68877
Preliminary SEA of the Great
Western Development Strategy
The Five Key Development Domains
Summary Report
January 2007
World Bank
Environment and Social Development
East Asia and Pacific Region
This publication was developed and produced by the Environment and Social Development Unit (EASES), of the East
Asia and Pacific Region of the World Bank. The Environment, Rural and Social Development Units are part of the
Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (ESSD) Network.
Environmental and social development issues are integral part of the development challenge in the East Asia and Pacific
(EAP) region. The recently completed Environment and Social Development Strategies for the World Bank in the region
have provided the conceptual framework for setting priorities, strengthening the policy and institutional framework for
sustainable development, and addressing key environmental and social development challenges through projects,
programs, policy dialogue, and partnerships.
This publication is part of a series that have been supported through the Trust Fund for Environmental and Socially
Sustainable Development (TFESSD). Further information is on the TFESSD is available online at
<www.worldbank.org/tfessd>>
This publication is available online at <<www.worldbank.org/eapenvironment>>.
Front cover photos: Bob Sacha Photography.
Environment and Social Development Department
East Asia and Pacific Region
The World Bank
Washington, D.C.
January 2007
____________________________________________________________________________________
This volume is a product of the staff of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank. The findings,
interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper do not necessarily reflect the views of the Executive Directors of The World Bank
or the governments they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. The boundaries,
colors, denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of The World Bank
concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
The material in this publication is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission may be a
violation of applicable law. The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank encourages dissemination of
its work and will normally grant permission to reproduce portions of the work promptly.
For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the Copyright Clearance
Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA, telephone 978-750-8400, fax 978-750-4470, www.copyright.com. All other
queries on rights and licenses, including subsidiary rights, should be addressed to the Office of the Publisher, The World Bank, 1818 H
Street NW, Washington, DC 20433, USA, fax 202-522-2422, e-mail pubrights@worldbank.org
Table of Contents
________________________________________________________________________________________________
Foreword
iv
Acknowledgments
v
Acronyms
vi
Executive Summary
vii
Key Findings Summary Page
x
Chapter 1. Introduction
1
1
2
2
6
1.1 Objectives and anticipated results of SEA for GWDS
1.2 Western region
1.3 GWDS plans and projects
1.4 Approach of the SEA study
Chapter 2. SEA – Worldwide and China
9
9
11
2.1 International SEA context
2.2 Considerations for future systems in China
Chapter 3. Baseline description
13
14
15
16
18
18
21
23
3.1 Environmental regions
3.2 Land resources
3.3 Water resources
3.4 Forest resources
3.5 Energy and mineral resources
3.6 Biodiversity and ecosystem services
3.7 Tourism resources
Chapter 4. Main environmental challenges
4.1 Summary of environmental constraints
4.2 Description of the causes of identified environmental problems
4.3 Environmental problems at the province level
Chapter 5. Assessing the environmental impact of GWDS
5.1 Water resource development and utilization plans
5.2 Land utilization plans
5.3 Energy resource exploitation plans
5.4 Biodiversity protection plans
5.5 Tourism development plans
5.6 General observations about development in the western region
Chapter 6. Recommendations
25
25
31
32
36
36
37
40
43
45
47
48
48
53
65
6.1 Regional level recommendations
6.2 Provincial level recommendations
6.3 Lessons learned and next steps
References
66
i
CD-ROM User Guide
Part 1 – Full SEA Study
1.1
Full SEA study (197 pages) [3.6MB]
Part 2 – Further information on Western China and the GWDS
2.1
Protected areas in Western China (map)
2.2
Provincial level objectives for five plans of the GWDS [0.1MB]
Part 3 – Further information on SEA
3.1
SEA experiences in China [0.1 MB]
3.2
International Experience on SEA and its application in China; Note for SEA practitioners in
China - a review of the literature; Isao Endo. World Bank, 2004. [0.1MB]
3.3
SEA Outside the Bank. Rob Verheem. The Netherlands EIA Commission. [ppt, 0.13MB]
3.4
New Concepts in Strategic Environmental Assessment; Towards Better Decision-Making.
ANSEA (2002). [pdf, 0.6MB]
3.5
SEA – Concept and Practice. World Bank Environment Strategy Notes, No 14 (2005). Kulsum
Ahmed, Jean Roger Mercier, and Rob Verheem. [pdf, 0.1MB]
3.6
Integrated Environmental Considerations in Policy Formulation; Lessons from policy-based
SEA experience (2005). World Bank Environment Department, report number 32783.
Part 4 – Further information on World Bank support for SEA
4.1
Strategic Environmental Assessment Bank Program FY05. Kulsum Ahmed and Jean Roger
Mercier. World Bank SEA Training Workshop, June 2004. [ppt, 0.2MB]
4.2
World Bank Structured Learning Program (SLP) [0.1MB]
4.3
World Bank Distance Learning Course [0.1 MB]
4.4
Strategic Environmental Assessment in World Bank Operations. Experience to date and future
potential. World Bank Environmental Strategy Papers, No 4 (2002). Olav Kjörven and Henrik
Lindhhem, ECON Centre for Economic Analysis, Oslo, Norway. [pdf, 0.8MB]
ii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Provinces in the western region
Geographic Zones and Land Use types in Western China (2000)
Average annual temperature and annual precipitation
Land use patterns, Western China (2003)
Gross output value of land industries, Billion Yuan (2003)
Average Annual Precipitation (mm/year)
Distribution of Typical Ecosystems
Distribution of typical tourist resources in the western region
Soil and water loss in Arable land and Grassland
Desertification of i) Arable land and ii) Grassland
2
14
14
15
16
16
23
24
26
28
Overall Summary of GWDS consequences
Structure of the study
Environmental standard classification
Baseline descriptive statistics for western region provinces
Land use patterns (percent of land area)
Exploitation and utilization of water resources (2003)
Forest cover km2 (various years)
Coal reserves in the western region (million tons)
Oil and natural gas reserves in the western region
Wind energy potential
Recoverable deposits of main mineral resources
Extent of nature reserves (1997, 2000, and 2003)
Description of ecosystems types in the Western Region
Tourism activity in western provinces
Water Deficiency in Key areas of Northwestern China (m3)
Overview of causes for land degradation in each sub-region
Statistics on Soil Deterioration in Northwest China
Percent Forest Coverage and Grassland Coverage (2000)
Wastewater pollution and treatment levels (2003)
Air Quality (2003 and 2004)
Current environmental problems per province
Status of environmental features at the province level
Consequences of water resource plans in the GWDS
Consequences of land utilization plans in the GWDS
Consequences of energy exploitation plans in the GWDS
Consequences of biodiversity plans in the GWDS
Consequences of tourism plans in the GWDS
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Chongqing
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Sichuan
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Guizhou
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Yunnan
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Guangxi
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Qinghai
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Tibet
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Shaan’xi
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Ganshu
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Ningxia
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Xinjiang
Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Ningxia
x
1
7
13
15
17
18
19
19
20
21
21
22
24
25
26
27
28
30
31
33
33
37
39
43
44
46
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
List of Tables
Table 1
Table 1.1
Table 1.3
Table 3.1
Table 3.2
Table 3.3
Table 3.4
Table 3.5
Table 3.6
Table 3.7
Table 3.8
Table 3.9
Table 3.10
Table 3.11
Table 4.1
Table 4.2
Table 4.3
Table 4.4
Table 4.5
Table 4.6
Table 4.7
Table 4.8
Table 5.1
Table 5.2
Table 5.3
Table 5.4
Table 5.5
Table 6.1
Table 6.2
Table 6.3
Table 6.4
Table 6.5
Table 6.6
Table 6.7
Table 6.8
Table 6.9
Table 6.10
Table 6.11
Table 6.12
iii
Acknowledgments
________________________________________________________________________________________________
This publication was developed through collaboration between the Beijing Normal University in China and the
World Bank. The Beijing Normal University team was lead by Dr Li Wei, and the main members include Dr.
Zhang Yan, Dr. Zhao Yanwei, Dr. Zhao Wei and Dr. Shen Yiqing. The team also received executive guidance
and instructions from officials of Foreign Economic Co-operation Office (FECO), State Environmental Protection
Administration (SEPA), Mr. Wen Wurui and Mr. Wang Xin. International experts Arend Kolhoff, Rob Verheem,
from the Netherlands Commission for Environmental Impact Assessments and Haakon Vennemo from ECON,
Norway, provided technical guidance throughout the process, commented on a first draft document and
provided suggestions for improvements.
Further comments and guidance were received from Mr Wo Bo at the State Environmental Protection
Administration (SEPA) for China.
The Task Team Leader for this work was Jostein Nygard, Senior Environment Specialist, and guidance for the
project was given by Madga Lovei, Sector Manager, Environment and Social Development Unit of the East Asia
and Pacific Region (EASES) of the World Bank. Technical assistance and project support was provided by
Andrew Murray (Junior Professional Associate).
Funding for this work was generously provided by the Norwegian and Finnish governments through the Trust
Fund for Environmentally and Socially Sustainable Development (TFESSD).
iv
Acronyms
________________________________________________________________________________________________
ADB
API
BOT
CCHP
CDC
CHP
CIDA
COD
EA
EASEN
EIA
EPB
EU
FDI
FYP
GDP
GIOV
GRP
GWDS
IEM
KDD
M
NBS
NDRC
NEPA
NPC
NTA
PEIA
PEIS
PPP
REIA
RMA
SA
SEPA
SEA
UNESCO
USEPA
WDO
WRM
Asian Development Bank
Air Pollution Index
Build Operate Transfer
Combined Cooling, Heat and Power
Critical Decision Component
Combined Heat and Power
Canadian International Development Agency
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Environmental Assessment
East Asia and Pacific Environment Unit
Environmental Impact Assessment
Environment Protection Bureau
European Union
Foreign Direct Investment
Five Year Plan
Gross Domestic Product
Gross Industrial Output Value
Gross Regional Product
Great Western Development Strategy
Integrated Environmental Management
Key Development Domain
Million
National Bureau of Statistics
National Development and Reform Commission
National Environment Policy Act
National Peoples Congress
National Tourism Administration
Province Environmental Impact Assessment
Programmatic Environmental Impact Statements
Policy, Plan, Program
Regional Environmental Impact Assessment
Resource Management Act
South Africa
State Environmental Protection Administration
Strategic Environmental Assessment
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization
United States Environmental Protection Agency
Western Development Office
Water Resource Management
v
Executive Summary
________________________________________________________________________________________________
Background and context
Since the 1970s China has achieved impressive levels of economic growth and widespread poverty reduction.
These gains have been built on the back of a supportive policy framework that encouraged a ‘grow at all costs’
development path, but, with environmental pressures becoming more critical, the objectives of China’s
government are changing. Recent statements of the Chinese State Council indicate that while economic
development remains crucial, a more balanced and sustainable approach is now being emphasized.
The Chinese government has also been concerned about the pattern of growth that has occurred, which has
been much more pronounced in the eastern part of the country. For example, per capita GDP in the western
region is only 50 - 75 percent of the national average. While it is geographically massive (roughly 70 percent of
the country), the western region only accounts for 28 percent of the population and 19 percent of GDP. In spite
of the relatively sparse population it still faces a range of serious environmental threats, from water scarcity in
the north to heavy pollution loads in the south.
The Great Western Development Strategy (GWDS) represents a huge commitment to progress in the western
region and is being undertaken in order to help close the economic gap between the west and more developed
eastern provinces. Government statements refer to the establishment of a ‘new western China’ over the coming
decades, and to development for minority ethnicities who will be better integrated with the rest of China. In
order to achieve these goals the GWDS has objectives for infrastructure development, environment, local
industry, investment environment, and science, technology and education.
Study development and objectives
Following the enactment of China’s new EIA law (2003), which requires SEAs to be undertaken for certain plans,
the State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) requested World Bank to support SEA training for
EIA professionals. At the same time SEPA requested World Bank support for a preliminary SEA to be carried
out to provide practical experience of SEA and guidance for GWDS planning. The study objectives are to
provide a general baseline description of the environment in western China, analysis of the environmental
impacts of GWDS plans, and to provide suggestions for mitigating measures or alternatives to facilitate the
GWDS decision making process.
This study represents a trial-SEA in China and provides an opportunity to develop experience and capacity at
the strategic level of assessment, to date this level of analysis (strategic planning) has been especially rare in
China. The vast scale, scope and duration of the GWDS make it a challenging subject for a preliminary SEA.
Other challenges for this undertaking included the lack of inter-agency cooperation and collaboration, which is
especially important for a project such as the GWDS that involves many government agencies at multiple levels.
Further, until recently the process of environmental assessment has been undermined by very weak
enforcement of relevant EIA laws, but as more experience and awareness is generated the process is becoming
more robust. Indeed the change in emphasis from the Chinese government, from ‘growth at all costs’ to
‘balanced and sustainable growth’, will lead to increasing levels of political support for more dedicated and
more rigorously enforced environmental assessments in the future. The SEA approach ensures that plans,
processes and policies account for local conditions and impacts on all stakeholders.
Baseline Description and Main Environmental Challenges
In order to facilitate analysis of this vast area (6.8 M km 2) the western region was split into 3 areas, southwest
(mountainous sub-tropical), northwest (arid grass plains), and Tibet-Qinghai (high altitude plateau). Chapter 3
provides a comprehensive analysis of the basic conditions in each of these areas with respect to various physical
features, e.g. water and energy resources, ecological endowment etc.
Western China is vulnerable to a number of inter-related environmental threats, these issues are discussed in
relation to planned GWDS activities in Chapter 4. These threats include water scarcity, which is a serious and
growing problem in northern areas where severe water deficiencies and ever growing demand are leading to
over-exploitation of groundwater and drying up of lakes. Land degradation is closely linked to water regimes,
vi
in the north the arid landscape is threatened by desertification through wind erosion while in the south water
erosion removes valuable topsoil from exposed land. In the Qinghai-Tibet plateau erosion is caused through
freeze-thaw action and overgrazing. Inappropriate forms of land use speed up desertification in many areas.
Forest cover in the northwest and plateau areas is naturally low, but in the southwest human activity has led to
significant reductions in the quality of forests in terms of biodiversity and ecosystem services (in spite of widespread re-forestation activities). There are also environmental concerns for water and air pollution around
urban centers, e.g. in many cities sewage treatment is low and urban rivers are reduced to sewage ditches.
Industries in the region are pollution intensive and cause serious water, solid waste, and air pollution. The latter
is particularly severe in industrial cities such as Urumchi and Lanzhou, causing serious respiratory health
consequences. A related concern is the high sulfur coal used to generate energy in the region and the problems
with acid rain that affect forest and agriculture.
Potential Impacts from the GWDS
The lack of a systematic monitoring or uniform planning across provinces makes it very difficult to draw
detailed conclusions about current and future impacts from the GWDS. There are clearly many benefits being
generated from the program, with wealth and development growing rapidly in many cities. Also on the
environmental front the GWDS has led to widespread re-forestation (though forest quality is a problem),
measures to improve irrigation efficiency and to preserve water, and protection on sloping lands to reduce soil
erosion. These encouraging developments reflect the Chinese governments heightened sense of environmental
responsibility, but the development plans also pose a number of environmental challenges. The analysis points
to a number of weaknesses in the development of the western provinces that threaten environmental
sustainability in the region, these include:
 Industry is often highly inefficient and reliant on out-dated techniques, leading to resource waste and over
use.
 In many provinces authorities still have the ‘pollute now – clean up later’ approach, and development is
being led by importing dirty industries from the East. Investors capitalize on flaws in environmental policy
or weaknesses in enforcement to undertake polluting activities and resource extraction.
 The transformation from environmentally damaging economic development (e.g. polluting industries, tree
cutting, and mining) that are discouraged in the GWDS to more sustainable activities has not been smooth.
Economic under-performance of new industries has led some local authorities to turn a blind eye towards
polluting industries and deforestation.
 Land allocation for forestation has been poor, often leading to failed projects and wasted financial resources,
because forestation policies have not been flexible enough to respond to local environmental conditions and
account for land suitability.
The approach of this study is to explore impacts (direct and indirect, see section 1.4 on approach) from the
strategy’s five Key Development Domains (KDD). The KDDs are water resource use, land use, energy
exploitation, biodiversity protection, and tourism development. Planned activities in the KDDs are likely to
place more pressure on the region’s water resources. High water exploitation levels in the northwest mean that
increases in water demand could have dramatic consequences, and increasing wastewater emissions are a
serious threat in the area. Strategy plans for agricultural expansion and urbanization will lead to increased
water demand in many areas that already suffer water scarcity, and there are concerns about the impact of
construction activities on river networks (e.g. hydro) and land quality (e.g. open cast mines). While tree cover
has been increasing there are significant questions about the quality of forests that are being established, with
poor age and species compositions that limit the ecological services they provide. Threats to biodiversity
include planned hydro dams that will impede water courses, cause vegetation loss through water and soil
degradation, and the impact of infrastructure development for mineral extraction and tourism activities. The
most significant problems for air pollution are associated with plans to expand coal and oil extraction industries
and the need for appropriate technologies to make this process as clean as possible.
Findings and predictions for the consequences of the GWDS, for each KDD, are summarized at the province
level for each implementation plan in tables 5.1 to 5.5. The results show some encouraging signs with many
environmental features likely to improve. For example, in many places the study found that the GWDS will
deliver environmental improvements on themes where there are currently significant environmental problems,
e.g. forest deterioration and waste water treatment. However, numerous areas for concern emerged, especially
with respect to land quality throughout the region, and water issues in northern provinces. In some cases
vii
proposed activities will place increased pressure on already stressed systems, Gansu and Inner Mongolia
emerged as areas of particular concern. These findings are summarized for the GWDS as a whole in the key
findings summary (page 1).
Recommendations
In order for the SEA approach to have an impact on the GWDS, the assessment system needs to be a dynamic
and ongoing process (with regular monitoring and fine-tuning) in which the publication of this report
represents only the first step. The SEA of GWDS has follow-up work plans to monitor and evaluate the impacts
and recommend adjustments as necessary. Monitoring indices are selected based on four categories: water, soil,
air, and biology and three agencies are specified as responsible.
To be completed once recommendations are clear….
viii
Key Findings Summary Page
________________________________________________________________________________________________
The assessment of recent and (potential) future environmental effects of the main GWDS PPPs are summarized
in Table 1. It is important to note that since the GWDS is constantly evolving (future plans are not yet known)
and is being implemented differently across provinces, the actual level of impact is not clear. In particular, the
extent of environmental protection and / or impact mitigation measures uncertain, though many such activities
are listed in PPPs. The summary table (below) represents an absolute baseline analysis, assuming no
environmental protection measures are taken to mitigate impacts, i.e. it is a projection based only on measures
and policies that are currently known. The symbols indicate current status and potential positive and negative
consequences related to the GWDS. For example, downward arrows indicate areas where the PPPs may not be
entirely on the right track in an environmental sense.
Present situation (now): Values refer to 2002 (baseline year), and are presented for eight environmental factors.
The most worrying are forest deterioration and soil erosion, while the best are soil salinization and air pollution.
Future situation (future): Values refer to 2010 and are based upon the trend of impacts that have occurred from
PPPs during the period 2002 to 2005. Impacts over the period 2002 – 2005 are used to make projections for the
next 5 years (up to 2010) Therefore, it should be noted that implementation of new mitigation measures will
lead to different results from those indicated below.
Table 1. Summary of potential environmental impacts from GWDS framework PPPs (2000 - 2004)*
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now Future Now Future Now Future
Desertification
Now
Water &
waste
pollution
Forest
deterioration
Air pollution
Biodiversity
& ecosystem
services loss
Future Now Future Now Future Now Future Now Future
South
west
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Chongqing
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Sichuan
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Yunnan
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Guizhou
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Guangxi
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

