[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
Learning Goals
After reading the chapter, you should be able to do the following:
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Label a map of ancient Greece
Explain what is meant by "Man is the measure of things," and relate it to the
development of Greek art
Compare the New York Kouros with the Egyptian sculptures of Menkaure and his Queen
Describe the position of women in ancient Greece
Identify Plato, Socrates, and Aristotle and describe the essential features of their
philosophy
List the Greek gods, discussing their functions and attributes
Draw and label the plan of the Parthenon
Draw and label the Doric and Ionic orders of architecture
Identify all the works and define the terms featured in the chapter
Describe the development of Greek pottery styles and their techniques, from Geometric
to White Ground
Describe the development of Greek sculptural styles from Orientalizing through
Hellenistic
Describe the style, technique, and iconography of the Battle of Issos mosiac
Describe the techniques of lost-wax bronze casting, encaustic painting, and pottery
Compare the Greek canon of Polykleitos with the Egyptian proportional grid
Compare and contrast the temple of Zeus at Olympia with the Parthenon, from the point
of view of style and iconography
Identify the twelve Labors of Herakles
Draw and label the plan of the Athenian Acropolis
Compare the depictions of males and females in Greek sculpture
Identify the leading figures of Greek history
The Art of Ancient Greece
(c. 800–1st CENTURY B.C.)
Geometric Period (1000 BCE – 700BCE)
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Greek alphabet introduced (c. 750 B.C.)
Homeric epics composed (c. 750-700 B.C.)
Delphic oracle; Olympian gods
Battle of Marathon: Persian defeat (490 B.C.)
Philosophy: Plato; Socrates; Aristotle
Theater: Aeschylos; Sophokles; Euripides; Aristophanes
"Man is the measure of all things"
Vase painting; mosaics; monumental sculpture
Orders of architecture: Doric; Ionic; Corinthian
Periklean Athens (c. 450–400 B.C.)
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The Parthenon; canon of Polykleitos
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Herodotos ("father of history")
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Peloponnesian War: Sparta defeats Athens
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Alexander the Great dies (323 B.C.)
Hellenistic period
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[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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Overview
The ancient Greeks are known as a self aware people. No other culture in western civilization
history was quite as introspective as the Greeks. They prided themselves as the most civilized
society in the world. In fact the term “barbarian” basically meant non Greek. The development of
Greek civilization rises from the ashes of the ancient Mycenaean and Minion cultures. From After
the decline and eventual fall of the Mycenaean culture in 1100 BCE, the Aegean Islands would
experience a “dark age” period for about 200 – 300 years. By 800 BCE Greece would begin to show
growth and stability in their government, economy and culture. This period is referred to as the
Homeric Age. The writer Homer would write the stories of prehistoric Greek history (If you have
not had to read The Iliad or The Odyssey in your academic career thus far, just wait, it is coming.) It
is the Greek culture that would be the basis for western cultures for art, architecture, music,
theater, philosophy, literature and politics.
Key Terms
abacus
the flat slab that forms the topmost unit of a Doric column and on which the architrave rests.
acanthus
a Mediterranean plant with prickly leaves, supposedly the source of foliage-like ornamentation on
Corinthian columns.
agora
the open space in an ancient Greek town used as a marketplace or for general meetings.
Alexander the Great
amphora
an ancient Greek two-handled vessel for storing grain, honey, oil, or wine.
Archaic smile
architrave
the lowest unit of an entablature, resting directly on the capital of a column.
Arête
excellence + more
Athenian Acropolis
Athens and Sparta
balustrade
a series of balusters, or upright pillars, supporting a rail (as along the edge of a balcony or bridge).
Battle of Salamis
black-figure style
describing a style of Greek pottery painting of the sixth century B.C., in which the decoration is black
on a red background.
canon
a set of rules, principles, or standards used to establish scales or proportions.
canon of proportions
caryatid
a supporting column in post-and-lintel construction carved to represent a human or animal figure.
cella
the main inner room of a temple, often containing the cult image of the deity.
colonnade
a series of columns set at regular intervals, usually supporting arches or an entablature.
contrapposto
a stance of the human body in which one leg bears the weight, while the other is relaxed, creating an
asymmetry in the hip-shoulder axis.
Corinthian
see Order.
cornice
the projecting horizontal unit, usually molded, that surmounts an arch or wall; the topmost member of
a Classical entablature.
Delian League
Dorian and Ionian
Greeks
Doric
see Order.
drum
(a) one of the cylindrical blocks of stone from which the shaft of a column is made; (b) the circular or
polygonal wall of a building surmounted by a dome or cupola.
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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echinus
in the Doric Order, the rounded molding between the necking and the abacus.
encaustic
a painting technique in which pigment is mixed with a binder of hot wax and fixed by heat after
application.
entablature
the portion of a Classical architectural Order above the capital of a column.
entasis
the slight bulging of a Doric column, which is at its greatest about one third of the distance from the
base.
entasis
finial
a small decorative element at the top of an architectural member such as a gable or pinnacle, or of a
smaller object such as a bronze vessel.
flutes, fluting
a series of vertical grooves used to decorate the shafts of columns in Classical architecture.
fluting
foreshortening
the use of perspective to represent a single object extending back in space at an angle to the picture
plane.
frieze
(a) the central section of the entablature in the Classical Orders; (b) any horizontal decorative band.
geometric
(a) based on mathematical shapes such as the circle, square, or rectangle; (b) a style of Greek pottery
made between c. 900 and 700 B.C., characterized by geometric decoration.
“golden mean”
Greek panel painting
Greek theaters
Greeks vs. Persians
hydria
an ancient Greek or Roman water jar.
Ionic
see Order.
isocephaly,
isocephalic
the horizontal alignment of the heads of all the figures in a composition.
kore (korai)
Greek word for maiden; an Archaic Greek statue of a standing female, usually clothed.
kouros (kouroi)
Greek word for young man; an Archaic Greek statue of a standing nude youth.
krater
a wide-mouthed bowl for mixing wine and water in ancient Greece.
kylix
an ancient Greek drinking cup with a wide, shallow bowl.
lekythos
an ancient Greek vessel with a long, narrow neck, used primarily for pouring oil.
Lord Elgin and the
“Elgin Marbles”
lost-wax bronze
casting (cire-perdue)
a technique for casting bronze and other metals.
meander pattern
a fret or key pattern originating in the Greek Geometric period.
metope
the square area, often decorated with relief sculpture, between the triglyphs of a Doric frieze.
naos
the inner sanctuary of an ancient Greek temple.
