have a member
diagnosed with arthritis (χ2(1)=8.90, P=0.003). Lameness was unrelated to age or pathology, and only
the presence of arthritis explained lameness (z=−7.81, P<0.001). African elephants seemed to
experience lower rates of foot pathology and arthritis than Asian elephants; however, this was explained
by differences in age.
Mason, G. J. and Veasey, J. S. (2010). How should the psychological well-being of zoo elephants be
objectively investigated? Zoo Biology, 29(2): 237-255.
Abstract: Animal welfare (sometimes termed “well-being”) is about feelings – states such as “suffering”
or “contentment” that we can infer but cannot measure directly. Welfare indices have been developed
from two main sources: studies of suffering humans, and of research animals deliberately subjected to
challenges known to affect emotional state. We briefly review the resulting indices here, and discuss
how well they are understood for elephants, since objective welfare assessment should play a central
role in evidence-based elephant management. We cover behavioral and cognitive responses
(approach/avoidance; intention, redirected and displacement activities; vigilance/startle; warning
signals; cognitive biases, apathy and depression-like changes; stereotypic behavior); physiological
responses (sympathetic responses; corticosteroid output – often assayed non-invasively via urine, feces
or even hair; other aspects of HPA function, e.g. adrenal hypertrophy); and the potential negative
effects of prolonged stress on reproduction (e.g. reduced gametogenesis; low libido; elevated still-birth
rates; poor maternal care) and health (e.g. poor wound-healing; enhanced disease rates; shortened
lifespans). The best validated, most used welfare indices for elephants are corticosteroid outputs and
stereotypic behavior. Indices suggested as valid, partially validated, and/or validated but not yet applied
within zoos include: measures of preference/avoidance; displacement movements; vocal/postural
signals of affective (emotional) state; startle/vigilance; apathy; salivary and urinary epinephrine; female
acyclity; infant mortality rates; skin/foot infections; cardio-vascular disease; and premature adult death.
Potentially useful indices that have not yet attracted any validation work in elephants include: operant
responding and place preference tests; intention and vacuum movements; fear/stress pheromone
release; cognitive biases; heart rate, pupil dilation and blood pressure; corticosteroid assay from hair,
especially tail-hairs (to access endocrine events up to a year ago); adrenal hypertrophy; male infertility;
prolactinemia; and immunological changes.
Mason, G. J. and Veasey, J. S. (2010). What do population-level welfare indices suggest about the wellbeing of zoo elephants? Zoo Biology, 29(2): 256-273.
Abstract: To assess zoo elephants' welfare using objective population-level indices, we sought data from
zoos and other protected populations (potential “benchmarks”) on variables affected by poor wellbeing. Such data were available on fecundity, potential fertility, stillbirths, infant mortality, adult
survivorship, and stereotypic behavior. Most of these can also be affected by factors unrelated to wellbeing; therefore, for each, we analyzed the potential role of these other factors. Population-level
60
comparisons generally indicate poor reproduction, and poor infant and adult survivorship in zoos
compared with benchmark populations (with some differences between zoo regions and over time).
Stereotypic behavior also occurs in c. 60% of zoo elephants; as the population-level welfare index least
open to alternative interpretations, this represents the strongest evidence that well-being is/has been
widely compromised. Poor well-being is a parsimonious explanation for the diverse range of populationlevel effects seen, but to test this hypothesis properly, data are now needed on, for example, potential
confounds that can affect these indices (to partition out effects of factors unrelated to well-being), and
causes of the observed temporal effects, and differences between species and zoo regions. Regardless
of whether such additional data implicate poor well-being, our findings suggest that elephant
management has generally been sub-optimal. We also discuss the selection and utilization of benchmark
data, as a useful future approach for evaluating such issues.
*****
The following study addresses marine mammal welfare but does not specifically refer to social
services/activism or guest learning.
Wells, R. S. (2009). Learning from nature: Bottlenose dolphin care and husbandry. Zoo Biology,
28(6): 635-651.
Abstract: The world's longest-running study of a wild dolphin population, operated by the Chicago
Zoological Society since 1989, has focused on the multi-generational resident community of about 160
bottlenose dolphins in Sarasota Bay, Florida, since 1970. Observational and capture-release research on
the biology, behavior, life history, ecology, and health of individually identifiable bay residents of up to
59 years of age and spanning five generations has helped to inform collection managers at the
Brookfield Zoo and partner institutions. Age, sex, and genetic compositions of colonies at cooperating
institutions have been based on observations of social structure and genetic paternity testing in
Sarasota Bay to optimize breeding success. Breeding success, including calf survivorship, is evaluated
relative to individual wild dolphin reproductive histories, spanning as many as nine calves and four
decades. Individual rearing patterns for wild dolphins provide guidance for determining how long to
keep mothers and calves together, and help to define the next steps in the calves' social development.
Health assessments provide data on expected ranges of blood, milk and urine values, morphometrics,
and body condition relative to age, sex, and reproductive condition. Calf growth can be compared with
wild values. Target weights and blubber thicknesses for specific age and sex classes in specified water
temperatures are available for wild dolphins, and caloric intakes can be adjusted accordingly to meet
the targets. A strength of the program is the ability to monitor individuals throughout their lives, and to
be able to define individual ranges of variability through ontogenetic stages.
61
How are ZA perceived in the community?
Clayton, S., Fraser, J., and Saunders, C. D. (2009). Zoo experiences: Conversations, connections, and
concern for animals. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 377-397.
Abstract: One way in which zoos attempt to fulfill their goal of conservation is by educating visitors
about the importance of protecting wildlife. Research has only begun to examine the effectiveness of
zoos in place-based learning, and there has been much debate about how such informal learning is
defined and measured. Free-choice learning research has demonstrated that educational outcomes are
often indirect, constructed by the visitor as much as they are influenced by the zoo's educational staff.
This constructivist definition of education includes emotional dimensions and personal meaning-making
that occur in the social context of visiting, as well as any structured interpretive material provided on
signs and through live presentations. This paper presents an examination of how the zoo is experienced
by the visitor, through surveys and through observations of how visitors watch animals and incorporate
those viewings into their social experience. Results from surveys of 206 zoo visitors show that support
for protecting both individual animals and species is associated with learning, with wanting to know
more, and with a feeling of connection to the animal. An analysis of 1,900 overheard visitor
conversations suggests that zoo animals are used to facilitate topical interaction among social groups
and to explore the connections that people share with nonhuman animals. The authors propose that
these perceived positive connections may be related to support for conservation initiatives, and
conclude that a visit to the zoo appears to be a positive emotional experience that leaves visitors
interested in learning more about animals, irrespective of their reading the exhibit labels.
Askue, L., Heimlich, J., Yu, J. P., Wang, X., and Lakly, S. (2009). Measuring a professional conservation
education training program for zoos and wildlife parks in China. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 447-461.