North
west
III

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Shaanxi
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Gansu
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Ningxia
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Xinjiang
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

III

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

I

II

II

III

II

I

I

I

Tibet
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Qinghai
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Inner.
Mongolia.
Qing-Zang
Plateau
Now (present environmental situation)
I: no environmental problems, there is potential for future use and development
II: moderate environmental problems, change of environmental pressure to be considered, limited development possible
III: significant environmental problems, immediate change of environmental pressure required
Future (expected situation given plan implementation, by 2010)
Three broad scenarios:  environmental deterioration;  environmental improvement;  stable environmental status.
*More detailed tables relating to each Key Development Domain are given in chapter 5.
ix
Chapter 1
Introduction
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
1.1 Objectives and Anticipated Results of SEA for GWDS
1.1.1 Study objectives and anticipated results
The study objectives are to provide a thorough scientific analysis of the baseline status of and likely
environmental impacts of the Great Western Development Strategy (more specifically the Key Development
Domains). The study is designed to support the multi-level decision making and strategic priority setting
process by providing expert guidance and suggestions to consider for the next stage of GWDS implementation.
The former is achieved by analyzing the impact of the five Key Development Domains (KDD) of the GWDS
(outlined below). As well as the assessment of likely environmental impacts from GWDS implementation, the
paper provides a background description of SEA, internationally and in China. At a later stage in the
implementation of the study, these objectives were refined to include more detailed province level information
and a selection of critical issues that have emerged as key recommendations for each province.
While this assessment was prepared after the initial launch of the GWDS, it is hoped that the extremely longterm perspective of the GWDS will mean that appropriate design modifications can be incorporated as new
findings and guidance are developed. It is also hoped that this initiative will provide a template and a baseline
against which future assessments in Western China can be implemented. However, this preliminary assessment
does not incorporate any monitoring of GWDS activities to date, nor does it include a clear plan for monitoring
in the future – this important task is highlighted in the recommendations as a next step task that should be built
into the wider strategy. Other limitations of the current work, with respect to the scope of a full SEA, include
the lack of public consultation, consideration of social implications, and analysis of alternatives. In defense of
the study, the vase scale of this strategy (more than twice the area of India) has made a fully comprehensive
SEA prohibitively difficult. Time and budget limitations have constrained the extent of possible work and this
study has been customized accordingly.
1.1.2 Structure of the study
The general structure of the work undertaken during the process of this assessment is outlined in table 1.1,
which shows that the initial analysis of the GWDS was reduced to an assessment of key areas.
Table 1.1 Structure of the study
Strategic Analysis of
GWDS
Background of GWDS
- Survey of society and
economy
Organizational
framework of western
region development
- Organizations, their
duties and decisionmaking procedure
Decision-making levels
of GWDS
- Policies, plans, key
projects
Natural environment +
resource features
Environmental analysis
- Quality of natural
environment and
problems
SEA pattern for
GWDS
- Launch, management,
technical procedures
Ecological Zoning
- Southwestern zone,
northwestern zone, Tibet
zone
Retrospective assessment
- Implementation effect,
infrastructure and ecoenvironment construction
Resource feature
Analysis
- Water, land, biological,
energy, and tourism
resources
SEA for Key Areas
- Water resources, land,
energy exploitation,
biodiversity protection,
tourism development
SEA for Key Areas
1
Conclusion / Suggestions
Suggestions for
development of SEA
practice in China
Suggestions for ecoenvironmental protection
related to GWDS plans
Guidance targeted
towards developments in
the 11th five-year plan
1.2 Western region
The geographical scope of the Great Western
Development Strategy (Xibu Da Kaifa) includes the
six provinces of Sichuan, Guizhou, Yunnan,
Shaanxi, Gansu and Qinghai, as well as the five
autonomous regions of Inner Mongolia, Guangxi,
Tibet, Ningxia and Xinjiang, and the municipality
of Chongqing. Collectively these areas are referred
to as the western provinces, and they are shown in
figure 1.1.
Figure 1.1 Provinces in the western region
The western region, which covers 6.8 million km2,
(71.4 percent of the country) and represents 50 out
of the country’s 55 different minority populations.
The population of the western provinces accounts
for 28.8 percent of the total population in China,
but only 16.8 percent of its economic output (2003).
Per capita GDP is only 68 percent of the national
average. The low per capita GDP is partly explained by the fact that the western provinces have fewer urban
residents than the rest of the country (29 versus 36 percent). Comparison of urban residents in the western
provinces and elsewhere in China shows that the per capita income of the former is only 85 percent of the
average for urban residents (NBS, 2004). Similar figures for rural residents are not available, but it is informative
that in 2003 rural ownership of washing machines, refrigerators, bicycles and color TV sets was only 68, 42, 63,
and 82 percent of the national total average in 2003 (China Statistical Yearbook 2004). As another indication,
GDP per capita in Shanghai (the richest province) is 13 times that of Guizhou (the poorest province) and life
expectancy is 12 years higher in the former than the later (NBS, 2004).
1.3 GWDS plans and projects
1.3.1 General background to GWDS
The State Council Western Development Office (WDO) promulgated the ‘General Planning for Western
Development’ in 1999 with the overall objective to help close the economic gap between the western region and
the rest of the country. The strategy, which represents a great commitment from the central government to
speed up western development, was designed to boost socio-economic development, to improve living
conditions for China’s minorities, and support environmental improvement. The major objectives of the plan,
which were laid out by premier Zhu Rongji (March 2000 session of NPC), include:
 Infrastructure Development: The GWDS includes extensive infrastructure plans including construction of
highway networks, rail-track, airports, and gas pipelines. Investments will include expansion of electric
power grids, telecommunications, radio and television facilities, as well as infrastructure in large and
medium-sized cities. Importantly for this SEA the GWDS also calls for rational exploitation of water
resources and water conservation.
 Environment: The GWDS encourages projects to protect natural forests along the upper reaches of the
Yangtze River and the upper and middle reaches of the Huang (Yellow) River. Terraced fields on steep
slopes (25 percent) should be returned to forests or pastures. Initiatives in support of water resource
management will include establishment of more efficient water usage and irrigation systems,
implementation of cross-water supply projects, and improvements to ecosystem and water quality.
 Local Industry: The GWDS encourages different regions to develop industries that maximize local
comparative advantages in geography, climate, resources and other conditions. Where possible, these
regions are also urged to capitalize on high/new technology industries.
 Science, Technology, and Education: The GWDS promotes the development of different levels of expertise
and an overall improvement of quality in the workforce across regions. It also recommends that the regions
accelerate product development through better use of scientific research.
2
 Investment Environment: Western provinces should take steps to attract more foreign investment, capital,
technology and managerial expertise. The eastern and coastal provinces are also asked to play a role in
providing these items.
 Additional: In addition, some GWDS materials include ‘improvement of public services’, ‘increase in
number of urban residents’ and ‘closing the gap in the material livings standards of households’ among the
objectives.
In order to achieve these objectives the WDO issued seven macro-development plans, that fit into the general
GWDS framework, to support implementation during the 10th FYP period. These plans are; Land resource
development and utilization planning; Water resource development planning; Education enterprise
development planning; Science and technology development planning; Agricultural development planning;
Highway development planning; Railway development planning. All of these plans have environmental
implications, but three in particular have explicit environmental objectives or major sub-objectives:
 Water resource plans suggest that water conservation projects in should improve living standards and
protect / improve the natural environment, including extensive irrigation works.
 Science plan includes objectives for ecological development and provides support for ecological and
infrastructure construction.
 Agriculture plan includes an objective to recover and develop grassland in the western region.
However, most of these plans are not highly specific and only provide basic guidelines that have to be
interpreted and developed into detailed action plans by the western provinces, along with relevant ministries
and agencies. The WDO also proposed five Key Development Domains (KDD) as part of the GWDS that have
more detail and structure. These plans (outlined in section 1.3.3) form the basis of this study, and are i) water
resource planning, ii) land use planning, iii) energy development planning, iv) eco-environmental construction
(biodiversity conservation) planning, v) tourism development planning.
1.3.2 Policy level support for the GWDS
In order to support the GWDS the government has implemented a number of policies to facilitate growth and
investment (a number of which have a 10 year life span), and has committed large volumes of public money to
investment in the western region. The planned increases in investments will lead to a shift in the focus of
China’s government expenditure from coastal provinces towards the western region. The government has
planned for increases in the percent of central construction and subsidy funds spent in the western region, and
has directed banks to increase lending to the western region, in particular to railways, main express-ways,
electricity, petroleum and natural gas projects.
The government has also been initiating policies that are designed to increase private sector investment. It has
reduced business taxes and, in the case of environmental protection, allocation of ownership rights to those
converting land to forestry and grassland. Other policy developments include encouragement for the
development of mining operations and less regulation of prices. Furthermore, policies have been implemented
to encourage foreign investment and the eastern region will increase its level of assistance to western provinces.
Finally, western provinces will receive higher priority in appropriation of funds for scientific and technological
projects, and there will be more support for public health and family planning.
1.3.3 Key Development Domains of the GWDS
A description of the content and objectives of the five Key Development Domains (KDDs) of the GWDS is
provided below. A more detailed analysis of the provincial level recommendations is provided in the CD-ROM
attachment.
Theme 1: Water resource development and utilization plans:
This plan is intended to promote rational use and development of water resources in order to improve living
conditions and productivity in the western region. Objectives include optimizing allocation between users,
increasing overall efficiency of water use, developing water resources (including water transfer projects),
establishment of infrastructure for water collection and conservation, and rationalization of water use (to be
sustainable). The latter will include industrial restructuring with water intensive projects and companies being
phased out. In the water scarce northwest region the focus is on water saving principles in industry, civil society,
and especially agriculture, e.g. support for water saving irrigation and associated infrastructure. Furthermore,
3
the plan is intended to strengthen the unified management of river basin resources, implement flood control
measures, and strengthen reservoirs. Water resources in the upper reaches of the (Huang) Yellow and Yangtze
River drainage areas will receive intensified protection, and increased treatment levels are planned for the Black
and Tarim rivers. The strategy will also introduce market reforms, appropriate pricing mechanisms, and
implementation of diversified benefit compensation mechanisms.
Theme 2: Land-use plans:
Land use plans have the following objectives; i) to make available required construction land for infrastructure
developments (though agricultural / cultivated land will receive protection), ii) to return large areas of
cultivated land to forest and grassland, iii) to protect and ensure the sustainability of cultivated land. In order to
allow space for cultivation on high-quality farmland in the western region. The establishment of forests, fruit
plantations, and animal husbandry zones will be prioritized in desert, mountain, and wasteland areas in the
western region.
Theme 3: Energy sector plans:
The western region has a wide range of energy resources, coal and gas are the most important forms in the
northwest, and in the southwest there is significant potential for hydro and pithead power stations. Energy
sector plans are designed to take advantage of the regions energy reserves and to develop the west as an energy
base for the rest of the country through west-east power transmission projects. The GWDS energy sector plans
are intended to strengthen oil and gas exploration capacity as part of China’s wider energy strategy. Other
objectives include improving industry structure (e.g. west-east power transmission, gas transportation), and
address energy efficiency of modern technologies for maximizing energy capture and efficiency. Power
distribution will be addressed at the local level, urban and rural power grids will be upgraded. At the national
level, the structure of power grids will be improved with the construction of three West – East high-voltage
grids (north, middle and south) to transport energy to target areas in the east.
Coal: The coal sector will be restructured with an emphasis on exploitation of high-quality reserves. Ongoing
construction projects will be fast-tracked for completion, especially the development of high-quality steam coal
mines, plans for technological innovation and improvements to old mines will be developed, and coal
transportation systems will be improved. Efforts to improve coal quality will include the development of ‘cleancoal’ technologies, such as coal washing and separation plants, and coal liquefaction model projects, and
options for exploitation and use of coal-bed methane resources will be explored.
Oil and Gas: Exploration / exploitation activities will be fast tracked along with increased support for oil and
gas transport infrastructure (e.g. production bases and pipelines). Transportation sites will be developed in the
Tarim, Chaidamu, Shaanxi-Gansu-Ningxia, and Sichuan-Chongqing regions, and a network of pipelines will
connect i) Tarim to the Yangtze River Delta, ii) Chaidamu (via Xining) to Lanzhou, iii) Zhong (Chongqing) to
Wuhan City (Hubei), and iv) Jingbian County to Huhe Haote City.
Other power: The strategy also includes activities to increase hydropower (e.g. Longtan, Gongbo Gorge,
Xiaowan, Goupitan and Pubugou), thermal power (increase large-scale, decrease small-scale), and moderately
develop nuclear power capacity. Large-sized pithead power stations will be established in Shaanxi, Inner
Mongolia, Ningxia, Guizhou and Yunnan.
Theme 4: Biodiversity protection plans:
The western region is home to an important array of biological diversity, for example assessments indicate that
the region has eight key biodiversity hot spots where protection has global significance (there are 17 in all of
China). The high mountains and steep gorges in the southwest, once the refuge of animals during the
Quaternary period ice age, are rich with alpine flora and have abundant varieties of primitive animals and
plants.
The strategy includes extensive plans for re-establishing large areas of forest and grassland vegetation. It will
provide support for the recovery of damaged, and protection for existing, natural woodland and grassland
ecosystems. Furthermore, the strategy includes the provision of more effective protection for rare and
endangered animals and plant species, e.g. increases in the extent of nature reserves will be implemented in
areas with biodiversity in ecologically fragile environments. A series of nature reserves covering an area of
4
around 6 million hectares will be established, and within five years the region will have over 200 reserves,
including 40 key national level reserves covering that 45 million hectares. Activities will include;
 Qinghai-Tibet Plateau: Preservation of endangered species such as Chiru (Tibetan Antelope), Przewalski’s
gazelles, Alpine Musk deer and Snow Leopard.
 Yangtze and (Huang) Yellow River source and plateau lakes: Wetland protection and establishment of ‘arid
plateau’ and ‘semiarid desert’ ecosystem conservation zones.
 Inner Mongolia and Xinjiang (plateaus and deserts): Ecosystem conservation zones will be initiated along
with protection for wildlife such as ungulates (hoofed mammals).
 Mountainous southwest: Habitats for key endemic species, such as pheasant and wild spotted deer, will be
restored along with the establishment of new nature reserves.
 Himalayas: Activities will be undertaken to protect the Himalayan musk deer and the white-lipped deer.
Forest management will be strengthened and forest and grassland vegetation restored with large-scale
protection and planting schemes a focus will be re-forestation of mountains and fields (hillside closures and
seed sowing by airplane will be used). Afforestation will be implemented through ‘grain for green’ projects,
where farmers are compensated for returning farmland to forest and grassland. Natural forests and grasslands
will receive extra protection and destruction or unregulated exploitation will be banned. Threats to grassland
habitats, such as cattle grazing will be managed (e.g. by promoting rotation grazing), and grassland for
agriculture will be controlled with some pastures will be enclosed for vegetation protection.
Theme 5: Tourism development plans:
The potential for a strong and vibrant tourist industry in China has been recognized for some time. The region
spans a huge landmass with dramatic landscapes, abundant rivers, lakes, mountains, biodiversity, and many
marvelous natural sights. Furthermore, the region has a rich cultural heritage with many important sites and
over 50 different ethnic groups offering a wide range of customs and traditions.
The objectives of tourism development plans are to fully utilize the abundant natural and cultural attractions in
western China. The tourist industry will be established as a key development objective, and should become a
pillar industry in the region. Appropriate infrastructure will be developed, focusing on transport infrastructure,
use of scenic spots, and the protection of key locations. The Western Tourist Investment Plans, compiled by the
National Tourism Administration (NTA), State Planning Commission and the Western Development Office
(WDO), set out the main tourist attractions to be developed:


Northwest: Cross-regional parts of the “Silk Road”, including sections from;
 Xi’an to Baoji, Tianshui to Zhangye (via Lanzhou and Wuwei).
 Beijing and Tianjing, passing Hulun Buir (grassland and forest in Heilongjiang), Jinlin, Zhangjiakou,
Chengde, Chifeng, Huhe, and Haote.
 The “Middle Route of the Silk Road” that passes Urumchi, Ku’erle, and Kashi.
 Around Baoji, Pingliang, Liupanshan, Yinchuan.
Southwest: Major tourist development resources include:
 Tourist line around Yunnan, Sichuan, Tibet and Shangri-La.
 Golden triangle around Chongqing City, Sichuan Province and Guizhou Province.
 Tourist line around sights of northeast Guizhou Province, and the west of Guangxi Province.
 The golden tourist line Guilin, Yangshuo, Wuzhou, Zhaoqing, and Guangzhou.
 Lantsang to Mekong tourist line.
 West of Hunnan Province conceptual planning of Phoenix City.
 The three-gorge tourist line in the Yangtze River.
1.3.4 Progress in western development
Growth rates in western provinces appear to be responding to GWDS activities and in 2003 all provinces
(except Guizhou) grew at a faster rate than the national average, though this was already true in 2000. However
it is questionable to what extent this growth is being fueled by growing productivity and the region’s ability to
attract outside investment. This is highlighted by the fact that levels of FDI actually fell by 14 percent for the
region as a whole between 2002 and 2003, from 2005.3 to 1722.6 million USD. In particular transport costs and
5
retention of skilled labor are sighted as a critical hurdle that reduce the competitiveness of the region, and in
spite of massive investment and increases in transport infrastructure (see table 1.2) reports still suggest that
transport costs remain a key constraint (Gelb and Chen 2004).
There is no direct measure of achievement of the overall objective for the GWDS (reducing the development
disparity between eastern and western regions) but it is not clear that the investments and increased growth
rates are being translated into a more equal society. In fact the level of disposable income (per capita) in the
west has been getting smaller relative to the national average for some time now. Per capita disposable income
in western provinces was 92 percent of the national average in 1990, but only 87 and 85 percent in 2002 and 2003
respectively.
Table 1.2 Growth rates in the western region (2000 to 2003)
Southwest
FDI
Mill USD
2003
(1999)
Transport
Infrastructure
(% increase km)
Chongqing
1,589.3
2,250.6 (7,209)
11.5 (8.5)
12,425
260.8 (238.9)
16.7
6.8
Sichuan
4,010.2
5,456.3 (6,418)
11.8 (9.0)
12,441
412.3 (341.0)
21.2
19.2
993.5
1,356.1 (3,603)
8.6 (7.1)
12,870
83.8 (40.9)
13.6
23.5
Yunnan
1,955.1
2,465.3 (5,662)
10.1 (8.7)
11,037
45.2 (153.8)
19.9
34.1
Guangxi
2,050.1
2,735.1 (5,969)
10.2 (7.3)
11,953
41.8 (/)
26.5
12.0
10,598.2
14,263.4
10.8
/
843.9
20.6
23.3
Qinghai
263.6
390.2 (7,277)
12.1 (9.4)
15,356
25.2 (/)
0
23.3
Tibet
117.5
184.50 (6,871)
12.1 (9.0)
26,931
0 (/)
/
45.5
Qing-Tibet
381.1
574.7
12.1
/
25.2
/
37.3
1,660.9
2,398.6 (6,480)
10.9 (9.0)
11,461
331.9 (241.9)
23.8
12.0
Gansu
983.4
1,304.6 (5,022)
10.1 (8.7)
12,307
23.4 (40.0)
0
2.3
Ningxia
265.6
385.3 (6,691)
12.2 (9.8)
12,981
17.4 (51.3)
9.5
14.6
Xingjiang
1,364.4
1,877.6 (9,700)
10.8 (8.2)
13,255
15.4 (24.0)
16.7
58.6
Inner-Mong
1,401.0
2,150.4 (8,975)
16.8 (9.7)
11,279
18.5 (/)
19.2
9.2
Northwest
5,675.3
8,116.5
14.4
/
406.6
16.1
24.8
88,254
116603 (9,101)
9.3 (8.4)
14,040
53504.6
24.4
29.0
Guizhou
Shaan’xi
China
Rail
Road
GRP* 2003
(Y/ per
capita)
Southwest
QingTibet
Average
Wage
2003
(Yuan)
GRP*
2000
Province
Northwest
Annual GRP
growth
percent in
2003 (2000)
Source: China National Bureau of Statistics, * GRP indicates Gross Regional Product
1.4 Approach of the SEA study
The original definition of the Great Western Development Strategy (GWDS) is only one sentence (setting out
vision but not details) so the central and provincial development plans drafted under the GWDS framework
were the target of this study. A wide range of GWDS development plans were analyzed, but in order ensure
that an effective SEA could be achieved within the constraints (financial and time) of this project the study
focuses on GWDS Key Development Domains.
The procedure of this SEA was to analyze GWDS development plans, at central and provincial levels and
establish the Critical Decision Components (CDCs), e.g. planned objectives and key activities. Once the CDCs
were identified they were grouped in accordance with the five Key Developmental Domains (KDDs), and used
to form the basis of the analysis. The five assessed targets including water, land, energy, biodiversity and
tourism stem from their respective development planning under the GWDS framework. After developing the
structured list of GWDS plans the assessment team used two methodologies to assess the likely environmental
6
impacts from implementation of the GWDS plans; i) Scenario Analysis, and ii) Assessment Matrix. Throughout
the assessment process the findings were subject to expert consultations.
Assessment matrix: The assessment matrix approach was used intensively throughout this study to, i) identify,
and ii) evaluate environmental impacts from implementation of GWDS development plans. The results of
impact identification, used to identify the key environmental factors, were split into eight categories of
environmental issues, e.g. water availability and soil erosion. The environmental impacts were assessed in
terms of their positive and negative effects on the different environmental categories, e.g. effect of a dam on
water availability and soil erosion. These values were determined and evaluated jointly by the relevant experts
and governmental officials through a series of brainstorming workshops.
Scenario analysis: Scenario analysis was used as a complement to matrix assessment in order to deal with the
uncertainties associated with assessment at the strategic and policy level, and in order to make an expert
judgement on likely future outcomes. Assessment of the ecological and environmental impacts from the CDCs
was used to make expert judgements on the future scenario relative to the current (year 2000) ecoenvironmental situation. This method helped the assessors to deduce and anticipate changes in the status of,
and impacts on, receptors or targets. It is important to note that because of the large uncertainties relating to
activities that will be implemented in each province, the scenario analysis approach considers only the plans
that were developed at the time of the assessment. It is likely that a number of provinces will develop more
comprehensive environmental protection activities, during the 11 th FYP. Therefore the scenario analysis is not
intended as a judgement of the GWDS, rather it provides an indication of potential issues that planners should
be aware of.
An example of the output from this combined analytical approach is given in the overall summary table (table 1,
page 1), which shows the overall results from the assessment in each province. The specific values for table 1
were derived according to the assessment methodologies described above, and table 1.3 gives an indication of
the criteria that were used to make the assessment (present and future). However, in many cases the
assessments included a wide range of qualitative and quantitative factors that are hard to capture in this table.
Table 1.3 Environmental standard classification
Current Scenario
Water
Availability
Soil Erosion
I
II
III
I
II
III
I
Salinization*
(% salt content
in top 30cm)
II
III
I
II
Desertification
II*
III
Forest Loss
Water - Waste
I
II
III
I
II
Future Situation
Use rate is less than 10 percent.
Use rate is between 10 and 40 percent.
Use rate is over 40 percent.
This value is based upon expert judgement.
Favourable reclamation conditions, simple measures
- west 0.5 – 1.0, east (Inner Mongolia) 0.1 – 0.3.
Water conservation improvements required
- west 1.0 – 1.5, east (Inner Mongolia) 0.3 – 0.7.
Reclaim condition poor, integrated measures needed
- west 1.5 – 2.0, east (Inner Mongolia) 0.7 – 1.0.
No Desertification
-Vegetation coverage over 30 percent.
-Sand movement less obvious.
-Land surface covered by basically stable sand dunes
or sand field.
-Vegetation coverage 10 – 30 percent (average 750
individual trees or bushes / hectare).
-Sand drift controlled by plant community, but sand
movement ripples prevailing on sand dunes.
-Vegetation coverage less than 10 percent.
-Mobile dunes sand sheets and the denuded inter-dune
areas are inter-distributed.
-Sand dunes stabilized with non-biological measures.
Good forest quality, most primary forests intact.
Forest quality threatened by still largely intact.
Widespread loss of primary and mature forests.
Average water quality (main river) level I – II.
Average water quality (main river) level III – IV.
7






Use rate is likely to decrease
Use rate should stay stable
Use rate is likely to increase
Soil quality will improve, lower erosion
Soil quality stable, stable level of erosion
Soil quality deterioration, increased erosion

Level of salinization likely to decline.

Level of salinization should remain stable.

Level of salinization likely to increase.

Level of desertification likely to be reduced.

Level of desertification stable.

Level of desertification likely to increase.





Forest quality will increase.
Forest quality stable.
Forest quality will decrease.
Net improvement in results across rivers.
Overall stable status.
Pollution (‘04)
III
I
Air Pollution
(2004)
II
III
Average water quality (main river) level V – V*.
Annual average air pollution index (API) in
representative city of < 50.
Annual average air pollution index (API) in
representative city of > 50 and <100.
Annual average air pollution index (API) in
representative city of >100.

Net decline in results across rivers.

Net improvement in urban air quality.

Overall stable status.

Net decline in urban air quality.
I

Improved species abundance / eco-services.
II
This value is based upon expert judgement.