necking
a groove or molding at the top of a column or pilaster forming the transition from shaft to capital.
oenochoe
an ancient Greek wine jug.
Order
one of the architectural systems (Corinthian, Ionic, Doric) used by the Greeks and Romans to decorate
and define the post-and-lintel system of construction.
Panathenaic Festival
pediment
(a) in Classical architecture, the triangular section at the end of a gable roof, often decorated with
sculpture; (b) a triangular feature placed as a decoration over doors and windows.
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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Pericles
peripteral
surrounded by a row of columns or peristyle.
peristyle
a colonnade surrounding a structure; in Roman houses, the courtyard surrounded by columns.
Phidias
Polis
city-state
portico
(a) a colonnade; (b) a porch with a roof supported by columns, usually at the entrance to a building.
protome, protoma
a representation of the head and neck of an animal, often used as an architectural feature.
red-figure style
describing a style of Greek pottery painting of the sixth or fifth century B.C., in which the decoration is
red on a black background.
Roman copies of
Greek statues
scroll
(a) a length of writing material, such as papyrus or parchment, rolled up into a cylinder; (b) a curved
molding resembling a scroll (e.g., the volute of an Ionic or Corinthian capital).
Severe Style
shaft
the vertical, cylindrical part of a column that supports the entablature.
slip
in ceramics, a mixture of clay and water used (a) as a decorative finish or (b) to attach different parts
of an object (e.g., handles to the body of a vessel).
stylobate
the top step of a stereobate, forming a foundation for a column, peristyle, temple, or other structure.
tesserae
a small piece of colored glass, marble, or stone used in a mosaic.
triglyph
in a Doric frieze, the rectangular area between the metopes, decorated with three vertical grooves
(glyphs).
volute
in the Ionic order, the spiral scroll motif decorating the capital.
wet drapery
white-ground
describing a style of Greek pottery painting of the fifth century B.C., in which the decoration is usually
black on a white background.
Study Guide
Geometric Period (1000 BCE – 700BCE)
Funerary Krater: In 1050 BCE there is evidence of the development of a
specific Greek style. This specific style is found first on the vases/ceramic
wares. The decoration on the surface is a narrative of a funeral procession.
The figures are very simplified; depicted into very simple geometric shapes;
torso and hips are triangular. We see a body lying in state (prothesis) which
means this vase could have been used as a grave marker. Notice that there is
an attempt to display real human emotions. The mourners’ arms are raised
over their head as if in distress. It is no surprise that the Greeks would
acknowledge real emotional grief in this painting. They were a civilization that
was self aware. Their deities were not only human looking but also had very
human characteristics. In fact the only difference between the gods and
humans was that the gods were omnipotent. Found to be inscribed on the
Temple of Apollo were these words “Man is the measure of all things.” The
fact that this was written on the temple of a god says an awful a lot about this
Greeks.
Dipylon Vase (krater)
from the Dipylon Cemetery, Athens
8th century BCE. Terracotta
Greek Geometric Style
Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York CIty,
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Living With Art Slide Set
Ancient Greek Culture can be broken into 4 distinct styles/periods. The Geometric Period (1000 BCE-700BCE) is the oldest. The
funerary krater is an example of that style that n painting.
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
Menkaure and Queen Khamerernebty, Giza,
2490 – 2472 B.C.
Photo© Allan Kohl
Courtesy of Art Images for College Teaching
The Man and Centaur is an example of geometric
style in sculpture. A man is stabbing a centaur
which is half man half beast. We classify this statue
as geometric partly because of the date of this piece
(750 BCE), but also of the simplistic shape of the
subjects. This is a small open form cast statue,
unlike the statues of the Egyptian and Near East,
which are typically closed form. On the left is an
example of closed form sculpture. The figure does
not break or reach out into space. The man and
centaur physically reach out to each other, also we
can physically move in and through the statue.
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Man and Centaur
geometric
(750 BCE),
Metropolitan Museum of Art
The Greeks were excellent seamen. They would encounter and do business with other
civilizations and countries. The art of the Near East, Asia Minor and Egypt would influence
Greek artists. Orientalizing is the style that is an assimilation of Greek taste and Eastern
iconography. This style was first seen in Corinth, which was the most powerful city state of
the Greek culture, as well as a large and diverse trade center.
The amphora vase displays larger and curvy figures in the neck of this vase. The geometric
patterns, first seen in the Geometric style, are also part of the Orientalizing vases. On the
neck of the vase are an illustration of Odysseus and his crew fighting the Cyclops
Polyphemos. Their rendering is very reminiscent of Minion Cretes figures. There is
definitely an elegant and refined quality to these figures. The body of the vase is an
illustration of the story of Perseus and Medusa. The Greeks would use the stories about
their gods and heroes as metaphors. Medusa and Polyphemos represent the primitive
forces of terror and cannibalism, while Odysseus and Perseus represent reason as
triumphing over evil.
Proto-Attic amphora, circa 650 BC.
Eleusis, Archaeological Museum,
Detail of a Proto-Attic amphora, circa 650
BC. Eleusis, Archaeological Museum,
Archaic Period (600BCE – 480BCE)
By the late 6th century Athens will become the leading city state of Greece. This is due partly because of Solon a major political
figure in Athens. He is believed to be responsible for the development of the judiciary system and formulating the popular
assembly and council. He would also develop the representative government which is the basis of democracy.
Art would develop at a fairly rapid pace: This is the time of great writers of early literature such as Aesop and Sappho. Greek
tragedies and comedies would flourish at this time and the visual arts would also experience a growth.
The status of artist will be elevated to a higher level. There are pieces of art that are actually signed by artist. The ancient
Greeks seem to enjoy competitive sports (They are the ones who created the Olympic Games). This love of competition was
also applied in the fine arts. Writers and artists would compete with each at festivals but also they would compete for art
commissions. Athens would initiate monumental building projects for their city.
Probably the earliest example of the archaic style is found on the vases produced at this time.
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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The Greeks adhered to standard vase shapes.
Certain shapes were associated with a certain
purpose. Although Athens was a major pottery
center; it would be in Corinth that the Black
figure vase painting technique would be first
developed.
The Greeks adhered to standard vase shapes.
Certain shapes were associated with a certain
purpose. Although Athens was a major pottery
center; it would be in Corinth that the Black
figure vase painting technique would be first