Abstract: Designed and implemented in 2006, the Academy for Conservation Training (ACT) is a
conservation education academy modeled after the Association for Zoos and Aquariums' (AZA)
professional conservation education course. ACT incorporates conservation education best practices
utilized by AZA-accredited institutions to provide zoo and wildlife park professionals in China with the
skills, knowledge, and tools needed to design, implement, and evaluate effective conservation education
programs at their facilities. Initial findings indicate that the ACT model is an effective approach to
connect these emerging educators with conservation education best practices. The strongest
satisfaction responses in this study were in perceptions of the program preparing the individual for work
and in personal development. In terms of the longitudinal survey conducted with ACT graduates after
the training, the lowest scoring items were the opportunities to meet other zoo educators in China and
the quantity of information provided. The most revealing trend in regards to preparedness in becoming
zoo educators was that specific pedagogical skills were those where perceived gain was consistent and
strong across all three academies.
Kutska, D. (2009). Variation in visitor perceptions of a polar bear enclosure based on the presence of
natural vs. un-natural enrichment items. Zoo Biology, 28(4): 292-306.
Abstract: A debate exists among modern zoo staff as to whether or not the addition of un-naturalistic
enrichment takes away from, or even defeats, the educational messages designers are trying to
62
incorporate in naturalistic exhibits. A visitor study was conducted at the Central Park Zoo's polar bear
exhibit in order to determine whether or not the type of enrichment in an enclosure actually alters guest
perceptions. Visitors were exposed to one of two enrichment treatments in the bear enclosure:
Naturalistic or Un-naturalistic. The results of this study suggest that enrichment type did not alter the
perceptions of visitors. However, it did identify some of the different ways adults and youths perceive
animals and zoos. Additionally, the study highlighted the varying perceptions individuals have of the
concept of polar bears vs. their perceptions of the captive individuals at the Central Park Zoo.
Implications for enrichment usage and exhibit design are discussed.
Fernandez, E. J. and Timberlake, W. (2008). Mutual benefits of research collaborations between zoos
and academic institutions. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 470-487.
Abstract: Zoos focus on welfare, conservation, education, and research related to animals they keep.
Academic institutions emphasize description, experimentation, modeling, and teaching of general and
specific animal biology and behavior through work in both laboratory and field. The considerable
overlap in concerns and methods has increased interest in collaborative projects, but there is ample
room for closer and more extensive interactions. The purpose of this article is to increase awareness of
potential research collaborations in three areas: (1) control and analysis of behavior, (2) conservation
and propagation of species, and (3) education of students and the general public. In each area, we
outline (a) research in zoos, (b) research in academics, and (c) potential collaborative efforts.
Hutchins, M. (2006). Death at the zoo: The media, science, and reality. Zoo Biology, 25(2): 101-115.
Abstract: Media characterizations of zoo and aquarium animal deaths were randomly monitored on the
internet for a 20-month period (September 2003–May 2005). Based on 148 samples collected, it was
possible to classify articles into one of four categories, which were operationally defined: 1)
dispassionate observers; 2) accusers; 3) sympathizers; and 4) balancers. In addition, with the notable
exception of seven cases, all of the articles examined focused on large, charismatic mammals, such as
gorillas, dolphins, lions, and elephants. Although a majority of the articles examined (70.4%) were either
dispassionate and objective or sympathetic, nearly a third (29.6%) were either accusatory or attempted
to balance the accusatory statements of animal rights activists with sympathetic statements from zoo
professionals. Recommendations are offered for how zoos should deal with the increasing media and
public interest in zoo animal deaths, including: 1) a greater commitment to studying the reasons for
mortality in a wide variety of species; and 2) an increased investment in record keeping and analysis,
which should allow zoos to calculate average life spans in animal populations and to monitor and assess
the risk of certain lethal diseases on a real-time basis. Comparisons are drawn between zoo veterinary
practices and human medicine, which are both inexact sciences. Suggestions are made for how the
public and key decision-makers can distinguish between media reports on zoo animal deaths that are
legitimate cause for concern vs. those that are sensationalist and meant to generate controversy and
sell papers. A greater focus on the science of zoo animal death is necessary for accredited zoos to
maintain the public's confidence in their animal care practices.
63
Wilson, M., Kelling, A., Poline, L., Bloomsmith, M., and Maple, T. (2003). Post-occupancy evaluation of
zoo Atlanta's Giant Panda Conservation Center: Staff and visitor reactions. Zoo Biology, 22(4): 365-382.
Abstract: Construction of a new zoo animal exhibit impacts animals, visitors, and staff, and considerable
attention should be paid to evaluation of the exhibit. In November 1999, Zoo Atlanta received two giant
pandas from the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Sichuan, China, which presented an
opportunity to evaluate the new giant panda exhibit. The present study documents the reactions of staff
and visitors to Zoo Atlanta's Giant Panda Conservation Center by a post-occupancy evaluation (POE).
Confidential interviews were conducted with 23 staff, and 145 zoo visitors completed questionnaires.
Staff and visitors were asked to assign quality ratings to specific areas of the exhibit, and complete a
series of open-ended questions. The findings suggest that staff and visitors evaluated Zoo Atlanta's giant
panda exhibit favorably. On a five-point scale, the exhibit received mean ratings of 3.64 from the staff
and 4.50 from the visitors. With a few exceptions, most areas of the exhibit met or exceeded staff
expectations. Staff and visitors identified a number of strengths and weaknesses of the exhibit. Staff
most frequently recommended changes to the pandas' space and the ability to address husbandry
issues, while a large number of visitors did not suggest any changes, or did not respond to the question.
Visitors that did respond to the question most often recommended that the zoo display additional
pandas and modify the pandas' space. There were no significant differences in visitors' ratings of the
different areas of the enclosure, or in their overall impressions of the exhibit, as a function of the
pandas' location. The results are examined in terms of general implications for zoo exhibit design,
construction, and evaluation, and in light of the goals of this facility. The study highlights the benefits of
conducting POEs in a zoo setting.
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.
Yocco, V., Heimlich, J. E., Myers, C., and Jenike, D. (2010). Let’s go to the zoo! Visitors’ social
expectations of a trip to the zoo. Journal of the International Zoo Educators Association, 46: 34-40.
64
Introduction and First Paragraph: Data were collected from zoo visitors regarding their interests and
social expectations of a zoo visit and the expectations they feel others they are visiting with have.
Findings suggest that visitors rate themselves as having a higher level of interest for some activities such
as spending time with family. Social expectations that visitors have include interacting with others they
are visiting with, learning about animals, and watching animals.
It has been noted that education is a prominent theme in US zoo mission statements, and that zoos are
in a unique position to provide environmental education to a large number of visitors (Patrick et al.
2007). It is critical for zoos to understand their visitors and provide them with unique and engaging
experiences designed to further the education of visitors. Wild Research – A whole zoo exhibit and
inquiry program is a National Science Foundation funded collaboration between Project Dragonfly out of
Miami University, the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Garden (CZBG), the Institute for Learning Innovation
and a consortium of zoos and aquariums nationwide (Myers et al. 2007; Myers et al. 2009). A major
premise of Wild Research is to build on the social interactions that take place in a zoo to improve visitor
learning and engagement. Visitors participate in inquiry: make predictions, gather data, and compare
results all within the very social context of observing animals at different exhibits surrounded by other
zoo visitors engaging in similar activities.