Stable species abundance / eco-services.
III

Declining species abundance / eco-services.
* Values are based upon criteria given in the China Desertification Information Network, publication part I method (www.din.net.cn)
Biodiversity
Ecosystem
Data collection: Due to the limited time and financial resources available for this study data and information
were collected chiefly from secondary sources such as existing studies. Important sources include i) remote
sensing as part of the sub-regional Millennium Ecosystem Assessment project for western China, ii) recent EISs
from large projects in the region (e.g. water transfer, gas transmission, and railway projects). A wide range of
other sources was used to collect statistics on social, economic, natural resource, environmental data of the
provinces. In addition, qualitative information for expert judgements was derived from three levels of
consultation, mainly through seminars and telephone inquiries;
 The first level of consultation included officials from the most relevant ministries and bureaus (e.g. Ministry
of Water Resource, Ministry of Land Resources, Ministry of Transportation, Ministry of Agriculture,
Ministry of Construction, NDRC, SEPA).
 The second was at the provincial level, and included a survey of relevant officials from the 12 western
provinces on selected topics from the five KDDs.
 The third level of consultation was conducted among academic experts, NGOs, and other stakeholders of
this SEA.
8
Chapter 2
SEA – World-wide and China
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
2.1 International SEA context
The basic elements of SEA have existed for some time now and some aspects of the approach have been in use
since the first EIA system was introduced by the United States in the 1969 National Environmental Policy Act
(NEPA). However, while over 100 countries and regions have now formulated official EIA systems, only
around 25 countries and jurisdictions have established SEA systems and few, if any, are comprehensive in their
coverage. The majority of developed countries have now developed SEA systems of one sort or another, but
many are not well implemented and only a few have established strong practical experience in implementation.
In some countries (e.g. Netherlands, USA, and Canada) SEA systems have been fully integrated in the legal
system and are compulsory, but in the majority the system, is less standardized. In spite of the difference in the
development of EIA and SEA systems, they are closely linked and the two processes are often implemented in
tandem. For example, the European SEA Directive (2001/42/EC, entered into force in 2004) and the SEA
protocol to the UNECE convention on EIA in a transnational context (2003).
The development and implementation of SEA systems represents the most important development in impact
assessment over the last decade, yet there remains significant debate on exactly what SEA is and a wide variety
of different approaches are currently in use. This is because of the very broad practical implications of SEA,
which means that even the most advanced countries are still refining their systems to get the most out of this
tool. An increasing number of developing countries are experimenting with SEA, often with active support of
the development agencies. While most examples of formal SEA in developing countries have the same aim as in
developed countries, formal SEAs represent only a small, but highly visible, sub-set of the large suite of para
SEAs used in development policy making (Dalal-Clayton and Sadler, 2005). Some of the SEA formats being
developed in other countries may offer interesting insights to guide and inform SEA development in China
(examples from New Zealand, S Africa, the UK, USA, the Netherlands, and the EU are given below). The model
emerging in South Africa, which focuses on assessing interactions between the environment and development
needs and understanding the effect of cumulative impacts, may be of particular interest because, like China, the
country contains areas at different stages of development. A selection of interesting national experiences is
presented in Box 1.
Box 1. International SEA experiences
EU: The adoption of the EU SEA Directive (2001), which was over a decade in the making, requires all EU
member states to adopt the EU format for application of SEA by 2004. The shape and content of this directive is
bound to have a significant bearing on the development of SEA practice much further afield as expertise and
lessons are developed around a common model in many developed countries. The directive calls for
environmental assessments on a range of plans and programs (policies are exempt) prepared for an extensive
range of sectors (excluding sectors such as finance, defense, and civil emergency).
New Zealand: SEA is referred to in a number of laws and regulations but is not formalized in a dedicated piece
of legislation. The Resource Management Act (RMA 1991), is the major environmental statute that emphasizes
an integrated approach to policy, planning and assessment of issues concerning use of land and resources, but
there are a range of other SEA-type processes that operate beyond the remit of the RMA. The RMA has the same
intent and scope as an SEA process, i.e. to anticipate and address environmental impacts from policies and
plans, but it is weak in enforcing the full scope of assessment requirements (Dalal-Clayton and Sadler, 2005).
Indeed after nearly 15 years of implementation it is still not clear whether a more formal SEA process will
develop from within the RMA framework or from other related environmental legislation such as the
government’s policy framework for environment and sustainable development (Dalziel and Ward, 2004).
Netherlands: The SEA concept was introduced relatively early in Holland and the system has two distinct SEA
processes that are different in concept and approach (though this may change in the future). The Environmental
9
Test of Laws and Regulations, which was introduced in 1995, is used to test policy level impacts, it was first
introduced in 1995, but review found it to be quite weak and revisions have been made. At the plan and
program level the EIA act (1987) requires a process including examination of alternatives, public involvement in
scoping and review, and independent review of the assessment. Given the strength of the current system, the
adoption of the EU SEA Directive could represent a reduction in the extent of environmental assessment in
Holland.
South Africa (SA): The country has a long history of EIA application going back to the 1970s and first
developed SEA like guidelines in the early 1990s with the introduction of Integrated Environmental
Management (IEM), which considers policies and plans. This approach was replaced in 1997, and then again in
1998 with the adoption of the National Environment Management Act. While this act states that any activities
(PPP) that may significantly affect the environment must be considered (with minimum requirements outlined),
the actual requirements are still defined by the less comprehensive 1997 law. Work is ongoing to ensure the
wider application of assessment tools with scope to cover plans and projects.
UK: Prior to the entry into force of the EU SEA Directive (2004) the UK had no statutory provisions for SEA,
though several SEA processes had come into ad-hoc use for policies and regional development plans.
Government guidance on undertaking SEA for spatial and land use plans advocates a five stage approach
(ODPM 2004), i) establishing context, objective, and baseline, ii) scoping and developing alternatives, iii)
assessing plan effects, iv) consultation, and v) monitoring the plan’s effects. Directives governing the
implementation of plans and projects required local and central authorities to conduct SEA for planning, and by
1997, three-quarters of local governments had conducted SEA for urban and rural planning.
USA: The National Environmental Policy Act (1969) provides a broad legal mandate for the Council on
Environmental Quality to address policies, plans and programs, though it is only triggered if there is a
demonstrable environmental impact. From an international perspective, Programmatic Environmental Impact
Statements (PEIS) represent a well-established area of SEA practice, though the process is often skirted in
developing programs (CEQ 1997). For example, most federal departments and major agencies have applied this
form of SEA for more than 25 years, in particular to land use, integrated resource management, transport, water
and waste sectors1.
Many countries have formulated sector specific SEA procedures that provide guidance for the practice of
assessments, e.g. Swedish land exploitation program and British transportation policy framework. However, at
the general level there are relatively few officially implemented SEA procedures, and those that do exist are
largely based on SEA procedures from construction projects (Brown and Therivel, 2000). Furthermore, most
countries start with an SEA pilot study, revise the system from initial pilot projects the practices, and apply the
approach to develop future SEA practice.
The countries referred to in Box 1 have developed project and planning SEA systems to an advanced stage in
theory and practice, including appropriate legislation, directives, management mechanisms, operating
procedures and public participation (Partidário, 2000). However, there are very few examples of SEA systems
that can be considered fully effective at the policy level. This is due to a constrained view of what SEA offers
and a lack of effective underlying systems.
In spite of the various paths that have been taken in the development of SEA systems in different countries,
similar challenges have been faced. Of particular importance is the issue of SEA scope, which has typically
resulted in assessments limited to plans and projects. Examples include the EU SEA Directive and US NEPA,
which require that legislative proposals for assessment be significant for the quality of environment. Another
issue common to a number of countries is the lack of SEA specific procedures. Present SEA laws, which often
fail to include specific procedures for SEA implementation, tend to be simplistic and too general (e.g.
Australia’s Environmental Protection Act, Canada’s Cabinet Directives and Denmark’s 1993 Administrative
Orders). Therefore, even among advanced SEA countries most systems still require further refinement.
Dalal-Clayton and Sadler (2005) list a range of benefits that complete and effective SEA processes offer;
1
see United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) website www.epa.gov/
10








Promote increased sustainability through integrated environment and development decision making.
Facilitate the design of environmentally sustainable policies and plans.
Provide for consideration of a larger range of alternatives than is normally possible in project EA.
Take account, where possible, of cumulative effects and global change
Enhance institutional efficiency by obviating the need for unnecessary project level EIAs.
Increase the influence of certain ministries and increase coordination across sectors.
Strengthen and streamline project EA through various mechanisms.
Provide a format for public engagement in discussions relevant to sustainability at a strategic level.
The benefits will depend on the specific form of SEA and the wider institutional context within which it is
applied. However, there is evidence to suggest that SEA improves the efficiency of planning processes, leads to
better environmental protection and management, and can make a critical contribution to improved
transparency in decision making and good governance in developing countries (Dalal-Clayton and Sadler, 2005).
2.2 Considerations for future SEA systems in China2
The introduction of China’s new EIA Law3 (2003) provides the basis for the establishment of an SEA system and
lays the legal foundation for a comprehensive environment – development decision-making mechanism.
However, in order for it to be fully effective the current SEA system requires a number of revisions. Some of the
key issues are discussed below;
i) Expanding the range of assessed target in EIA: The new EIA Law represents an important step toward an
effective SEA system, but the law does not embrace the full meaning of SEA, e.g. its relevance for policies and
regulations. The overall environmental impact from sectoral level decision making will be greater than the
impact from specific projects. In order to mitigate negative environmental and social consequences form this
period of rapid change it is important to include government policy in the basket of potential subjects for
assessment.
ii) Designing the procedure of public participation in EAs: International experience has highlighted the
importance of effective information disclosure systems and open dialogue in the assessment process. However,
the new EIA Law does not establish a firm procedure for public participation. The next step in the development
of SEA in China should be to develop a more transparent system, including disclosure of information about
environmental protection (e.g. legal criteria for environment protection) and opportunities for stakeholders to
participate more effectively in the decision-making process. One approach would be to establish a
questionnaire investigation system to gauge public attitude towards environmental protection, policies, and
management. In order for any participation mechanism to be effective there is a need for legal enforcement and
financial backing to ensure that this process is facilitated.
iii) Stipulating alternatives of proposal action: The consideration of alternative options is not included
explicitly in the new EIA Law, which means that the current system does not present a comprehensive set of
information to policy and decision makers. It is suggested that the existing EIA Law be revised to require
inclusion of alternatives to a proposed action.
iv) Censor, sanction and implementation of SEA outcomes: The EIA Law requires that EA reports are
reviewed and approved by government appointed bodies, including independent experts and representatives
from related departments. However the departments for compiling and assessing SEA reports are part of the
same executive system, which can create a conflict of interest. Furthermore, it is possible that when economic
interests are at stake, the current system is less likely to defend environmental concerns and support expert
recommendations, which are only used for reference (i.e. there is no legal requirement to respond to, or follow
up on them). A more effective approach would be to establish an independent body, integrating environmental
protection departments and recognized experts, to sanction and support SEA recommendations, e.g. through
the environment and resources committees of national and local people's congress. The establishment of such a
system would help ensure the quality of SEA studies and equity of approvals, by ensuring that the review and
2
3
A brief background to the development and current status of SEA practices in China is provided in the CD-ROM attachment.
EIA law text is available (in Chinese) at http://www.zhb.gov.cn/eic/649645345759821824/20021204/1036227.shtml
11
approval of SEA is objective and just, with support from the NPC to ensure that other departments do not
unduly influence the approving department.
v) Advancing the security mechanism of SEA: Implementation of EIA systems is ensured under the new law
but the supervision mechanism remains weak. Effective judiciary and security mechanisms are an important
element of an SEA system. Increasing the power to review implementation of environmental executive law,
with an environmental one-way law, would therefore be an effective mechanism in the extension of executive
lawsuit law. Where environmental protection departments are guilty of misconduct the public should have the
right to bring a lawsuit to court, and require that the department fulfill its duties of ensuring the full
implementation of the SEA system. When the relevant administrative departments violate the SEA system, the
public or environmental protection department should have the right to bring a suit to court to require the court
to restrict the action.
12
Chapter 3
Baseline Description4
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
Basic descriptive statistics for the region are given in table 3.1, which summarizes a number of important
physical elements of the western provinces. Detailed information of climate, natural resources, and
geographical features to the western region are provided in the sections that follow, and further information is
available at <<www.china.org.cn>>.
Southwest
Table 3.1 Baseline descriptive statistics for western region provinces
Qing-Tibet
Area (km2)
Total water
Nature reserve
number (2000)
(area km2)
Forest area
km2
(cover %)
Capital City
Chongqing
Chongqing
31.3 (2.7)
82,400 (0.8)
59,070 (1,887)
46 (8,660)
with Sichuan
Sichuan
Chengdu
87.0 (3.1)
485,000 (5.2)
258,980 (2,977)
120 (70,770)
133,015 (23.5)
Guizhou
Guiyang
38.7 (9.0)
141,000 (1.5)
915,550 (23,658)
107 (8,090)
36,731 (20.8)
Yunnan
Kunming
43.7 (9.8)
394,000 (4.2)
169,940 (3,889)
186 (35,500)
128,732 (33.6)
Guangxi
Nanning
48.6 (7.3)
236,700 (2.5)
190,100 (3,912)
67 (14,810)
81,666 (34.3)
249.3
1,339,100 (14)
1,593,640 (6,392)
526 (137,830)
380144
Southwest
Northwest
Pop (M) 2003
(growth %)
Province
(% of nation)
M m3
(per capita m3)
Qinghai
Xining
5.3 (10.9)
720,000 (7.7)
63,470 (11,975)
8 (206,080)
3,088 (0.4)
Tibet
Lhasa
2.7 (11.1)
1,220,000 (13)
475,710 (176,189)
15 (408,730)
40,815 (/)
8.0
1,940,000 (21)
539,180 (67,398)
23 (614,810)
43903
Qing-Tibet
Shaan’xi
Xi’an
36.9 (4.3)
205,600 (2.2)
57,460 (1,557)
32 (70,770)
59,203 (28.7)
Gansu
Lanzhou
26.0 (6.1)
450,000 (4.8)
24,720 (951)
47 (87,860)
21,741 (4.8)
Ningxia
Yinchuan
5.8 (10.9)
66,400 (0.7)
1,230 (212)
12 (4,920)
1,464 (2.2)
Xingjiang
Urumqi
19.3 (10.8)
1,660,000 (18)
92,010 (4,767)
26 (215,290)
17,837 (1.1)
Inner-Mon.
Hohhot
23.8 (3.1)
1,183,000 (13)
49,560 (2,082)
183 (148,900)
147,485 (12.7)
Northwest
111.8
5,814,400 (38)
224,980 (2,012)
300 (527,740)
247730
West Reg.
369.1
6,844,100 (73)
2,357,800 (6,388)
849 (1,280,380)
671,777 (9.8)
1,292.3 (6)
9,326,410
2,746,020
1,999 (1,439,810)
1,589,409 (16)
China
Beijing
Source: area (chinatoday.com), and China Statistical Yearbook (2004)
4
www.china.org.cn provides complete overview of climate, natural resources (including water power reserves) and
geographical features including good quality maps.
13
3.1 Environmental regions
The motivation for dividing the western region into three zones for this study was driven by the huge size of
the region and the range of geographic features it contains. The three sub-regions (shown in figure 3.1) have
roughly comparable environmental characteristics, i) southwest (Sichuan, Chongqing city, Yunnan, Guizhou,
and autonomous region of Guangxi), ii) northwest (Gansu, Shaanxi and autonomous regions of, Inner Mongolia,
Ningxia and Xinjiang), and iii) high altitude plateau (Tibet autonomous region and Qinghai province).
Figure 3.2 shows average temperature contours and average annual precipitation levels across China.
Figure 3.1 Geographic Zones and Land Use types (2000) in Western China