developed.
Ajax & Achilles: In Black figure painting, the artist paints the figures in
silhouette with a slip. The vase is then fired. The firing process changes the
slip color black. After the firing the artist goes back into the figure and adds
details using a stylus. Exekias was considered one of the finest painters of
6th century.
Exekias - Achilles and
Penthesilea Greek, about
540-530 BC Made in
Athens, Greece; found at
Vulci (now in Lazio, Italy)
Photo: Wikipedia Commons
Euphrinios (painter) and
Euxitheos (potter)
Euphronios krater (Death of
Sarpedon)
Greek, Part of the collection
of the Metropolitan
Museum of Art from 1972
to 2008, the vase was
repatriated to Italy under
an agreement negotiated in
February 2006.)
Achilles and Penthesilea: Exekias mastery as a painter is evident the piece
Achilles and Penthesilea. The motif on the neck and bottom register still
show an Orientalizing influence, but the center scene of the main
characters show that Exekias was observing the human form in action and
he tries to replicate the movement. And while he may not have been
conscience of it, Exekias uses design principles to strengthen and enhance
the composition. The Greeks would be the first people in western
civilization to try to capture emotional expressions on the faces of their
subjects. The dramatic stories that were illustrated on these vases may
serve foreshadowing for the development of the Greek theater.
Exekias -Ajax & Achilles Playing
Draughts. c.550- 520 BC,
Height 24", Vatican Mus.
,Rome
Photo: LaCour Slide Library
Art Across Time Slide Set
(wncc)
By mid 6th century BCE the red figure vase painting technique was developed. This particular style
became very popular and would stay in vogue throughout the archaic period. This style allowed the
artist to have more control and make more details. This piece to the left, Death of Sarpedon, was
created by two artists; Euphrinios (painter) and Euxitheos (potter). As you can see the painter had a
keen eye for human anatomy. The detail on the figures even his attempt to foreshorten the knee
shows that the painter was trying to create a sense of form on a 2 dimensional surface.
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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It is during the archaic period that the Greeks would excel at creating
monumental sculpture. These life size statues show again the influence of
other cultures on the early work of the Greeks. The Greeks learned to carve
from the Egyptians sculptors. The Kouros (young man) is a fine example of
the Egyptian style on Greek art: the stiff arms, one leg stepping forward, the
heavy shaped eyes and the slight smile on the face. However we do see the
Greek taste prevailing in the fact that the subject is completely nude and is
carved completely away from the stone. This is the earliest known
freestanding life size statue. Most kourai (plural spelling) were believed to
have been grave markers. There is also evidence that this figure was probably
painted.
The Greeks excelled at creating monumental sculpture during the archaic
period. These life size statues show again the influence of other cultures on
the early work of the Greeks. The Greeks learned to carve from the Egyptians
sculptors. The Kouros (young man) is a fine example of the Egyptian style on
Greek art: the stiff arms, one leg stepping forward, the heavy shaped eyes
and the slight smile on the face. However we do see the Greek taste
prevailing in the fact that the subject is completely nude and is carved
completely away from the stone. This is the earliest known freestanding life
size statue. Most kourai (plural spelling) were believed to have been grave
markers. There is also evidence that this figure was probably painted.
New York Kouros (c. 600
BCE) Marble. 6 ft high
Metropolitan Museum of
Art. New York City,
Photo: LaCour Slide Library
Art Across Time Slide Set
(wncc)
The Peplos Kore (the garment she is wearing is called a peplos) was the
female equivalent of monumental sculpture. Kore were always clothed, but
the artist does allude to the figure underneath the garment. The arm may
have held flowers, or some other type offering. She too shares the heavy
lined eyes and “archaic smile” of the Kouros. Recent evidence has suggested
that the Kore may have been a representation of Athena. She may have worn
metal crown, earrings and was painted with colored wax.
Peplos Kore, from Paros (c.
530 BCE) Parian Marble. 3
ft. 11 2/3 in. high
Acropolis Museum, Athens
Photo© Allan Kohl
Courtesy of Art Images for
College Teaching
The skills of Greek sculptures developed to create more lively and rounded
forms of Kouros and Kore. This statue (to the right) was found with the
inscription “Stop and grieve at the tomb of the dead Kouros, slain by wild
Aries in front of the rank of battle”. This suggests that the Kourai were
originally grave markers.
Kroisos (Kouros) from
Anavysos, marble,
c 540 BC, ( c 540 - 515 BC)
apx 6'4" high.
NatArchMus, Athens
Photo© LaCour Slide
Library
Living With Art Slide Set
Kore from Chios: The garment called chiton, found on Chois an island off Asia Minor. The
more elaborate hairstyle and garment gives our lady a more elegant appearance. Statues of
men were often warriors, athletes or deities, but statues of women were exclusively deities or
some other supernatural being.
Kore from Chios
c. c 510 BC (c 520 BC)
Greek
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Gardner- Art Through the Ages Set
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
Monumental statues were used on the temples of the Greeks. The Dying Warrior is located in the
Temple of Aphaia. The warrior would have had bronze armor and actually painted. This warrior
could have been an ally or enemy. The Greeks traditionally did not treat the visual representation
of their enemies as weak or small unlike other ancient cultures. The warrior is struggling to rise,
attempting to pull the arrow out of his side. Since this was for a pediment on a temple there
would be some unusual space issue to be addressed. However that problem will be solved by
twisting and turning the figures which also will help to heighten the drama of the event that is
illustrated.
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The Dying Warrior , Temple of
Aphaia
Photo© Allan Kohl
Courtesy of Art Images for
College Teaching
Speaking of architecture the development of the Greek temple finds its origins in the early
sanctuaries and outdoor altars/shrines. As time moves forward and the Greek civilization grows so
would their architecture. The model of the Greek temple is influenced by the megaron plan that
was part of the Mycenaean palace and the monumental architecture of Egypt.
The Temple of Apollo is a considered Doric style because of the column that is used. These
temples usually consisted of a naos, pronaos and opisthodomos. As well as a room were the
offerings for Apollo was kept.
Temple of Apollo
Photo© Allan Kohl
Courtesy of Art Images for
College Teaching
Another Doric style temple is the Temple of Hera I. A single row of Doric columns surrounds a
cella or naos. The (elevation) arrangement of the temple. Temple the friezes, pediment and
entablatures were decorated with sculptures that told narratives about that particular deity. The
Greeks would place their columns on the outside of their temples which actually forms a wall,
which is called a peripteral.
Temple of Hera I
The squatty appearance of the Doric column is the most utilitarian of the Greek column orders.
Column Order: In Greece the appearance of columns was considered to be very important. Some