Fraser, J. (2009). The anticipated utility of zoos for developing moral concern in children. Curator, 52(2):
349-361.
Abstract: This study asked why parents value zoo experiences for themselves and their children. It
proposes a new theory regarding the psychological value of such experiences for the development of
identity. The study used a constructivist grounded theory approach to explore parenting perspectives on
the value of zoo visits undertaken by eight families from three adjacent inner-city neighborhoods in a
major American city. The results suggest that parents use zoo visits as tools for promoting family values.
These parents felt that experiences with live animals were necessary to encourage holistic empathy, to
extend children's sense of justice to include natural systems, and to model the importance of family
relationships. The author concludes that parents find zoos useful as a tool for helping their children to
develop skills with altruism, to transfer environmental values, to elevate children's self-esteem, and to
inculcate social norms that they believe will aid in their children's social success in the future.
Packer, J. and Ballantyne, R. (2002). Motivational factors and the visitor experience: A comparison of
three sites. Curator, 45(3), 183-198.
Abstract: Museums, art galleries, botanical gardens, national parks, science centers, zoos, aquaria and
historic sites are important public learning institutions. The free-choice learning offered in these settings
is closely linked to visitors' intrinsic motivation, making it important to understand the motivational
factors that impact on visitors' experiences. This paper presents data from a questionnaire administered
to visitors at three sites: a museum, an art gallery, and an aquarium. Similarities and differences among
the sites are reported in relation to visitors' expectations, perceptions of learning opportunities,
engagement in motivated learning behaviors, and perceptions of the learning experience. The
importance of learning to museum visitors and the unique opportunities and challenges of the museum
in relation to other educational leisure settings are discussed. The authors argue that the study of
65
motivational factors might contribute to the development of a common theoretical foundation for
interpretation in museums and other informal learning settings.
66
How do we create empathy, and does it result in conservation action?
Clayton, S., Fraser, J., and Saunders, C. D. (2009). Zoo experiences: Conversations, connections, and
concern for animals. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 377-397.
Abstract: One way in which zoos attempt to fulfill their goal of conservation is by educating visitors
about the importance of protecting wildlife. Research has only begun to examine the effectiveness of
zoos in place-based learning, and there has been much debate about how such informal learning is
defined and measured. Free-choice learning research has demonstrated that educational outcomes are
often indirect, constructed by the visitor as much as they are influenced by the zoo's educational staff.
This constructivist definition of education includes emotional dimensions and personal meaning-making
that occur in the social context of visiting, as well as any structured interpretive material provided on
signs and through live presentations. This paper presents an examination of how the zoo is experienced
by the visitor, through surveys and through observations of how visitors watch animals and incorporate
those viewings into their social experience. Results from surveys of 206 zoo visitors show that support
for protecting both individual animals and species is associated with learning, with wanting to know
more, and with a feeling of connection to the animal. An analysis of 1,900 overheard visitor
conversations suggests that zoo animals are used to facilitate topical interaction among social groups
and to explore the connections that people share with nonhuman animals. The authors propose that
these perceived positive connections may be related to support for conservation initiatives, and
conclude that a visit to the zoo appears to be a positive emotional experience that leaves visitors
interested in learning more about animals, irrespective of their reading the exhibit labels.
Penn, L. (2009). Zoo theater's influence on affect and cognition: A case study from the Central Park Zoo
in New York. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 412-428.
Abstract: Zoo theater is used by zoos as a means to influence visitor feelings and knowledge gain about
wildlife and environmental themes. This study examined whether and to what extent zoo theater
fulfilled these aims by investigating its impact on affect and cognition. The study consisted of an indepth case study at the Central Park Zoo in New York, a location that has one of the most diverse zoo
theater programs in the United States. Using a multimethod approach the study explored many facets of
the Central Park Zoo's extensive zoo theater program. These included performances at a main stage, at
exhibits, and in the children's zoo. The study found that the extent of zoo theater's influence on affect
and cognition is dependent on a combination of a variety of characteristics that include the length of a
performance, audience participation, the level of structure of a performance, the presence of song and
dance elements, and the scale of the productions.
Fraser, J. (2009). The anticipated utility of zoos for developing moral concern in children. Curator, 52(2):
349-361.
Abstract: This study asked why parents value zoo experiences for themselves and their children. It
proposes a new theory regarding the psychological value of such experiences for the development of
identity. The study used a constructivist grounded theory approach to explore parenting perspectives on
the value of zoo visits undertaken by eight families from three adjacent inner-city neighborhoods in a
67
major American city. The results suggest that parents use zoo visits as tools for promoting family values.
These parents felt that experiences with live animals were necessary to encourage holistic empathy, to
extend children's sense of justice to include natural systems, and to model the importance of family
relationships. The author concludes that parents find zoos useful as a tool for helping their children to
develop skills with altruism, to transfer environmental values, to elevate children's self-esteem, and to
inculcate social norms that they believe will aid in their children's social success in the future.
*****
The following studies explore education outside of ZA.
Tooth, R. and Renshaw, P. (2009). Reflections on pedagogy and place: A journey into learning for
sustainability through environmental narrative and deep attentive reflection. Australian Journal of
Environmental Education, 25: 95-104.
Abstract: Narrative is fundamental to our diverse capacities to remember, to provide an account of self,
and to represent our actions, motivations and place in society. The narrative mode is concerned with
central aspects of the human condition--commitments and personal agency; motivations and emotions;
collective experiences and cultural histories and myths. As such it is concerned with relationships
between people, their activities within particular places and the ethics that arise in these specific
relationships. This paper explores the role of narrative as a pedagogical device and as a form of thinking
and valuing for students to use in their everyday interactions. In particular, it considers why a
combination of environmental narrative, drama and deep attentive reflection sits so well with the
emerging pedagogies of "place", and why this alliance is such an effective means for allowing individuals
to experience, understand and value for themselves the entwined and sensorial connections that exist
between people and place. Based on a year-long values education case study in eight primary schools,
we describe and theorise about why such a narrative approach to pedagogy, when linked to deep
attentive experiences in nature, is so effective in developing a new kind of place-based body/ mind
meaning-making and learning that inspires individuals to engage with both the inner and outer work of
sustainability.
Bahk, C. (2011). Environmental education through narrative films: Impact of Medicine Man on attitudes
toward forest preservation. The Journal of Environmental Education, 42(1): 1-13.
Abstract: Narrative film is a multimodal, multisensual, and universal medium that has potential to reach
and influence a wide range of people regarding environmental issues. The author conducted an
experiment to explore the impact of film portrayals of deforestation among college students. Onehundred eighty-one undergraduate students were randomly assigned to one of two conditions:
Experimental and Control Conditions. Students in the experimental condition watched the movie
Medicine Man portraying the issue of deforestation, whereas those in the control condition watched an
unrelated movie with a similar length. Participants in both conditions then completed a selfadministered questionnaire that contained the measure of attitudes toward forest preservation. The
results indicated that participants in the experimental condition became more favorable toward the
preservation of forests (i.e., unfavorable toward deforestation) than did those in the control condition.