Southwest: Sub-tropical climate (rainfall 1,000 – 1,500 mm/year), mountain terrain, and large river valleys.
Northwest: Arid to semi-arid climate, with a short growing season and a long winter. Precipitation is low
(50 – 400 mm/year) and evaporation rates are high. The region consists mainly of plains at an altitude
between 500 and 1,500 meters.
Plateau: Mountain climate with low precipitation (100 – 500 mm/year). The plateau is located at an altitude
of over 2,000 meters with the high Himalayan mountain range at its southern border.
3.2 Land Resources
Figure 3.2 Average annual temperature (C) and average annual precipitation (mm/year)
The western region accounts for a large proportion of China’s arable (36 percent) and rangeland (81 percent)
resources. The relative abundance of land in the region is reflected in the level of per capita land use, for
example arable land (14 m2 per capita), woodland (34 m2 per capita), and grassland (72.6 m2 per capita) use
rates are 1.4, 1.9 and 3.6 times the national average respectively. The different land use types are mapped out in
14
figure 3.1 and a summary of the relative abundance of different land use types in the western region is given in
figure 3.3 (broken down for each of the sub-regions in table 3.2).
Figure 3.3 Land use patterns, Western China (2003)
Residential, Industrial
3%
Water area
3%
Arable land
14%
Unexploited land
24%
Woodland
26%
Grassland
30%
Un-exploited: deserts, high mountains and protected areas. Woodland: canopy density above 0.2 consisting of forest and shrub vegetation.
Note: Data for Inner Mongolia is in 1996 while that of other provinces and municipalities is in 1999.
Table 3.2 Land use patterns (percent of land area)
Province
Un-exploited
land
Arable
Land
Residential
/ Industrial
Woodland
Grassland
Southwest
17
20
4
47
10
2
Qing-Tibet
27
14
3
17
37
2
33
1
<1
7
54
5
Northwest
Water
area
Source: China Statistical Yearbook 2004
Agricultural Land: The level of agricultural output varies across the region but is generally higher in southwest,
where 20 percent of the land is arable (see table 3.2). Figure 3.4 below provides an indication of the relative
performance, measured in terms of Gross Industrial Output Value (GIOV) from different land uses. Farming
and animal husbandry are important in all provinces, but only in Sichuan and Qinghai is animal husbandry the
most important use type.
15
Figure 3.4 Gross output value of land industries, Billion Yuan (2003)
180
Farming
Gross Output Value (Bill Y)
160
Forestry
Animal Husbandry
Fishery
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
Inner-Mong
Xingjiang
Ningxia
Gansu
Shan’xi
Tibet
Qinghai
Guangxi
Yunnan
Guizhou
Sichuan
Chongqing
0
Source: China Statistical Yearbook (2004)
Grassland: Grasslands can be divided into distinct ecological zones, including temperate (Inner Mongolia,
Loess Plateau, semi-arid areas of Xinjiang), high-frigid (Qinghai-Tibet), desert (Xinjinang, Qaidam Basin,
western Inner Mongolia), and southwestern grassland. The total area of natural grasslands in western China is
3,310 million km2, representing 49 percent of China‘s land area (Jiyuan 2005), however, overgrazing and
overloading has impacted these areas and 23 percent of grassland in the western region is reported to be
degraded. Figure 3.10 grassland ecosystems and their coverage
Karst Landscapes: Karst landscapes are widely distributed in Guizhou, Guangxi and eastern Yunnan provinces,
including one of the largest contiguous formations in the world, and represent a unique and vulnerable land
formation. These areas are described as limestone formations with pitted plateaus, deeply dissected by closed
gorges, and ranges of hills with razor sharp crests (Vermeulen et al 1999). The limestone rock dissolves in water
at a rate that results in distinct landforms. Soils developed from limestone bedrock, if present at all, are often
thin and deficient in most nutrients, except calcium and magnesium. Vegetation therefore tends to be thin and
patchy. The biotic environment, both surface and in the extensive dark cave systems that are often present, is
quite unique and these habitats are home to many rare and endemic 5 species. Karst sites also have considerable
cultural value for their beauty, for example Wulingyuan park (Hunan province), which include karst landscape
and deciduous forest has been designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Degradation of karst landscapes can
take decades to recover, partly because of the time required to develop a new soil layer.
3.3 Water Resources
Hydrology: The distribution of water resources is very uneven across the western region, with water
availability decreasing from south to north. The Tibet-Qinghai plateau is the source of all the main Chinese and
International rivers. Figure 3.5 shows the average level of annual precipitation across western China.
 Southwest: The area’s geology and climate creates a large number of river basins, including domestic rivers
such as the Yangtze, Pearl, Gold Sand, Min, Tuo, and Jialing rivers, and international rivers such as Yarlung
Zangbo, Lancang, Nu, Red, Inuowa and Yellow rivers.
5
A species is endemic if its range is restricted to a specific geographical area.
16

Northwest and Plateau: An arid climate with little precipitation, strong evaporation and poor run off
creates only a small number of perennial rivers that discharge relatively small amounts of water in inland
depressions resulting in salt water lakes and oases. The continental rivers in eastern Inner Mongolia and
Qinghai are relatively short, while those in Ganzu, Xinjiang and the Qaidam Basin are long, such as the
Tarim, Ili, Heihe and Shule rivers.
Figure 3.5 Average Annual Precipitation (mm/year)
Source: www.china.org.cn
Surface water: The western region has 1,521 billion m3 in total surface water resources (57 percent of national
total), but this is unevenly divided across sub-regions; 186.2 billion in the northwest (12.2 percent), 834.4 billion
in the southwest (54.9 percent), and 500.6 billion in the Qing-Tibet plateau (32.9 percent). The differences in
water availability across the western region are huge, e.g. the Southwest and Tibet (not including Qinghai) 84
percent of surface water in the western region. Unsurprisingly the northwest suffers from severe water scarcity
problems, and there are significant differences in exploitation rates, which vary from 1.5 percent in the
southwest, to over 40 percent in the northwest (international water security line is 30 percent). Water
availability in each province/ region is shown in table 3.3.
Table 3.3 Exploitation and utilization of water resources (2003)
Province
Southwest
Chongqing
QingTibet
Surface water*
Ground water*
(M m3)
(M m3)
(M m3)
(per capita
m3)
(per capita
m3)
(per capita
m3)
Exploited
water
(M m3)
Exploitation
percent
59,070 (1,887)
59,070 (1,887)
10,990 (351)
6,320 (202)
10.7
Sichuan
258,980 (2,977)
258,820 (2,975)
59,640 (686)
20,900 (242)
8.1
Guizhou
915,550 (23,658)
91,550 (2,366)
24,780 (640)
9,370 (243)
1.0
Yunnan
169,940 (3,889)
169,940 (3,889)
59,220 (1,355)
14,610 (353)
8.6
Guangxi
190,100 (3,912)
190,100 (3,912)
5,730 (118)
27,840 (575)
14.6
1,593,640 (6,392)
769,480 (3,087)
160,360 (643)
79,040 (317)
5.0
63,470 (11,975)
63,470 (11,975)
27,390 (5,168)
2,900 (547)
4.6
475,710 (176,189)
475,710 (176,189)
108,100 (40,037)
2,530 (940)
0.5
539,180 (67,398)
539,180 (67,398)
135,490 (16,936)
5,430 (679)
1.0
57460 (1,557)
57,460 (1,557)
17,310 (469)
7,510 (203)
13.1
24,720 (951)
24,720 (951)
13,690(527)
12,160 (467)
49.2
1,230 (212)
1,230 (212)
2,540 (438)
6,400 (1,111)
520.3
Xingjiang
92,010 (4,767)
92,010 (4,767)
60,430 (3,131)
50,070 (2,608)
54.4
Inner-Mong
49,560 (2,082)
49,560 (2,082)
23,920 (1,005)
16,600 (701)
33.5
Southwest
Qinghai
Tibet
Qing-Tibet
Shaan’xi
Northwest
Total Water
Gansu
Ningxia
17
Northwest
224,980 (2,012)
224,980 (2,012)
117,890 (1,054)
92,720 (830)
41.2
Note * Volumes reported as in yearbook, some duplicated measurements, i.e. surface and ground volumes don’t sum to total water volume.
Source: China Statistical Yearbook 2004
In 2003 the total amount of exploited water was 79,040, 5,430, and 92,720 million m 3 in the southwest, QingTibet and Northwest sub-regions respectively, summing to a total of 177.2 million m3 for the western region as a
whole.
In spite of the fact that many areas suffer from water scarcity water use efficiency remains low across most of
the western region. For example, the amount of water required to generate 10,000 Yuan is much higher in most
western provinces than the national average. Only in Shaanxi and Chongqing is water use more efficient than
the national average (12 and 27 percent more efficient respectively), while Tibet, Ningxia and Xingjiang all use
more than three times as much water than the national average per unit output in spite of its scarcity.
In the dry irrigated areas of the northwest, flooding frequently occurs due to the irrational low water price and
inefficient agricultural irrigation practice, impacts include salinization of soils. Quotas for the farmland
irrigation in Gansu, Qinghai, Ningxia and Xinjiang are all over 90 m3 of water per m2 land, which is much
higher than for the rest of the country.
Ground water: Over exploitation of groundwater is a serious problem in the northwest, even in areas that do
not suffer from water scarcity. The total area where groundwater resources are considered to be over-exploited
is estimated at 14,424 km2. Depletion of groundwater resources affects surface water levels by reducing the level
of replenishment, and reductions in the level of the water table will reduce soil moisture and can increase
processes of land degradation, desertification, and negative socio-economic impacts.
Due to their abundant surface water resources, the Qinghai-Tibet plateau and southwest regions have abundant
groundwater resources that are not heavily exploited. The availability of ground water in the northwest is more
limited leading to higher exploitation rates, 97 percent in Ningxia, and over 20 percent in Gansu and Xinjiang.
Over-exploitation of groundwater has become serious in river basins such as the Northwest Hexi Corridor,
Shiyang River Basin, the Hetao Plain and some parts of Xinjiang.
3.4 Forest Resources
Forest types in western China include cold temperate coniferous, temperate coniferous and broad-leaved,
subtropical evergreen broad-leaved, tropical monsoon and rain forests. These habitats are distributed as follows;