art historian would say that the column orders are possibly the Greeks’ best architectural
contribution. Each style represents advancement in not just aesthetics but also an achievement in
engineering.
Treasury of the Siphnians: Built in Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi. The caryatids statues stand with
one engaged leg on pedestals; with elaborately carved capitals that make these columns Ionic
order. A winged sphinx is in the center of pediment that definitely shows a Near East influence.
The winged female in the corner is Nike the goddess of victory. The borders are in an egg and dart
and egg and leaf pattern to frame out the pediment.
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
Classical Period (480BCE – 325BCE)
By the classical period the Greeks would establish an ideal of beauty that would be based on three
general concepts: humanism “Man the measure of all things”, rationalism “Know Thyself’ (inner
significance of forms), and idealism. “Nothing in Excess” (produce only essential forms).
Sophocles, Plato and Aristotle would philosophies on rational thinking; these fathers of western
philosophy basically believed that everything had a purpose, there are no accidents, and it all
works in a design.
Artists would also become theoreticians and write books about art. Classical artists would rely
more on close observation of the natural world and try to look for the universal idea in each form.
It would be especially at this time that the Greek artists would try to create the perfect image.
Humanism + Rationalism = Idealism
It is during the classical period that Greece would also begin to
experience internal political issues. War between Sparta and Athens
would break out. Athens, who just some 40 years earlier defeated the
Persian, were defeated by the Spartans in 404 BCE. Shortly following
this, the power of the Macedonians would grow and Greece would
become united under the kingship of Phillip of Macedonia and his son
Alexander the Great. Alexander’s death marks the end of the classical
period in Greece.
Most of what is known about Greek paintings is scene on the vases as
well as mosaic copies of their paintings. By the end of the 5th century
the white ground painting technique became very popular for
lekythoi, one of the standard vase shapes used by the Greeks. This
technique allowed for even more detail and realism. Vase painters
could use a fuller range of colors. Figures are outlined in black on a
white painted background, the vase was then fired and other colors
would be applied using tempera paint. Because this type of
decoration deteriorated quickly, it was used only for votives, funerary
or religious ceremonies. While the image in your text is of a warrior,
most lekythos in the classical period were paintings were of women.
By this time women would begin to make a more prominent
appearance in artwork. Traditionally the only women who were
portrayed in Greek art were goddesses and less powerful supernatural
beings. But by the mid 5th century more images of mortal women
would be memorialized on graver and funerary markers.
Battle of Issos: also known as Alexander confronts Darius III or the
Alexander mosaic. This is a mosaic copy of a Greek painting by a
woman Helen of Egypt. Mosaics made from small tessarae stones
that would pressed into grout or cement that would provide a durable
surface. This is a dramatic narrative of an actual battle between
Alexander and Darius II of Persia. The artist uses foreshortening and
modeling techniques to create a realistic and active composition.
Alexander and Darius are seen as equals on this battle scene,
Alexander swooping in from the left and Darius in armor and clearly
leading the battle. Both men are focused on each other. Even though
parts of this mosaic are clearly gone, the gaps appear to be clouds of
dust that would be kicked up.
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[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
The Kritios Boy is considered a transitional piece from archaic to
classical style. The Greeks would found less inspiration from Near East
and Egypt art and would develop their own aesthetic. This period of
self awareness is defined by the Kritios boy. Gone is the Egyptian
influenced archaic smile, instead of our boy seems more solemn. Also
the Greeks would develop their own artistic aesthetics and move from
stylization to a more natural appearance. This statue was found at the
site of Acropolis at Athens. More than likely it was a memorial figure.
There is some slight idealization, but overall the most impressive fact
about this piece is that it is a free standing figure in a contrapposto
position. While this is carved from marble by the end of the archaic
period hollow casting would be primarily used to create monumental
sculpture which would allow for more flexible figures.
Photo© Allan Kohl
Courtesy of Art Images for
College Teaching
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Kritos Boy
c 480 BC,
marble,
Acropolis Mus, Athens
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Art Through the Ages Slide Set
Another development in the classical period was
the more prevalent use of large scale bronze
casting. This is the original bronze statue of either
Zeus throwing a thunder bolt or Poseidon throwing
a trident. Confirms the Greeks mastery and skill in
sculpting, the figure takes up room, projects into
space, the tensing of the muscles gives this art life
like qualities. Artists would study athletes as they trained.
Poseidon/Zeus’s eyes would be inlaid with glass, and silver for
eyelashes. There are not many origin bronze statue left of Greek art.
Often the bronze would be recycled for other uses.
Photo© Allan Kohl
Courtesy of Art Images for
College Teaching
This is a roman copy of the origin Greek sculpture **FYI – chances are
that quite a few of the Greek marble statues are Roman copies. The
practice of recycling bronze would remain in place for several
hundreds of years. ** The artist for this piece is Myron who originally
may have done this in bronze. Poseidon/Zeus projects out into space,
the discus thrower circles out into space and twists and turns back in.
Myron’s subject is a natural looking athlete. Probably was
commissioned to commemorate the Olympic Games that started 776
BCE. . In 1972 two original Greek bronzes were recovered from the
bottom of the sea. Amazingly well preserved, they are dated about
450 BCE which makes them a transition from early to mid classical
period. They are slightly larger than life size which leads historians to
believe they were meant to commemorate some important event.
The artist obviously paid attention to human anatomy going as far as
to include detail of veins on the hands and legs. The positions of the
warrior’s arms suggest that he was carrying a shield and maybe a
sword or spear. The figure definitely begins to exhibit a more
idealized form and therefore some abstraction begins to develop.
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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Polyklietos was art theorist who through mathematics wanted to
create the perfect proportion of the figure. He would develop a canon
of proportion for the perfect human form. His canon was based on
the ratio that the perfect male form is
6-7 heads high. The Spear Bearer/Achilles statue is the result of
Polyklietos’ theories. He also used mathematics to balance a more
dynamic figure that is more dynamic.
Polyklietos –Spearbearer (440
B.C)
Classical Greek
marble sculpture
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Living With Art Slide Set