Regression analysis also revealed that perceived realism regarding the movie and role affinity with
68
native people portrayed in the movie were significant predictors for the attitudes toward forest
preservation.
Reis, G. and Roth, W. (2010). A feeling for the environment: Emotion talk in/for the pedagogy of public
environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 41(2): 71-87.
Abstract: Emotions are important aspects in/for the pedagogy of environmental education (EE).
However, the literature on the relationship between emotions and EE has not explored how emotion
talk furnishes teaching identity claims and mediates instruction in/about the environment. Therefore,
the present study draws on two ethnographic case studies to investigate the rhetorical and situational
use of emotion discursive categories in interviews and authentic EE learning situations. Our findings
suggest that rather than just being an outcome of effective instructional models designed to instill an
environmental consciousness in students, emotion discourses are means to help account for and
concretely realize the pedagogy of EE.
Zeppel, H. (2008). Education and conservation benefits of marine wildlife tours: Developing free-choice
learning experiences. The Journal of Environmental Education, 39(3): 3-18.
Abstract: Marine wildlife tours can provide a range of education and conservation benefits for visitors,
including emotional (i.e., affective) responses and learning (i.e., cognition). Interpretive programs cover
the biology, ecology, and behavior of marine species; best practice guidelines; and human threats to
marine areas. The author reviews the education and conservation benefits of 18 marine wildlife
experiences with dolphins, whales, and marine turtles by using (a) M. Orams's (1999) framework of
indicators such as behavior or lifestyle changes in visitors and (b) 3 environmental indicators of
conservation. Results of this meta-analysis showed that visitor learning and emotional empathy during
mediated encounters with marine wildlife contributed to on-site behavior changes and some longer
term intentions to engage in marine conservation actions. The author presents an experience-learningaction model to guide research and develop free-choice visitor learning.
69
How can existing research be turned into useful tools for educators?
Lawson, D. P., Ogden, J., and Snyder, R. J. (2008). Maximizing the contribution of science in zoos and
aquariums: Organizational models and perceptions. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 458-469.
First Paragraph: Scientific research in zoos and aquariums is important because it drives and informs the
ever-increasing standards of care and quality of programs (i.e., animal management and welfare,
education, and conservation). The need for zoo and aquarium-based research programs has been
argued for at least two decades [Finlay and Maple, 1986; Benirschke, 1987; Chiszar et al., 1993;
Benirschke, 1996; Kleiman, 1996], and the utility of such programs is demonstrated daily by the
quantifiable achievements in animal care, education, and conservation of Association of Zoo and
Aquarium (AZA) accredited institutions. However, despite an apparent growing appreciation for and
preponderance of research in zoos and aquariums [Stoinski et al., 1998], researchers and research
funding are still often considered a luxury and often are amongst the first cut during difficult financial
times. In addition, despite that the prevalence of zoo-based research has occurred in the biological
realm, the art and science of animal management and welfare is still perceived as an uncomfortable
marriage, and negative perceptions of science and scientists in our institutions persist.
Fernandez, E. J. and Timberlake, W. (2008). Mutual benefits of research collaborations between zoos
and academic institutions. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 470-487.
Abstract: Zoos focus on welfare, conservation, education, and research related to animals they keep.
Academic institutions emphasize description, experimentation, modeling, and teaching of general and
specific animal biology and behavior through work in both laboratory and field. The considerable
overlap in concerns and methods has increased interest in collaborative projects, but there is ample
room for closer and more extensive interactions. The purpose of this article is to increase awareness of
potential research collaborations in three areas: (1) control and analysis of behavior, (2) conservation
and propagation of species, and (3) education of students and the general public. In each area, we
outline (a) research in zoos, (b) research in academics, and (c) potential collaborative efforts.
Hutchins, M. and Thompson, S. D. (2008). Zoo and aquarium research: Priority setting for the coming
decades. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 488-497.
Abstract: Scientific study within contemporary zoos and aquariums has developed ad hoc as an
extremely broad, academically oriented mixture of basic and applied research spanning a wide array of
concepts and disciplines. Several papers have considered prioritization of present or future research
efforts within disciplines, but only a few have touched on prioritization across institutions, disciplines,
and species. This lack of prioritization across institutions and disciplines is surprising given the growing
interdependence of zoos and aquariums to maintain populations through exchange of animals,
standardization of animal care procedures, and maintenance of self-sustaining populations. The purpose
of this paper is to explore prioritization of scientific research, and support of that prioritized research,
within and among the professionally managed zoo and aquarium members of the Association of Zoos
and Aquariums (AZA).
70
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed.
71
Does the frequency and duration of contacts impact efficacy?
Penn, L. (2009). Zoo theater's influence on affect and cognition: A case study from the Central Park Zoo
in New York. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 412-428.
Abstract: Zoo theater is used by zoos as a means to influence visitor feelings and knowledge gain about
wildlife and environmental themes. This study examined whether and to what extent zoo theater
fulfilled these aims by investigating its impact on affect and cognition. The study consisted of an indepth case study at the Central Park Zoo in New York, a location that has one of the most diverse zoo
theater programs in the United States. Using a multimethod approach the study explored many facets of
the Central Park Zoo's extensive zoo theater program. These included performances at a main stage, at
exhibits, and in the children's zoo. The study found that the extent of zoo theater's influence on affect
and cognition is dependent on a combination of a variety of characteristics that include the length of a
performance, audience participation, the level of structure of a performance, the presence of song and
dance elements, and the scale of the productions.
Ross, S. R. and Gillespie, K. L. (2009). Influences on visitor behavior at a modern immersive zoo exhibit.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 462-472.
Abstract: Zoos serve as centers for both research and education. The challenge is to convey messages
about their conservation projects while meeting visitor expectations, which often include recreation and
entertainment. One way this can be achieved is through the design of immersive exhibits that draw
visitors in and engage them with interactive educational elements. Regenstein African Journey (RAJ)
opened at Lincoln Park Zoo in 2003 and was designed to take visitors on a simulated safari through
Africa. Because visitor experience was a major design goal, we conducted a timing and tracking study to
evaluate use of the building and educational components. For a 9-week period in 2003, we tracked 338
visitors to RAJ and recorded continuous data as they moved through the building. Data were collected
on handheld computers that provided precise timing data. The median visit was 11.08 min, 41% of which
was spent looking at animals and 9% of which was spent engaged with interpretive elements. We found
significant differences in the way visitors used signage: those in groups without children spent more of
their visit engaged with signage than those with children and visitors who spent more of their visit
interacting socially spent less time engaged with signage. By understanding how visitors use the
educational opportunities presented to them, we can better meet their expectations and more
effectively achieve the goal of conservation education.
Wilson, M., Kelling, A., Poline, L., Bloomsmith, M., and Maple, T. (2003). Post-occupancy evaluation of
zoo Atlanta's Giant Panda Conservation Center: Staff and visitor reactions. Zoo Biology, 22(4): 365-382.