Southwest: The southwest has a relatively high level of forest cover, but many years of human activity has
led to significant reductions in forested area, especially in the upper reaches of Yangtze River. As a result
the ecological regulation functions of forests are weakened, and the major flooding in the Yangtze River (in
1998) was caused by deforestation in the upper part of this water basin.
Northwest: The total forested area of the four provinces in northwestern China is 1.75 percent.
Plateau: Forest coverage in the northwest and the plateau area is naturally low, due to the arid / semiarid
and high mountains conditions.
Change in total forest cover between 1976 and 1998 is given in table 3.4, all regions (except Tibet) have
experienced significant increases in forest cover. However, in many areas the planting of mono-specific
economic forests masks the continued decline of high-value virgin forests. According to the fifth national
survey of forest resources, quantity increases have been undermined by an overall decrease in the quality, as
artificial forests expand while natural forest coverage falls (Liu Jiyuan 2005). Figure 3.10 forest ecosystems and
their coverage.
18
Table 3.4 Forest cover km2 (various years)
1976
(% cover)
Province
Qing
Tibet
Southwest
Chongqing
1998
(% cover)
1988
(% cover)
Annual change
(%) ‘88 – ‘98
/
/
/
/
/
Sichuan
74,600 (15.4)
68,110 (14.0)
108,720 (22.4)
133,015 (23.5)
2.04
Guizhou
25,610 (18.1)
23,090 (16.3)
22,210 (15.7)
36,731 (20.8)
5.16
Yunnan
95,600 (24.3)
91,970 (23.3)
93,270 (23.3)
128,732 (33.6)
3.27
Guangxi
55,100 (23.3)
52,270 (22.1)
52,270 (22.1)
81,666 (34.3)
4.56
Qinghai
1,900 (0.3)
1,950 (0.3)
2,660 (0.4)
3,088(0.4)
1.50
63,200 (5.2)
63,200 (5.2)
63,200 (5.2)
40,815 (/)
- 4.28
45,800 (22.2)
44,710 (21.7)
47,080 (22.9)
59,203 (28.7)
2.32
18,700 (4.2)
17,690 (3.9)
20,290 (4.5)
21,741 (4.8)
0.69
600 (0.9)
950 (1.4)
1,180 (1.8)
1,464 (2.2)
2.18
14,400 (0.9)
11,210 (0.7)
14,970 (0.9)
17,837 (1.1)
1.77
107,000 (9.0)
137,400 (11.6)
138,360 (11.7)
147,485 (12.7)
0.48
Tibet
Shaan’xi
Northwest
1981
(% cover)
Gansu
Ningxia
Xingjiang
Inner-Mong
Source: China Statistical Yearbook 2004, Ministry of Forestry (National Statistics of Forestry Resources 1989)
3.6 Energy and Mineral Resources
Demand for energy is increasing across China and, if the levels of growth projected in the GWDS are to be
achieved, electricity use in the western region will increase rapidly. In the period 1999 – 2003 electricity
consumption in the region increased by an average of 9.7 percent annually, the fastest growth rate was Sichuan
at 15.5 percent (China Statistical Yearbook, 2004). The region has abundant energy reserves, but it must find an
acceptable balance between exploiting energy as a key driver for economic development and maintaining
environmental sustainability, which will impact economic growth over the long term.
Coal, Oil and Natural Gas: Western China is endowed with abundant mineral energy resources including coal,
oil and natural gas6. The distribution of coal reserves in the western region is shown in table 3.5, which shows
that the bulk (85 percent) of proven reserves are located in the northwest. The largest proven reserves are in
Inner Mongolia, and Shanxi, but Xingjiang is believed to have very large reserves. In the southwest significant
reserves are found in Guizhou, southern Sichuan and northeast Yunnan Province. Unfortunately the majority of
the region’s coal reserves is of poor quality and has a high sulfur content.
Table 3.5. Coal reserves in the western region (million tons)
Northwest
QingTibet
Southwest
Province
6
Sichuan, Chongqing
Guizhou
Yunnan
Guangxi
Southwest
Qinghai
Tibet
Qing-Tibet
Xinjiang
Gansu
Shanxi
Ningxia
Inner Mongolia
Northwest
Proven
reserves
1.1
2.6
2.4
0.2
6.3
0.4
0.0
0.4
4.4
0.6
10.4
1.2
22.5
39.1
Estimated coal
reserves
4.42
24.2
6.8
35.4
4.2
0.1
4.3
192.4
15.2
35.8
20.3
112.2
376.0
See web address for investigative maps showing their distribution http://www.china.org.cn/english/en-shuzi2004/zr/zrzy-kc.htm
19
Source: Cheng and Peng (2000)
The region also has abundant oil and natural gas reserves, which are distributed from north to south (see table
3.6). The majority of reserves are in the northern provinces and current oil and gas extraction facilities are also
concentrated in northern provinces. The northern region accounts for 84 and 59 percent of estimated oil and
natural gas reserves respectively. The Tarim Basin is a particularly important location for natural gas, and is
estimated to have reserves of around 8.4 thousand billion m3 (22 percent of national total).
Table 3.6 Oil and natural gas reserves in the western region
Estimated reserves
(108t)
Fossil oil
Northwest
QingTibet
Southwest
Sichuan, Chongqing
Proven reserves
(108t3)
Nat. gas
Fossil oil
11.3
71,851
0.7
Guizhou
3.9
3,616
Yunnan
8.0
9,434
Guangxi
Ratio of positive
reserves (percent)
Nat. gas
Fossil oil
Nat. gas
6 368.8
6.1
8.9
0.0
0.0
0.0
―
0.0
22.5
0.0
0.2
7.7
3,888
0.2
0.5
2.5
0.0
Southwest
30.9
88,789
0.9
23
8.6
9.1
Qinghai
24.9
10,500
2.3
1 472.2
9.2
14.0
Tibet
8.3
―
0.0
0.0
0.0
―
Qing-Tibet
33.2
10,500
2.3
1,472.2
9.2
14.0
Shanxi
67.1
41,788
10.9
3 415.2
16.3
8.2
Gansu
Xinjiang
Ningxia
8.2
2,265
0.9
0.0
10.9
―
224.7
101,683
23.8
3 305.7
10.6
3.2
2.3
―
0.0
0.0
0.0
―
49.2
1,979
2.1
0.0
4.3
―
Northwest
351.5
147,715
37.7
6720.9
42.1
11.4
China
415.6
247,004
40.9
6743.9
59.9
34.5
Inner Mong.
Source: Li, Zhao, and Zhang (2003)
Hydropower: There is a dense river network in the southwest, where water flow is quick and contains
abundant energy. The electrical energy potential stored in water is about 557 M KW (82 percent of that of the
nation). The exploitable water electricity resource is about 274.3 M KW (72 percent of that of the nation).
However, the extent of the exploitation is less than 8 percent, lower than the nation’s average exploitation level
of water and electricity resources (19 percent), and far less than world’s average exploitation extent of water and
electricity resources (22 percent).
Solar Energy: The region has significant potential for generating solar energy. The best (first class) regions for
solar power, receiving between 2,800 and 3,300 sunshine hours and 6.72×103 to 8.4×103 MJ/m2 of solar
radiation annually, are in Ningxia, northern Gansu, southeastern Xinjiang, Qinghai, and western Tibet. Secondclass regions, receiving between 3,000 and 3,200 sunshine hours and 5.88×103 to 6.72×103 MJ/m2 of solar
radiation annually, include Inner Mongolia, southern Ningxia, central Gansu, eastern Qinghai, southeastern
Tibet, and southern Xinjiang.
Wind Energy: The annual potential of wind power is about 1,600 MW/year (China Meteorological Bureau),
however only 10 percent can be realistically achieved (1.6MW/year). The Qinghai-Tibet plateau boasts the
richest wind power resources in China, and wind power is also abundant in Gansu, Xinjiang and the grasslands
of Inner Mongolia. Table 3.7 shows wind conditions in the Qinghai-Tibet plateau and Inner Mongolia.
Table 3.7 Wind energy potential
Qinghai-Tibet (north and northwest)
Entire Qinghai-Tibet Plateau
Wind Energy
Potential (w/m3)
150 - 200
20
Hours wind energy
above 3 m/s
4,000 – 5,000
6,500
Hours wind energy
above 6 m/s
3,000
Inner Mongolia and northern Gansu
200 - 300
5,000
2,000
Source: China Meteorological Bureau
Mineral Resources: The western region is relatively abundant in mineral resources and has reserves of all 168
minerals found in China. The metallic resources of the western region account for a large fraction of the national
total, for example iron (22.2 percent), copper (42.6 percent), lead (41.5 percent), zinc (43.2 percent), nickel (89
percent), platinum (97.7 percent), gold (27.6 percent) and silver (26.4 percent). The region also accounts for a
large proportion of other minerals, including potassium salt (100 percent), pyrites (37.6 percent), phosphorite
(61.6 percent) and sodium salt (89.5 percent). Table 3.8 lists recoverable deposits of the main minerals in each
province.
Northwest
Q
T
Southwest
Chongqing
Sichuan
Guizhou
Yunnan
Guangxi
Qinghai
Tibet
Shaan’xi
Gansu
Ningxia
Xingjiang
Inner-Mong
Western percent of
China total
0
85.7
0.4
262.5
15.4
50.8
220.5
16.6
203
0
82.8
92.1
1,792
26.3
2,433
1,268
6,777
/
/
361
18
/
/
14
1907
39,058
5460
8212
5,169
1,949
0
2,597
899
727
716
8,601
28.7 %
34.3 %
8.4 %
38.4 %
Pyrite
(10,000 tons)
0
31.2
0.5
4.7
1.0
0.1
0.3
4.2
4.1
0
2.9
12.1
Manganese
(10,000 M tons)
Copper
(10,000 M tons)
Region
Iron
(100 M tons)
Table 3.8 Recoverable deposits of main mineral resources in the western region
Source: China Statistical Yearbook (2004), Fang Min (2000)
3.6 Biodiversity and ecosystem services
The western region has a wide range of ecosystem 7 and habitat types giving rise to high level of biodiversity. It
also has a growing number of nature reserves (see table 3.9), though many reserves have experienced significant
problems in achieving their environmental mandate and in integrating environmental and social needs. The
recent sub-regional Milleneum Ecosystem Assessment for western China (Jiyuan 2005) points to the
environmental deterioration that has occurred in western china, largely driven by inappropriate agricultural
activities, and the negative impact that this has had on ecosystems and the services they provide 8.
An ecosystem is a community of animals and plants interacting with one another and with the physical environment, e.g. chemical
components, soils, water and nutrients. Ecosystem services are defined as, i) provisioning services (food, fresh water, fibre, fuel, biochemical
products, and genetic material), ii) regulating services (climate regulation, hydrological regimes, pollution control, detoxification, erosion
protection, and mitigation of natural hazards), iii) cultural services (spiritual, inspirational, recreational, aesthetic, and educational services)
iv) supporting services (biodiversity, soil formation, nutrient cycling, and pollination).
8 The term ecosystem services refers to the wide range of processes through which natural ecosystems and the species that are part of them
help sustain and fulfil human life. For example, ecosystems provide services that mitigate drought and floods, control agricultural pests,