Grave Stele of Hegeso: Wealthy families would use the stele as
memorials. Carved in low relief the stelai (plural) that have been
recovered were scenes of women in daily life. This figure on this grave
stele is identified as Hegeso. She is believed to a wealthy woman
because she is shown choosing jewelry from a box presented by her
maid. This is an intimate setting; a viewer has a discreet view of the
life of mortal women in Greece.
The Acropolis (high city) started construction began in 490 BCE.
Located in Athens was the major hub of the city: administrative,
religious, commercial and civic activities centrally located on the
highest point. The Acropolis was designed to celebrate the civilization
and culture of Athens.
The Parthenon: The Parthenon was the symbol of order and rational
thought. Created as a temple for Athena, the patron goddess of
Athens the Parthenon exemplifies the Greek temple model. Doric
order peristyle cella open to the east and an unconnected space opens
on the west. The front entrance has an Ionic order colonnade which
creates from a distance a lighter and leaner appearance. This lighter
appearance creates a sense of movement because the building
appearance to become more narrow toward the top.
Parthenon (west facade and
north flank)
Classical Greek
architecture
c. 448-432 B.C.
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Living With Art Slide Set
East Pediment of the Parthenon: The figures fill the pediment are fully
sculpted and than secured by metal pins into the cornices and pediment
of the Parthenon. The space issue is solved by placing the figures in
various positions. Male figures are either Heracles or Dionysus and the
females Hestia, Aphrodite and Dione. Probably had gold and silver
inlaid through out the temple and an ivory statue of a 40’ Athena.
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Living With Art Slide Set
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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Photo© Allan Kohl
Courtesy of Art Images for College Teaching
Lapith Fighting a Centaur: The Doric Metope relief is of a Lapith, an
ancient warrior race, fighting a centaur. The Lapith is shown thrusting
out into the viewer space, while twisting away from the centaur. The
figure nearly breaks clear away from the background. The centaur
arches his back very dramatically. The Greeks would continue to use
legendary stories as metaphors for reason (Lapith) triumphing over
passion (Centaur).
Athena: Located in the Naos of the temple of Athena. She wears the
armor that is identifies her as the goddess of war. Original statue would
have stood approximately 40 feet on a high pedestal. In her right hand
she holds statue of Nike.
Temple of Athena Nike: This temple is only
27’ by 19’ that is surrounded by a low wall
parapet decorated with relief of Athena
and victories. The structure has Ionic order
columns in an amphiphostyle which is a
porch on each side. A blind porch faces
over city. Part of the parapet (low wall) has
a sculptural relief of Nike. She wears a very
delicate garment and her body is a closer
representation of the female form. Notice
the attention to detail and twisting of the
body.
Erechtheion, Acropolis, Athens
Porch of Maidens, Erechtheion,
Acropolis, Athens
Photo: LaCour Slide Library
Art Across Time Slide Set (wncc)
The Erechtheion is the second most
important building at the Acropolis. It is an
odd temple that instead of the symmetrical
plan, this temple is based on an
asymmetrical plan and housed several
different shrines. The temple is built on
the site of the famous Poseidon and
Athena competition. The sacred rock with
trident imprint is enclosed on north porch.
The famous Porch of Maidens is located on
the south side of the Erechtheion. The
columns are placed as such on the porch to
appear balanced. The engaged leg is
covered by the fluted dress. The maidens
have a Doric capital and ionic entablature,
however the columns are considered to be
Erechtheion, Acropolis, Athens
Photo: LaCour Slide Library
Art Across Time Slide Set (wncc)
Porch of Maidens, Erechtheion,
Acropolis, Athens
Photo: LaCour Slide Library
Art Across Time Slide Set (wncc)
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
P A G E | 13
Ionic order.
Attic Grave Steles: memorials would
continue to be built for wealthy and
prominent citizens. This stele shows a
beginning an aesthetic change in art. The
features on the faces of sculptures become
more individualized enough that to be a
portrait but still some evidence of
idealization. On this stele there does seem
to appear to be more tolerant older
acceptance of maturity over youth and
beauty. This is also a monumental stele,
stands over 5 feet tall.
By the late classical period there is a shift in the style in Greek
sculpture. Aphrodite of Knidos is the first full nude female
sculpture. This Aphrodite is a composite of 2 Roman copies.
The neck, right forearm and hand, feet and legs restored in the
17th & 18th century. Note the modest gesture of Aphrodite;
the figure could be an idealization. She is meant to represent
the model of high values. This was placed in open shrine and
meant to be viewed from all angles. Praxiteles would modify
the canon of proportions that would be applied to the female
form. Supposedly Aphrodite would exclaim to Praxiteles
“When did you see me, naked.”
Praxiteles
Hermes and Dionysos ( )
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Art Through the Ages Slide Set
Praxiteles was active in Athens between 370-335 BCE, his
canon would be leaner and taller. The body would become 8-9
heads tall, giving the figure a more heroic proportion. The
facial expressions are more introspective, minor deities in
happier and lighter moments.
Copy of Praxiteles. Cnidus Aphrodite.
Marble, Roman copy after a Greek
original of the 4th century. Marble;
original elements: torso and thighs;
restored elements: head, arms, legs and
support (drapery and jug). National
Museum_of Rome - Palazzo Altemps
Wikipedia Commons. Public Domain.
The Scraper (Apoxyomenos): Another well known sculptor of the late 4th century was Lysippos.
Lysippos claimed to be a self taught artist, would say that nature as his teacher. Probably was
influenced Praxiteles and may have even incorporated Praxiteles’ canon of proportions. Even an
athlete is a typical subject matter in Greek, this one is a little different in the fact that athlete is not
shown in an athletic endeavor. Our scrapper projects himself into the viewers’ space and there is
some curvature in spine; an overall a very sedate composition.
Apoxyomenos (Scraper) Roman
copy of a bronze original by
Lysippos (c. 320 B.C.E.) Marble.
6'8.75" high. Musei Vaticani,
Museo Pio Clementino, Rome.
Photo: LaCour Slide Library
Art Across Time Slide Set (wncc)
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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Alexander the Great: Lysippos was best known for the
monumental sculptures of Zeus. Could be why he was chosen
to do a statue of Alexander the Great. Head was part of a full
size statue. Not believed to be a generic portrait but an
actual likeness. Eyes deep sets, meditative, upturned slightly.
This also leads viewers to assume that Alexander may have
been a benevolent and generous ruler.
Head of young Alexander the Great by
Lysippos,
from Pella, Greece, 3rd century BC
Wikipedia Commons. Fair Use.
Hellenistic Period (480BCE – 325BCE)
Hellenistic period is defined by Alexander’s death in 323 BCE to the beginning of Roman Empire. Alexander would unite Greece
and conquer Persia, Syria and Phoenicia, occupy Egypt, established the Alexandria seaport, and would continue to March as far