Abstract: Construction of a new zoo animal exhibit impacts animals, visitors, and staff, and considerable
attention should be paid to evaluation of the exhibit. In November 1999, Zoo Atlanta received two giant
pandas from the Chengdu Research Base of Giant Panda Breeding, Sichuan, China, which presented an
opportunity to evaluate the new giant panda exhibit. The present study documents the reactions of staff
and visitors to Zoo Atlanta's Giant Panda Conservation Center by a post-occupancy evaluation (POE).
Confidential interviews were conducted with 23 staff, and 145 zoo visitors completed questionnaires.
72
Staff and visitors were asked to assign quality ratings to specific areas of the exhibit, and complete a
series of open-ended questions. The findings suggest that staff and visitors evaluated Zoo Atlanta's giant
panda exhibit favorably. On a five-point scale, the exhibit received mean ratings of 3.64 from the staff
and 4.50 from the visitors. With a few exceptions, most areas of the exhibit met or exceeded staff
expectations. Staff and visitors identified a number of strengths and weaknesses of the exhibit. Staff
most frequently recommended changes to the pandas' space and the ability to address husbandry
issues, while a large number of visitors did not suggest any changes, or did not respond to the question.
Visitors that did respond to the question most often recommended that the zoo display additional
pandas and modify the pandas' space. There were no significant differences in visitors' ratings of the
different areas of the enclosure, or in their overall impressions of the exhibit, as a function of the
pandas' location. The results are examined in terms of general implications for zoo exhibit design,
construction, and evaluation, and in light of the goals of this facility. The study highlights the benefits of
conducting POEs in a zoo setting.
Mortan, S. and Yalowitz, S. (2003). Evaluating the kelp forest feeding program at Monterey Bay
Aquarium. Visitor Studies Today, 6(1): 6-9.
Introduction: This evaluation project was conducted to measure the effectiveness of particular
communication strategies in the Kelp Forest feeding program at the Monterey Bay Aquarium. During the
Kelp Forest program a volunteer guide (docent) delivers a narration about the Kelp Forest exhibit and
has a conversation with a diver feeding the fish in the exhibit. The program concludes with the diver and
the volunteer taking questions from the audience. The communication strategies measured in this study
were identified by The Ocean Project (TOP), a collaborative initiative where the Monterey Bay Aquarium
is a supporting partner.
Relevant Findings: Increased exposure to the Kelp Forest feeding program did result in increased
support for the statement: “It is important to choose seafood that was caught or raised in a way that
protects the oceans.” There seems to be a cumulative effect of seeing this particular program at the
aquarium. However, it is possible that other factors during previous visits also contributed to this effect.
73
What are people getting from social media?
Hutchins, M. (2006). Death at the zoo: The media, science, and reality. Zoo Biology, 25(2): 101-115.
Abstract: Media characterizations of zoo and aquarium animal deaths were randomly monitored on the
internet for a 20-month period (September 2003–May 2005). Based on 148 samples collected, it was
possible to classify articles into one of four categories, which were operationally defined: 1)
dispassionate observers; 2) accusers; 3) sympathizers; and 4) balancers. In addition, with the notable
exception of seven cases, all of the articles examined focused on large, charismatic mammals, such as
gorillas, dolphins, lions, and elephants. Although a majority of the articles examined (70.4%) were either
dispassionate and objective or sympathetic, nearly a third (29.6%) were either accusatory or attempted
to balance the accusatory statements of animal rights activists with sympathetic statements from zoo
professionals. Recommendations are offered for how zoos should deal with the increasing media and
public interest in zoo animal deaths, including: 1) a greater commitment to studying the reasons for
mortality in a wide variety of species; and 2) an increased investment in record keeping and analysis,
which should allow zoos to calculate average life spans in animal populations and to monitor and assess
the risk of certain lethal diseases on a real-time basis. Comparisons are drawn between zoo veterinary
practices and human medicine, which are both inexact sciences. Suggestions are made for how the
public and key decision-makers can distinguish between media reports on zoo animal deaths that are
legitimate cause for concern vs. those that are sensationalist and meant to generate controversy and
sell papers. A greater focus on the science of zoo animal death is necessary for accredited zoos to
maintain the public's confidence in their animal care practices.
Ballantyne, R., Packer, J., Hughes, K., and Dierking, L. (2007). Conservation learning in wildlife tourism
settings: Lessons from research in zoos and aquariums. Environmental Education Research, 13(3): 367383.
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have shifted their focus over recent years, taking a much more active role
in wildlife conservation and in promoting conservation learning among their visitors. Research in these
settings provides a valuable foundation for the emerging field of non-captive wildlife tourism. In
particular, valuable lessons regarding the potential impact of wildlife encounters on visitors’
conservation attitudes and behaviour can be drawn from research in zoos and aquariums. This paper
explores those aspects of wildlife encounters that appear to contribute most to conservation learning.
These include observing animals in their ‘natural’ environment; opportunities for close encounters with
wildlife; opportunities to observe animal behaviour; engaging visitors emotionally; connecting with
visitors’ prior knowledge and experiences; using persuasive communication; linking conservation goals
and everyday actions; and providing incentives and activities to support visitors’ behaviour change. The
extent to which wildlife tourists may be receptive to conservation messages is also considered, in light of
research in zoos and aquariums. The implications of these findings for conservation learning in the
context of non-captive wildlife tourism are discussed and suggestions for future research in this area are
made. Several methodological challenges facing the field are also discussed
74
****
The following studies explore education outside of ZA.
Russo, A., Watkins, J., Kelly, L., and Chan, S. (2008). Participatory communication with social media.
Curator, 51(1): 21-31.
Abstract: Major museums worldwide are starting to use social media such as blogs, podcasts and
content shares to engage users via participatory communication.(FN1) This marks a shift in how
museums publicly communicate their role as custodians of cultural content and so presents debate
around an institution's attitude towards cultural authority. It also signifies a new possible direction for
museum learning. This article reports on a range of initiatives that demonstrate how participatory
communication via social media can be integrated into museum practices. It argues that the social
media space presents an ideal opportunity for museums to build online communities of interest around
authentic cultural information, and concludes with some recent findings on and recommendations for
social media implementation.
Moore, C. J. and Huber, R. A. (2001). Support for EE from the National Science Education Standards and
the Internet. The Journal of Environmental Education, 32(3): 21-25.
Abstract: Two recent developments are likely to have a significant impact on the future of EE: (1)
education reform initiatives based on the National Science Education Standards and (2) the
development of promising Internet resources for teaching environmental sciences. This article urges the
EE community to recognize that the time is ripe for environmental educators to embrace these
developments. We examine several Internet-based resources that are used as tools for implementing
standards-based reforms and promotion of EE's goals in K-12 classrooms.
75
How important are first person stories to best possible conservation outcomes?
Wagner, K., Chessler, M., York, P., and Raynor, J. (2009). Development and implementation of an
evaluation strategy for measuring conservation outcomes. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 473-487.