purify air and water, protect river systems from erosion, moderate weather patterns, and many other free and often hidden services. The
idea can also be extended to include cultural services such as recreational, spiritual, religious and other non-material benefits. Ecosystem
degradation, whether it is through loss of biodiversity, land erosion processes, or via pollution, have a negative feedback to human society
by undermining these ‘public good’ ecosystem services.
7
21
Table 3.9 Extent of nature reserves (1997, 2000, and 2003)
Nature Reserves
(1997)
number
Southwest
Chongqing
QingTibet
number
area km2 (percent)
Nature Reserves
(2003)
number
area km2 (percent)
6
513.2 (0.6)
26
4,747.7 (5.7)
46
8,660 (10.5)
Sichuan
50
28,248.2 (5.7)
90
55,368.2 (11.3)
120
70,770 (14.5)
Guizhou
29
2,871.4 (1.6)
62
3,425.9 (1.9)
107
8,090 (4.6)
Yunnan
108
19,536.1 (4.9)
112
21,982.1 (5.6)
187
3,550 (9.0)
Guangxi
7
15,657.0 (6.4)
62
161,22.4 (6.7)
67
14,810 (6.1)
200
66,825.9 (5.0)
352
101,646.4 (7.6)
527
137,830 (10.2)
4
50,224.9 (6.9)
7
53,519.6 (7.4)
8
206,080 (28.6)
Tibet
13
325,838.3 (26.7)
17
390,871.7 (32.6)
15
148,900 (34.1)
Qing-Tibet
17
376,063.2 (19.3)
24
444,391.3 (22.9)
23
354,980 (18.2)
Shanxi
12
3,098.9 (1.5)
16
3,540.2 (1.7)
32
6,770 (3.3)
Gansu
34
49,766.4 (0.9)
35
50,457.1 (11.1)
47
87,860 (19.3)
Xinjiang
19
102,523.2 (6.2)
22
159,437.3 (9.9)
26
215,290 (13.5)
Ningxia
4
1,243.4 (2.4)
8
2,048.4 (3.9)
12
4,920 (9.5)
Southwest
Northwest
area km2 (percent)
Nature Reserves
(2000)
Qinghai
Inner Mong.
35
40,534.6 (3.4)
80
66,426.3 (5.6)
183
148,900 (12.6)
Northwest
104
197,166.5 (3.4)
161
281,909.4 (4.8)
300
463,740 (7.9)
West region
321
640,055 (11)
537
811,824 (13.9)
850
924,600 (15.9)
China
926
769,790.1 (7.6)
1,227
982,079.7 (9.8)
1,999
1,439,810 (14.4)
Source: China Statistical Yearbook (various years)
A description of the habitat types in western china is given in table 3.10, and figure 3.6 maps out the location
of some of the most prominent examples.
Inland swamp
and water
ecosystem
Desert
ecosystem
Grassland and
Forest ecosystem
meadow ecosystem
Table 3.10 Description of ecosystems types in the Western Region
Description
Area: 875,000 km2 (12.9 percent of region)
Majority of region’s forest ecosystem is
located in mountainous southwestern
areas (Sichuan, Yunnan, Guangxi). The
main forest types are subtropical broadleaved evergreen, mountainous, and
tropical rain forest.
Area: 1.91 M km2 (28.3 percent of region)
Region has rich grassland resources,
including typical, meadow, desert and
arctic-alpine grassland. Most of these
habitats are in northern Inner Mongolia
and Loess plateau, the northwestern
region, and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
Area: 1.6 M km2 (23.8 percent of region)
These ecosystems include grassland
desert, extremely dry desert and arcticalpine desert. These habitats are mainly
found in inland areas of the northwest
and the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau.
Area: 167,000 km2 (2.5 percent of region)
Lakes and rivers are most common in the
Qinghai-Tibet and Yunnan-Guizhou
plateaus and Mogolia-Xinjiang, but occur
across the region. Swamps are found on
the Nuoergai Plateau in western Sichuan.
Example conservation areas
 Subtropical broad-leaved evergreen forest: Mount
Daming (Guangxi); Mount Jinyun (Sichuan); Mount Ailao
(Yunnan); and Mount Chayu (Tibet).
 Tropical rain / monsoon forest Xishuangbanna (Yunnan).
 Mountainous forest Vertical distributing zones: Mount
Fanjing (Guizhou), Mount Gaoligong (Yunnan), Haba Jokul.
 Dry grassland ecosystem: Mount Yunwu grassland
conservation area (Yunnan).
 Mountain grassland and meadow: Gongnaisi Meadow
and Jintasi mountain grassland in Mount Tai (Xinjiang).
 Typical grassland, meadow grassland, forestry, sandy
sparse grassland: Xilinguole conservation (Inner Mongolia).
 Primitive arctic-alpine desert ecosystem and rare wild
animals: Mount Alkin conservation area (Xinjiang).
 Arctic-alpine desert, arctic-alpine meadow and rare wild
animals: Qiangtang conservation area (Tibet).
 Extremely dry desert ecosystem: Anxi natural
conservation area (Gansu).
 Plateau swamp: Grass sea conservation area (Qinghai).
 Lake ecosystem and rare birds: Daben Lake (Inner
Mongolia), Cibi Lake and Lugu Lake (Yunnan).
 River ecosystem: Nuoshui River conservation area
(Tongjiang, Sichuan).
22
Assessments have indicated that the region has eight key biodiversity hot spots where protection has global
significance;
1. Southern Hengduan Mountains (southeast Inner Mongolia, northwest Yunnan, southwest Sichuan);
2. Minshan Mountain and northern Henduan Mountains (northwest Sichuan);
3. Plateaus and mountains at intersection of Xinjiang, Qinghai and Tibet;
4. Xishuang Banna in southwest Yunnan;
5. Mountainous regions at the boundary of Hunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan and Hube;
6. Limestone (karst) regions in the southwest of Guangxi;
7. Qinling Mountains;
8. Yili and western Tianshan Mountains;
At present the western region has 34 national
natural conservation areas, 40 national scenic
spots, and 114 national forest parks (according
to countrywide surveys and assessments
undertaken in 1995). There are many more
natural conservation areas and forest parks
managed at the provincial, local and county
levels. Furthermore, the UNESCO world
network of biosphere reserves includes 26
reserves in China, 14 are located in the
western region9.
Figure 3.6 Distribution of Typical Ecosystems
3.7 Tourist resources
The western provinces offer a wide range of
tourist resources, figure 3.7 shows the
distribution of different tourist resources in
the western region. Besides the nature reserves mentioned above the western region has 31 historic and cultural
cities (31 percent of national total) and 138 national key cultural-historical sites (27 percent of national total).
Amongst the sightseeing hotspots of this century chosen by several magazines worldwide, there are two in the
western region of China, i) secret forbidden area of Lop Tor, and ii) secret Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The western
region is also home to 12 UNESCO world heritage sites 10, which should be an attractive destination to potential
tourists. These sites are:
 Qinshihuang Mausoleum and Terracotta Warriors and Horses in Shaanxi (1987)
 Dunhuang Mogao Grottoes in Gansu (1987)
 Jiuzhaigou national scenic spots in Sichuan (1992)
 Huanglong national scenic spots in Sichuan (1992)
 Potala Palace in Tibet (1994)
 Mount Emei in Sichuan—Mount Le scenic spot (1996)
 Ancient city of Ping Yao, Shaanxi (1997)
 Ancient city of Lijiang in Yunnan (1997)
 Dazu stone inscription in Chongqing (1999)
 Mount Qingcheng and Dujiang Weirs in Sichuan (2000)
 Yungang grottoes, Shaanxi (2001)
 Three parallel rivers of Yunnan protected areas, Yunnan (2003)
However, to date these resources have not been exploited for their tourist potential and there is a lack of
infrastructure to support tourism activities in most locations. Indeed the tourism industry is relatively small at
present generating 3.3 USD per capita, as opposed to 11.2 USD per capita for the country as a whole (see table
3.11). The southwest region has more facilities (e.g. agents and hotels) than the rest of western China.
Information on these reserves can be found at http://www.unesco.org/mab/brlistAsia.htm. The reserves include Wolong, Fanjingshan,
Bogeda, Xishuangbanna, Maolan, Jiuzhaigou Valley, Shankou Mangrove, Baishuijiang, Gaoligong, Hunglong, Saihanwula, Yading, Foping,
and Qomolangma.
10 More information about the sites can be found at the following site: http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/
9
23
Figure 3.7 Distribution of typical tourist resources in the western region
Table 3.11 Tourism activity in western provinces
Southwest
Travel Agents
QingTibet
Tourism foreign exchange
earnings (million USD)
Domestic
International
Chongqing
180
23
147
/
113
Sichuan
448
50
346
125
150
Guizhou
130
12
112
29
29
Yunnan
382
40
572
165
340
Guangxi
1995
2003
290
50
293
121
164
1430
175
1470
440
796
Qinghai
90
11
50
2
5
Tibet
23
22
58
11
19
Qing-Tibet
113
33
108
13
24
Shanxi
274
33
229
139
198
Gansu
191
27
157
21
21
Xinjiang
225
41
239
75
49
Ningxia
56
7
33
1
1
177
28
132
91
138
923
2,466
11,997
136
344
1,364
790
2,368
9,751
327
780
8,249
407
1,227
14,410
Southwest
Northwest
Hotels
Inner Mong.
Northwest
Western region
China
Source: China Statistical Yearbook (various years)
24
Chapter 4
Main Environmental Challenges
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
4.1 Summary of environmental constraints
Much of the environment and natural resource base in western China is vulnerable to human pressure and can
be easily degraded. The following issues have been identified as key concerns for the region’s nature and
environment:
i. Water shortage and over-exploitation;
ii. Land degradation, through soil erosion (water, wind), desertification, and salinization, through processes
of overgrazing, steep slope terrace cultivation, inappropriate irrigation and reclamation of wasteland;
iii. Forest deterioration (illegal logging and fuel wood collection);
iv. Pollution (soil, water, air) from industrial emissions and untreated municipal wastewater and solid-waste;
v. Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services.
These environmental issues are not independent and many linkages exist between each of them, which means
that it is hard to address one challenge at a time. A brief description of each is given here.
i) Water shortage and over-exploitation
While the southwest and plateau regions are relatively water abundant, northwestern provinces suffer severe
water shortage and have growing problems with availability and pollution. The level of water deficiency in
provinces and river basins in northwestern China is summarized in table .1. Both domestic and international
experience shows that when exploitation / utilization rates in a river basin exceed 40 percent, a series of
problems appear, e.g. water shortages, decline in self-cleaning abilities, water quality deterioration, and damage
to the natural ecological environment at stream outlet. This threshold (40 percent) is used in our analysis of the
present scenario as the threshold for environmental level III for water availability (see table 3.3).