east as India. Alexander’s death in 323 BCE would cause a split of his kingdom (one story is that as Alexander lay dying on his
bed, his generals asked him who should succeed him as king, and with his last breath he gasped “The strongest”). By early 3rd
century Alexander’s generals would divide the empire into thirds: The Ptolomies would rule Egypt, Antigonids would have
Macedonia & mainland Greece, and the Seculids would control Asia Minor, Persia & Mesopotamia. Within 2 centuries the
divided kingdoms would be under Roman rule, with Egypt holding out the longest.
In the Hellenistic period the Egyptian city of Alexandria became the center of learning due to the great library that Alexander
would build. This library which held over 700,000 papyrus and parchment rolls would benefit rulers of ancient civilization for
the next 100-200 years.
The Hellenistic Theatre would continue to grow. Theatres were not just for entertainment,
but also religious communal ceremonies that involved dance, music and poetry. Stage
would face the hill that created a natural stadium seating. Most theatres were built in the
4th century and would be continually updated. The theatre at Epidauros is a classical
example of a Greek theatre: semis circle/tiered seating, orchestra performance area.
Backdrop and backstage area consisted of proskenion that separated orchestra from skene
ramp. Seats created out of wedge shapes.
Photo: LaCour Slide Library
Art Across Time Slide Set (wncc
Temple of the Olympian Zeus was originally built on a Doric temple. Started Base
foundation measures 135 ft x 354 but would not be completed until reign of the Roman
emperor Hadrian. Commissioned by Antiochus and designed by Cossutius. Located at the
foot of the Acropolis, Olympian Zeus is a larger traditional Greek temple. The columns are a
composite if Corinthian capitals and Ionic shafts. This creates an elegant and more refined
look.
Nike of Samothrace
Louvre Museum, Paris
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Art Through the Ages Slide Set
Nike of Samothrace is a fine example of Hellenistic sculpture.
This statue was possibly meant to commemorate a sea victory,
or to be placed on the bow of a ship. But more than likely it
was placed on a cliff or in an artificial hillside niche. The artist
used canon, pose and drapery to create a powerful all around
dramatic effect. The stance of Nike spirals upward, her
garment is shear and accentuates the curves of her figure. The
heavy dramatic pose of Nike is a typical characteristic of
Hellenistic art. In the Hellenistic period the taste moves from
harmony and balance to more character driven portraits and
dramatic events. Aphrodite of Melos sometimes known as
Venus de Milo is one of the most famous sculptures in art. She
is a little heavier and rounder even though the artist may have
used Praxiteles canon of proportion. Her body does have a
stronger twist and more prominent knee projection which is
Hellenistic. Scholars’ debate about what she was doing with
Venus de Milo
c 480 BC,
marble,
Louvre Museum, Paris
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
her hands: holding an apple, looking into a shield of Ares, or
just hands covering body.
Art Through the Ages Slide Set
The Hellenistic Ruler is the best example of the classical
Hellenistic style of art. This is a larger than life size sculpture
that was favored by Hellenistic audience. But we see that the
abstraction of the human form is apparent. The artist shows
an over development of the musculature of the ruler. The
facial features though are more individualize and seem to
convey an actual personality of a ruler who saw himself as
divine and all powerful.
The Lacoon is a based on the story of the Trojan priest who
tried to warn the king of Troy about the wooden horse. The
Hellenistic taste for extreme drama motivated their art
production. The skill of artist not only conveys emotion and
movement of figures but also stability of figures in a dynamic
composition.
Hellenistic artists and patrons would also produce and support
a more realistic approach in sculpting. The subject matter of
more realistic art was often children and working class people.
. The other trend is called anti classical. The subject matter is
not gods, heroes or royal portraiture, but rather of
Sleeping Eros
Laocoon and His Sons
c.2nd-1st Century BC,
Vatican Museums, Rome
Hellenistic Greek
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Living With Art Slide Set
The Sleeping Eros shows a child in complete repose. Even
though Eros is a god, this portrayal of him as a child would
become more identified with this deity (his roman name is
Cupid). This bronze sculpture of Eros gives him a sweet
expression on his sleeping face and no tension apparent in his
body.
Old Market Woman: On the other side of this sweet child is
the old woman sculpture. This type of image is relatively rare
in Greek art. She stands only 4 feet tall and as you can see she
is definitely not idealized. Who she is supposed to be is very
debatable: some scholars believed she is an aging follower of
Dionysus. Dionysus is the god of fertility and wine, so is she
drunk? Is she on her way to “worship” or did she just finished
“worshipping”? Or is she a market woman, who has had a
rough and hard life. One thing is for sure, and that is
Hellenistic sculptors would try to appeal across class lines and
do more genre (art of everyday people and/or life)
Old Market Woman
Photo© LaCour Slide Library
Living With Art Slide Set
P A G E | 15
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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The Boxer is another example of genre art. While the figure is
somewhat idealized, but the face shows a man who has seen
and experienced the pain of his profession both physically and
emotionally.
The Boxer
Altar of Zeus and Athena, Pergamon, c 175 BC. Staatliche Museen, AntikenSammlung, East Berlin (West front restored)
Photo: LaCour Slide Library Art Across Time Slide Set (wncc)
Altar from Pergamon
Photo: LaCour Slide Library
Art Across Time Slide Set (wncc)
Pergamon was the Hellenistic capital in Asia Minor. The
kingdom of Pergamon became the new hub of artistic activity.
A much more dramatic style identified as the Pergamonese
style is display in the Altar of Zeus. This altar was built for the
to commemorate their victory over the Gauls. Originally
placed in an enclosure, in the open courtyard, sits on a high
podium with ionic colonnade. The frieze is decorated in high
relief. The story is the traditionally gods versus titans. The
interior of the altar is the story of how Pergamon was founded.
King Attalous defeated the Gauls in 238 BCE. Since it was prohibited to show current events in memorials the Battle of Gods
and Giants again serves as a metaphor. The Pergamonese would try to reassert their independence and Greek superiority
much like the Athenians did in building the Parthenon. However the frieze figures on the altar seem to more than likely to
reflect the current uncertainness that surrounds the Greek empire. Over 200 figures in a variety of poses literally crawl, run,
scoot and fly off the surface of the podium. On the faces of these figures show a wide range of emotions, from fear to
arrogance to even disbelief.
The Greeks keen sense of observation and ability to reproduce and expand on the human form would cause them to be
admired and imitated in western cultures. While Greeks admired art, they did not necessarily admire artists. While the work is
to be admired, artists were merely copying the greatness of the human form, not for creating it.
Chapter Five Web resources