Abstract: The Philadelphia Zoo’s Measuring Mission project assessed the conservation-related impacts
of a visit to the Zoo and documented the results in a way that would provide a set of easily actionable
planning strategies. A logic model provided a theoretical framework and guided the development of
survey items. Three groups were surveyed using a pre–post retrospective instrument: zoo visitors,
members, and volunteers. This report includes findings from the visitor surveys only. Data were
analyzed using factor analysis, correlations, and t-tests. Results revealed that the Philadelphia Zoo has
been most successful in providing its guests with a satisfying animal viewing experience, facilitated by
accessible informative interpretive staff, but that guests do not always take advantage of opportunities
to interact with staff. Success in achieving the Zoo’s conservation mission was measured by comparing
pre and posttest scores on five outcome factors (conservation motivation, conservation knowledge, proconservation consumer skills, conservation attitudes/values, readiness to take conservation action). The
greatest gains were found in conservation knowledge and conservation motivation. Quality of exhibits
and quality of staff stand out as the most important factors in influencing conservation outcomes. To
ensure that results would be accessible to a wide variety of Zoo employees for planning, program and
exhibit development, and staff training, nine strategies were identified as key to achieving success in the
Zoo’s mission. Measuring Mission has created a process for assessing the Zoo’s mission impact, and has
confirmed that high-quality exhibits interpreted by expert, readily available staff can influence
conservation knowledge and motivation in particular.
*****
The following studies explore education outside of ZA.
Tooth, R. and Renshaw, P. (2009). Reflections on pedagogy and place: A journey into learning for
sustainability through environmental narrative and deep attentive reflection. Australian Journal of
Environmental Education, 25: 95-104.
Abstract: Narrative is fundamental to our diverse capacities to remember, to provide an account of self,
and to represent our actions, motivations and place in society. The narrative mode is concerned with
central aspects of the human condition--commitments and personal agency; motivations and emotions;
collective experiences and cultural histories and myths. As such it is concerned with relationships
between people, their activities within particular places and the ethics that arise in these specific
relationships. This paper explores the role of narrative as a pedagogical device and as a form of thinking
and valuing for students to use in their everyday interactions. In particular, it considers why a
combination of environmental narrative, drama and deep attentive reflection sits so well with the
emerging pedagogies of "place", and why this alliance is such an effective means for allowing individuals
to experience, understand and value for themselves the entwined and sensorial connections that exist
between people and place. Based on a year-long values education case study in eight primary schools,
we describe and theorise about why such a narrative approach to pedagogy, when linked to deep
attentive experiences in nature, is so effective in developing a new kind of place-based body/ mind
76
meaning-making and learning that inspires individuals to engage with both the inner and outer work of
sustainability.
Schusler, T. M. and Krasny, M. E. (2010). Environmental action as context for youth development. The
Journal of Environmental Education, 41(4): 208-223.
Abstract: This study explored the practices of teachers, nonformal science educators, community
organizers, youth program managers, and other educators facilitating youth participation in local
environmental action, as well as the experiences of some of the youth involved. We conducted narrative
interviews with 33 educators facilitating youth environmental action in communities throughout the
United States and group interviews with 46 youth participating in nine environmental action programs
in New York State. Through interpretation of educators' stories and youths' reflections, we discovered
strong parallels with theory and empirical research in the youth development literature suggesting
environmental action is a valuable context for positive youth development.
Reis, G. and Roth, W. (2009). A feeling for the environment: Emotion talk in/for the pedagogy of public
environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 41(2): 71-87.
Abstract: Emotions are important aspects in/for the pedagogy of environmental education (EE).
However, the literature on the relationship between emotions and EE has not explored how emotion
talk furnishes teaching identity claims and mediates instruction in/about the environment. Therefore,
the present study draws on two ethnographic case studies to investigate the rhetorical and situational
use of emotion discursive categories in interviews and authentic EE learning situations. Our findings
suggest that rather than just being an outcome of effective instructional models designed to instill an
environmental consciousness in students, emotion discourses are means to help account for and
concretely realize the pedagogy of EE.
77
Does cross-training staff impact visitors’ perception or willingness to act?
Askue, L., Heimlich, J., Yu, J. P., Wang, X., and Lakly, S. (2009). Measuring a professional conservation
education training program for zoos and wildlife parks in China. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 447-461.
Abstract: Designed and implemented in 2006, the Academy for Conservation Training (ACT) is a
conservation education academy modeled after the Association for Zoos and Aquariums' (AZA)
professional conservation education course. ACT incorporates conservation education best practices
utilized by AZA-accredited institutions to provide zoo and wildlife park professionals in China with the
skills, knowledge, and tools needed to design, implement, and evaluate effective conservation education
programs at their facilities. Initial findings indicate that the ACT model is an effective approach to
connect these emerging educators with conservation education best practices. The strongest
satisfaction responses in this study were in perceptions of the program preparing the individual for work
and in personal development. In terms of the longitudinal survey conducted with ACT graduates after
the training, the lowest scoring items were the opportunities to meet other zoo educators in China and
the quantity of information provided. The most revealing trend in regards to preparedness in becoming
zoo educators was that specific pedagogical skills were those where perceived gain was consistent and
strong across all three academies.
Wagner, K., Chessler, M., York, P., and Raynor, J. (2009). Development and implementation of an
evaluation strategy for measuring conservation outcomes. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 473-487.
Abstract: The Philadelphia Zoo's Measuring Mission project assessed the conservation-related impacts
of a visit to the Zoo and documented the results in a way that would provide a set of easily actionable
planning strategies. A logic model provided a theoretical framework and guided the development of
survey items. Three groups were surveyed using a pre–post retrospective instrument: zoo visitors,
members, and volunteers. This report includes findings from the visitor surveys only. Data were
analyzed using factor analysis, correlations, and t-tests. Results revealed that the Philadelphia Zoo has
been most successful in providing its guests with a satisfying animal viewing experience, facilitated by
accessible informative interpretive staff, but that guests do not always take advantage of opportunities
to interact with staff. Success in achieving the Zoo's conservation mission was measured by comparing
pre and posttest scores on five outcome factors (conservation motivation, conservation knowledge, proconservation consumer skills, conservation attitudes/values, readiness to take conservation action). The
greatest gains were found in conservation knowledge and conservation motivation. Quality of exhibits
and quality of staff stand out as the most important factors in influencing conservation outcomes. To
ensure that results would be accessible to a wide variety of Zoo employees for planning, program and
exhibit development, and staff training, nine strategies were identified as key to achieving success in the
Zoo's mission. Measuring Mission has created a process for assessing the Zoo's mission impact, and has
confirmed that high-quality exhibits interpreted by expert, readily available staff can influence
conservation knowledge and motivation in particular.
Visscher, N. C., Snider, R., and Vander Stoep, G. (2009). Comparative analysis of knowledge gain
between interpretive and fact-only presentations at an animal training session: An exploratory study.
Zoo Biology, 28(5): 488–495.