http://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/
http://www.agathe.gr/ Athena Agora excavations
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Study Guide
General
1.
2.
3.
Describe the basic characteristics of each of the following periods, talk a little about politics and give one example of
an artwork from each: Geometric, Orientalizing, Classical, High-Classical, Hellenistic
How does Greek art reflect a rational observation of the world?
Greek Orders of Columns (most important terms circled—your text also has a diagram):
Ceramics
1.
For what purposes did the Greeks use ceramics? How did the design and painting of these vessels reflect their
function? What changes may be seen in Greek vase painting of the High Classical Period as compared to earlier
periods?
Geometric Art

Geometric krater, from the Dipylon cemetery, Athens, Greece, ca. 740 BCE. 3’ 4 1/2” high.
Orientalizing Period

Lady of Auxerre, ca. 650–625 BCE. Limestone, 2’ 1 1/2” high.
Archaic Period



Kroisos, from Anavysos, Greece, ca. 530 BCE. Marble, 6’ 4” high.
Temple of Hera I (“Basilica”), Paestum, Italy, ca. 550 BCE.
Exekias, Dionysus in a Sailboat, c.540BC
Classical Period






Temple of Hera II, Paestum, Italy, ca. 460 BCE.
Kritios Boy, from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 480 BCE. Marble, 2’ 10” high.
Warrior, from the sea off Riace, Italy, ca. 460–450 BCE. Bronze, 6’ 6” high.
Charioteer, from the Sanctuary of Apollo at Delphi, c.470BC
MYRON, Diskobolos (Discus Thrower). Roman marble copy of a bronze original of ca. 450 BCE, 5’ 1” high.
POLYKLEITOS, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer). Roman marble copy from Pompeii, Italy, after a bronze original of ca. 450–
440 BCE, 6’ 11” high.
Athenian Acropolis

IKTINOS and KALLIKRATES, Parthenon, (Temple of Athena Parthenos, looking southeast), Acropolis, Athens,
Greece, 447–438 BCE.

Plan of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, Greece, with diagram of sculptural program (after Andrew Stewart),
447–432 BCE.
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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

PHIDIAS, Athena Parthenos, in the cella of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 438 BCE. Model of the
lost chryselephantine statue. Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto.

Three goddesses (Hestia, Dione, and Aphrodite?), from the east pediment of the Parthenon, Acropolis, Athens,
Greece, ca. 438–432 BCE. Marble, greatest height 4’ 5”.

MNESIKLES, Propylaia (looking southwest), Acropolis, Athens, Greece, 437–432 BCE.

Erechtheion (looking northwest), Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 421–405 BCE.

Caryatid from the south porch of the Erechtheion, Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 421–405 BCE. Marble, 7’ 7”
high.

Plan of the Erechtheion, Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 421–405 BCE.

KALLIKRATES, Temple of Athena Nike (looking southwest), Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 427–424 BCE.
Grave stele of Hegeso, from the Dipylon cemetery, Athens, Greece, ca. 400 BCE. Marble, 5’ 2” high.
Late Classical Period




PRAXITELES(?), Hermes and the infant Dionysos, from the Temple of Hera, Olympia, Greece. Copy of a statue by
Praxiteles of ca. 340 BCE or an original work of ca. 330–270 BCE by a son or grandson. Marble, 7’ 1” high.
LYSIPPOS, Apoxyomenos (Scraper). Roman marble copy of a bronze original of ca. 330 BCE, 6’ 9” high.
PHILOXENOS OF ERETRIA, Battle of Issus, ca. 310 BCE. Roman copy (Alexander Mosaic) from the House of the Faun,
Pompeii, Italy, late second or early first century BCE. Tessera mosaic, approx. 8’ 10” X 16’ 9”.
Tomb at Halikarnassos for Mausolus, destroyed
Hellenistic Period



Reconstructed west front of the Altar of Zeus, Pergamon, Turkey, ca. 175 BCE.
Nike alighting on a warship (Nike of Samothrace), from Samothrace, Greece, ca. 190 BCE. Marble, figure 8’ 1” high.
ALEXANDROS OF ANTIOCH-ON-THE-MEANDER, Aphrodite (Venus de Milo), from Melos, Greece, ca. 150–125 BCE.
Marble, 6’ 7” high.
Hellenistic Period under Roman patronage

ATHANADOROS, HAGESANDROS, and POLYDOROS OF RHODES, Laocoön and his sons, from Rome, Italy, early
first century CE Marble, 7’ 10 1/2” high.
Potential Exam Essay Questions
1.
What are some of the connections between the Minoan-Mycenaean and Greek civilizations?
Discuss the mythology and the art.
2. Compare the Archaic with the Classical style. Give examples of sculpture and vase painting.
3. Compare Classical and Hellenistic sculptural style. Give three examples of each.
4. Describe the development of Greek pictorial style as it evolves in vase painting. Begin with the Geometric period
and continue through White Ground.
5. Compare Greek Archaic and Early Classical sculpture with Egyptian sculpture, particularly the life-size standing
males and females.
6. Describe the development of Greek temple architecture from the Mycenaean megaron to the temples at
Corinth, Olympia, and the Parthenon.
7. Discuss the techniques used by Iktinos and Kallikrates, and by Phidias, to achieve formal and narrative unity in
the Parthenon architecture and sculpture.
8. Compare the three Classical temples on the Acropolis with respect to style, function, and iconography.
9. Compare the New York Kouros (c. 600 BCE) and Kritios Boy (c. 480 BCE)
100 years separate these two statues. Compare and contrast the ways in which the human body is shown in
these two statues. Among other traits, consider the stiff posture and archaic smile of the Kouros as compared to
the graceful contrapposto of the early classical Kritios Boy.
10. What culture produced Three Goddesses from the Parthenon Frieze. Discuss the formal problems of filling
architectural space and the ways in which those problems were solved here. AN important part of your response
should include an explanation of how reclining figures were used to fill in each side of a triangulated pediment.
11. Nike Adjusting Her Sandal (FIG.2-41).
Question: “Identify this relief and its sculptor. How does this relief use drapery to establish a sense of the human
body?” (5 minutes)
[CHP. 5: THE ART OF ANCIENT GREECE]
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P A G E | 19
Students should recognize this masterpiece as a Phidian relief, and discuss how the stone drapery seems to flow
over and around the human body to reveal what lies beneath.
12. Parthenon (Greek, 447 BCE.) (FIG. 2-32 and 2-33)
Question: “Where is this building located? For what purpose was it built? What architectural elements reflect the
desires of the culture that built it?” (8 minutes)
Students should be very familiar with this building and be able to discuss its use as a temple devoted to Athena
and describe its classical balance and proportion.
13. Compare the Aphrodite of Knidos and Laocoön
What cultures produced these two sculptures?
Compare and contrast the ways in which the human body is shown in these two scenes. For example, the Greek
Classical Aphrodite illustrates classical calm repose while the Laocoön exhibits the frenetic energy of the Greek
Hellenistic.
14. Considering both techniques and motifs used, discuss the changes in vase decoration from early Minoan times
through the fifth century BC in Greece. Be sure to cite specific examples to illustrate your discussion.
Include:
Minoan-2 examples
Greek Geometric
Greek Orientalizing
Greek Archaic (Red and Black figure)
Classical
15. Discuss the development of the Greek temple and the contributions from the following sources:
Egypt
Mycenae
Pre-Archaic wood and mud brick architecture
Discuss the development of the female figure in Greek sculpture from Archaic through the Hellenistic periods,. Select
three figures that you think best demonstrate the development - one each from the Archaic, the Classical, and the
Hellenistic periods. Pay particular attention to the amount of motion given to the figures, the degree of realism, the
use of drapery, and the means used by the sculptors to achieve these effects. How does each illustrate the stylistic
characteristics of her period.?
Discuss the development of the standing male nude in Greek sculpture. Note particularly the changing proportions,
the depiction of motion, and the conception of the figure in space. Cite specific examples to illustrate your discussion
Potential Exam Essay Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
What are some of the connections between the Minoan-Mycenaean and Greek civilizations? Discuss the mythology
and the art.
Compare the Archaic with the Classical style. Give examples of sculpture and vase painting.
Compare Classical and Hellenistic sculptural style. Give three examples of each.
Describe the development of Greek pictorial style as it evolves in vase painting. Begin with the Geometric period and
continue through White Ground.
Compare Greek Archaic and Early Classical sculpture with Egyptian sculpture, particularly the life-size standing males
and females.
Describe the development of Greek temple architecture from the Mycenaean megaron to the temples at Corinth,
Olympia, and the Parthenon.
Discuss the techniques used by Iktinos and Kallikrates, and by Phidias, to achieve formal and narrative unity in the
Parthenon architecture and sculpture.
Compare the three Classical temples on the Acropolis with respect to style, function, and iconography.