78
Abstract: Zoos and aquariums have recognized the importance of integrating living collections with
personally delivered interpretation. One way for zoos to accomplish this is by conducting public animal
training sessions accompanied by personal interpretation. Many institutions offer these types of
interactions, but the term “interpretation” is used loosely and without clear definition. This exploratory
study compared knowledge gain of individual students in three different fifth grade school groups
visiting the Potter Park Zoo in Lansing, Michigan. Each group observed an animal training session, with
two groups receiving two types of presentations and one group serving as a control group. Although
hearing the same facts, the two treatment groups received different program types: an interpretive
presentation and a fact-only presentation. The third group viewed the training session but received no
presentation. Results showed that individuals who received the interpretive presentation retained more
information immediately after the training session than individuals in either of the other two groups.
This exploratory study suggests that using an interpretive presentation style is more effective in
producing knowledge gain than fact-only presentations in informal learning environments such as zoos
and aquariums.
*****
The following study explores education outside of ZA.
Ferreira, J. A. , Ryan, L., and Tilbury, D. (2007). Planning for success: Factors influencing change in
teacher education. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 23: 45-55.
Abstract: Teacher education is widely recognised as a key strategy that is yet to be effectively utilised to
embed environmental education and/or education for sustainability in schools. This paper reports on a
research study that examined a range of pre-service teacher education initiatives, both in Australia and
internationally, that were seeking to reorient teacher education towards environmental sustainability.
This paper reports on six factors utilised across the initiatives that were critical to their success. These
were (1) the nature and length of funding arrangements; (2) the range and quality of partnerships and
networks; (3) the curriculum focus and the teaching and learning processes used; (4) the nature of, and
incentives for, participant engagement; (5) the level at which a change was being sought; and (6) the use
of evaluation as a tool for learning and ongoing improvement. This paper discusses why and how each of
these six factors proved critical and explores the implications for initiatives seeking to reorient teacher
education towards environmental sustainability.
79
Are we looking for empathy?
Clayton, S., Fraser, J., and Saunders, C. D. (2009). Zoo experiences: Conversations, connections, and
concern for animals. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 377-397.
Abstract: One way in which zoos attempt to fulfill their goal of conservation is by educating visitors
about the importance of protecting wildlife. Research has only begun to examine the effectiveness of
zoos in place-based learning, and there has been much debate about how such informal learning is
defined and measured. Free-choice learning research has demonstrated that educational outcomes are
often indirect, constructed by the visitor as much as they are influenced by the zoo's educational staff.
This constructivist definition of education includes emotional dimensions and personal meaning-making
that occur in the social context of visiting, as well as any structured interpretive material provided on
signs and through live presentations. This paper presents an examination of how the zoo is experienced
by the visitor, through surveys and through observations of how visitors watch animals and incorporate
those viewings into their social experience. Results from surveys of 206 zoo visitors show that support
for protecting both individual animals and species is associated with learning, with wanting to know
more, and with a feeling of connection to the animal. An analysis of 1,900 overheard visitor
conversations suggests that zoo animals are used to facilitate topical interaction among social groups
and to explore the connections that people share with nonhuman animals. The authors propose that
these perceived positive connections may be related to support for conservation initiatives, and
conclude that a visit to the zoo appears to be a positive emotional experience that leaves visitors
interested in learning more about animals, irrespective of their reading the exhibit labels.
Askue, L., Heimlich, J., Yu, J. P., Wang, X., and Lakly, S. (2009). Measuring a professional conservation
education training program for zoos and wildlife parks in China. Zoo Biology, 28(5): 447-461.
Abstract: Designed and implemented in 2006, the Academy for Conservation Training (ACT) is a
conservation education academy modeled after the Association for Zoos and Aquariums' (AZA)
professional conservation education course. ACT incorporates conservation education best practices
utilized by AZA-accredited institutions to provide zoo and wildlife park professionals in China with the
skills, knowledge, and tools needed to design, implement, and evaluate effective conservation education
programs at their facilities. Initial findings indicate that the ACT model is an effective approach to
connect these emerging educators with conservation education best practices. The strongest
satisfaction responses in this study were in perceptions of the program preparing the individual for work
and in personal development. In terms of the longitudinal survey conducted with ACT graduates after
the training, the lowest scoring items were the opportunities to meet other zoo educators in China and
the quantity of information provided. The most revealing trend in regards to preparedness in becoming
zoo educators was that specific pedagogical skills were those where perceived gain was consistent and
strong across all three academies.
*****
The following study explores education outside of ZA.
80
Tooth, R. and Renshaw, P. (2009). Reflections on pedagogy and place: A journey into learning for
sustainability through environmental narrative and deep attentive reflection. Australian Journal of
Environmental Education, 25: 95-104.
Abstract: Narrative is fundamental to our diverse capacities to remember, to provide an account of self,
and to represent our actions, motivations and place in society. The narrative mode is concerned with
central aspects of the human condition--commitments and personal agency; motivations and emotions;
collective experiences and cultural histories and myths. As such it is concerned with relationships
between people, their activities within particular places and the ethics that arise in these specific
relationships. This paper explores the role of narrative as a pedagogical device and as a form of thinking
and valuing for students to use in their everyday interactions. In particular, it considers why a
combination of environmental narrative, drama and deep attentive reflection sits so well with the
emerging pedagogies of "place", and why this alliance is such an effective means for allowing individuals
to experience, understand and value for themselves the entwined and sensorial connections that exist
between people and place. Based on a year-long values education case study in eight primary schools,
we describe and theorise about why such a narrative approach to pedagogy, when linked to deep
attentive experiences in nature, is so effective in developing a new kind of place-based body/ mind
meaning-making and learning that inspires individuals to engage with both the inner and outer work of
sustainability.
81
Do we standardize messages for all audiences?
Fraser, J., Bicknell, J., and Sickler, J. (2005). Understanding graphic maps at the Bronx Zoo. Visitor Studies
Today, 8(3): 22-28.
Abstract: Zoos frequently use geographic maps and science terms to educate visitors about animal
habitats. There is, however, very little about visitors’ ability to interpret these mapping conventions. This
study sought to discover how easily adult visitors to the Bronx Zoo were able to identify two continents
and countries on maps, and their interpretation of the term “range.” The results showed that although a
majority of visitors could identify both South America and Asia from the continent outline alone, 28% of
visitors could only identify one or both continents when viewing a map of the full hemisphere.
Additionally, 10% were unable to identify a continent from any of the maps provided. Graphic
representation of an animal range was better understood than the term “range” though a large
percentage of the participants still did not understand the information. These findings suggest a need to
revise maps in exhibit labels to improve visitor comprehension. Such changes would include showing at
least a hemisphere-level view, specifically identifying or labeling countries, and replacing the term range
with more accessible language.
Francis, D. and Esson M. (2006). Zoo Theatre: The effectiveness of performance art in delivering multitiered conservation messages to mixed zoo audiences. Journal of the International Zoo Educators
Association, 42: 16-19.
Introduction and First Paragraph: In 2005 Chester Zoo decided to add a new attraction to its summer
programme of educational activities, a theatrical show entitled Turtles Can’t Fly. Although the zoo
already provides numerous opportunities for cognitive learning, including interactive interpretation and
presenter talks, it was thought that those visitors who favour affective learning were less well catered
for.
Different people favour different styles of learning. Trying to appeal to the under 9s we aimed to reach
children affectively by making them emotionally connect with the characters and the storyline in an
attempt to influence their attitudes towards rainforest conservation as opposed to teaching them cold
facts.
*****
The following study explores education outside of ZA.
Blair, M. (2008). Community environmental education as a model for effective environmental
programmes. Australian Journal of Environmental Education, 24: 45-53.
Abstract: The benefits of community environmental education outlined in environmental education
literature are supported by the findings and implications of a research study undertaken in New
Zealand. Evidence from a two-case case study suggests that environmental programmes guided by the
key principles and practices of community environmental education, that is, public participation,
environmental adult education and environmental communication, can produce effective
environmental outcomes. Indeed, these cases indicate that the principles and practices of public
82
participation provide a catalyst for genuine collaborative efforts between different organisations and
local communities. Results also indicated that environmental adult education strategies can empower
community members to critically evaluate local environmental issues, which in turn resulted in a
commitment to improving the local environment. I thus argue in this paper that the principles and
practices of community environmental education can provide benchmarks for cross-sectoral
collaboration and assist communities in reaching environmental solutions.
83
How effective is media messaging vs. live animal programs?
Kruse, C. K. and Card, J. A. (2004). Effects of a conservation education camp program on campers' selfreported knowledge, attitude, and behavior. The Journal of Environmental Education, 35(4): 33-45.
Abstract: In this study, the authors examined the effects of a conservation education camp program
offered through one zoo education department. The conservation education program included 4 levels
of camps with increasing levels of animal husbandry. Campers rated their conservation knowledge,
attitude, and behavior prior to, immediately after, and 1 month after the camp experience. Results
indicated that conservation knowledge scores increased over the study period, as did attitude and
behavior, though patterns of change were varied in each level of camp. Campers' self-reported
knowledge, attitude, and behavior also increased with increased levels of animal husbandry. And,
campers with previous conservation education camp experience had higher knowledge and attitude
self-ratings than did those without experience. However, as knowledge, attitude, and behavior are
complex characteristics and difficult to assess, more research is needed to verify the effectiveness of
conservation education programs in effecting change.
*****
The following study explores education outside of ZA.
Reis, G. and Roth, W. (2010). A feeling for the environment: Emotion talk in/for the pedagogy of public
environmental education. The Journal of Environmental Education, 41(2): 71-87.
Abstract: Emotions are important aspects in/for the pedagogy of environmental education (EE).
However, the literature on the relationship between emotions and EE has not explored how emotion
talk furnishes teaching identity claims and mediates instruction in/about the environment. Therefore,
the present study draws on two ethnographic case studies to investigate the rhetorical and situational
use of emotion discursive categories in interviews and authentic EE learning situations. Our findings
suggest that rather than just being an outcome of effective instructional models designed to instill an
environmental consciousness in students, emotion discourses are means to help account for and
concretely realize the pedagogy of EE.
84
How do we continually inform ourselves and what do we do with this information?
Lawson, D. P., Ogden, J., and Snyder, R. J. (2008). Maximizing the contribution of science in zoos and
aquariums: Organizational models and perceptions. Zoo Biology, 27(6): 458-469.
First Paragraph: Scientific research in zoos and aquariums is important because it drives and informs the
ever-increasing standards of care and quality of programs (i.e., animal management and welfare,
education, and conservation). The need for zoo and aquarium-based research programs has been
argued for at least two decades [Finlay and Maple, 1986; Benirschke, 1987; Chiszar et al., 1993;
Benirschke, 1996; Kleiman, 1996], and the utility of such programs is demonstrated daily by the
quantifiable achievements in animal care, education, and conservation of Association of Zoo and
Aquarium (AZA) accredited institutions. However, despite an apparent growing appreciation for and
preponderance of research in zoos and aquariums [Stoinski et al., 1998], researchers and research
funding are still often considered a luxury and often are amongst the first cut during difficult financial
times. In addition, despite that the prevalence of zoo-based research has occurred in the biological
realm, the art and science of animal management and welfare is still perceived as an uncomfortable
marriage, and negative perceptions of science and scientists in our institutions persist.
Groff, A., Lockhart, D., Ogden, J., and Dierking, L. D. (2005). An exploratory investigation of the effect of
working in an environmentally themed facility on the conservation-related knowledge, attitudes and
behavior of staff. Environmental Education Research, 11(3): 371-387.
Abstract: In the past decade, we have seen an increased focus on measuring the impact of zoos,
aquariums, and other free-choice learning environments on the conservation-related knowledge,
attitudes and behavior of the visiting public. However, no such studies have been conducted on the
impact of such environments on the staff working in these facilities – the very staff that in turn interact
with the public on a daily basis. Clearly these interactions are recognized as being important; for
example, the thousands of staff employed by Disney’s Animal Kingdom are regularly provided with
conservation- related training – both formal, in-class experiences, as well as more informal experiences
with animals; these are a mixture of compulsory and freely chosen experiences. An exploratory
qualitative study was conducted to investigate the impact of working at Disney’s Animal Kingdom on
staff knowledge, attitudes, and behavior related to animals and their conservation. The resulting
findings offer preliminary evidence that working in an environmentally themed setting has a positive
impact on all of these variables, and that particular experiences – notably experiences in back-of-house
animal holding areas and with animal staff – are key. These findings suggest that further investigation
into the impact of working in such learning settings could be fruitful in understanding the role that the
work place plays in supporting the free-choice learning of staff. This is important both from the
perspective of the staff themselves, and in relation to the impact that these individuals may have on
visitors to free-choice learning settings.
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How well are detractor’s messages resonating with audiences?
Hutchins, M. (2006). Death at the zoo: The media, science, and reality. Zoo Biology, 25(2): 101-115.
Abstract: Media characterizations of zoo and aquarium animal deaths were randomly monitored on the
internet for a 20-month period (September 2003–May 2005). Based on 148 samples collected, it was
possible to classify articles into one of four categories, which were operationally defined: 1)
dispassionate observers; 2) accusers; 3) sympathizers; and 4) balancers. In addition, with the notable
exception of seven cases, all of the articles examined focused on large, charismatic mammals, such as
gorillas, dolphins, lions, and elephants. Although a majority of the articles examined (70.4%) were either
dispassionate and objective or sympathetic, nearly a third (29.6%) were either accusatory or attempted
to balance the accusatory statements of animal rights activists with sympathetic statements from zoo
professionals. Recommendations are offered for how zoos should deal with the increasing media and
public interest in zoo animal deaths, including: 1) a greater commitment to studying the reasons for
mortality in a wide variety of species; and 2) an increased investment in record keeping and analysis,
which should allow zoos to calculate average life spans in animal populations and to monitor and assess
the risk of certain lethal diseases on a real-time basis. Comparisons are drawn between zoo veterinary
practices and human medicine, which are both inexact sciences. Suggestions are made for how the
public and key decision-makers can distinguish between media reports on zoo animal deaths that are
legitimate cause for concern vs. those that are sensationalist and meant to generate controversy and
sell papers. A greater focus on the science of zoo animal death is necessary for accredited zoos to
maintain the public's confidence in their animal care practices.
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