Southwest: Water resources are relatively abundant, e.g. average water availability in Zhu Jiang (Pearl)
river basin was 3,228 m3/per cap/year in 1997 and is projected to be 2,813 in 2010. However, in karst
landscape (high mountains and deep valleys) water storage is very difficult, it is hard to construct irrigation
facilities and to utilize abundant runoff water.
Northwest: This area is affected by the most severe water deficiencies, annual precipitation is less than
400mm, with considerable intra and inter-annual variation. Average water availability in Huang (Yellow)
river basin was 707 m3/per cap/year in 1997 and is projected to be 621 in 2010. Surface water and ground
water resources are very limited, but the use of water, especially for irrigation, has increased over the last
few decades. As a result water resources are seriously over-exploited, leading declines in the level of
groundwater table, dying out of rivers and drying up of lakes. Areas suffering from the most serious water
deficiency are the central plains of Shaanxi, the Xinjiang oasis, Gansu corridor and Shiyang River Basin.
Plateau: In general there is no water shortage in the high plateau, but local water shortages can occur. The
sparsely populated Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the source of China’s main river systems, and until recently
human impacts were very low and water quality was good - especially in Tibet. However, in recent years
human activities have led to a lowering of the water table, the shrinking of lakes and the drying up of some
wetland areas. Furthermore, there are a number of planned hydropower projects in Qinghai province,
which will certainly influence the ecological quality of rivers.
Table 4.1 Water Deficiency in Key areas of Northwestern China (m3)
Region
Xinjiang

North Xijiang
South Xinjiang
East Xinjiang
Urban water
demand
(m3)
90,000
30,000
13,000
Rural water
demand
(m3)
1,562,000
2,482,000
178,000
Total water
demand
(m3)
1,652,000
2,512,000
191,000
25
Total water
supply (m3)
1,474,000
2,283,000
166,000
Water
deficiency
(m3)
179,000
228,000
26,000
Water
deficiency
rate (%)
10.8
9.1
13.3
Total
133,000
4,223,000
4,355,000
Figure
4.1 Soil and
water loss in
Arable land 3,923,000
and Grassland 433,000
River Shule
River Heihe
Shiyang
Qaidam
Ningxia
Central Shaanxi
Northwest
10,000
16,000
13,000
7,000
60,000
146,000
385,000
118,000
326,000
257,000
64,000
832,000
549,000
6,368,000
128,000
342,000
270,000
71,000
892,000
695,000
6,753,000
128,000
342,000
270,000
71,000
892,000
695,000
6,753,000
0.0
6,000
17,000
0.0
4,000
130,000
588,000
9.9
0.0
1.6
6.1
0.0
0.4
18.7
8.7
Source: Information on 96-912 topic among the key projects, State Science and Technology Commission during “ninth five-year” period
Many dams have been built on the region’s rivers in order to generate hydropower and control water supply
for irrigation and domestic use. Dams disturb natural water flow patterns, block the transport of sediment to
downstream areas, and interfere with water flux. The accumulated effects of pollution into rivers, watershed
degradation, and the damning of water courses has led to an increase of mineral content in many of the region’s
rivers and lakes.
ii) Land degradation
Three main processes, soil erosion, desertification and salinization cause land degradation. These are
summarized for each sub-region in table 4.2, and are discussed in more detail below.
Table 4.2 Overview of causes for land degradation in each sub-region
Region
Southwest
Northwest
QinghaiTibet
Soil erosion
Desertification
Salinization
Mining, urban construction,
vegetational damage, water
erosion resulting from
reclamation of steep slopes.
Vegetation damage, drought,
small soil particles, predominant
wind erosion (spring / winter,
serious water erosion (summer /
autumn).
Predominant karst topography,
serious rock desertification.
Irrational irrigation
systems.
Climate, excessive exploitation of
groundwater, overgrazing,
wasteland reclamation,
deforestation, irrational utilization
of land resource.
Drought, strong
evaporation, vegetation
damage, inappropriate
irrigation and farming
method.
Freeze-thaw erosion caused by
natural reasons.
Overgrazing on grassland.
Irrational framing
method.
Soil erosion: The loss of topsoil through soil erosion is an irreversible process that places severe limits on the
production capacity of the land for agricultural production. All provinces are seriously affected by soil erosion
(see figure 4.3), but some of the most serious examples in the world occur in the semi arid Loess plateau.
According to remote sensing analysis 60 percent of western China is affected by soil erosion. Relevant processes
that lead to soil erosion include i) wind erosion, ii) water erosion, iii) land and mudslide, and iv) freeze-thaw.
26
i) Wind Erosion: The process of wind erosion starts when grass cover is reduced due to excessive grazing
pressure. Wind erosion is a particular problem in the arid northwest soil. If this process is not controlled, wind
erosion can lead to desertification.
ii) Water Erosion: The process of water erosion often starts with the clearing of natural vegetation cover to
extend the area of cultivated lands in upland areas. Farming in upland areas requires special techniques to
prevent loss of topsoil. This problem affects about 70 percent of the plateau (0.45 million km 2) and is the main
source of the high coarse-grained sand load of the Yellow River. Water erosion is the main direct cause of soil
erosion in the more humid Southwest. This type of soil erosion is serious in all provinces in this region except
for Guangxi. The upper and middle ranges of the Yangtze River are particularly affected (over 0.5 million
km2). In many places erosion has left the remaining soil infertile and people in can’t make a living out of the
bare rock that is left behind. In karst areas soil depth is generally very shallow, making the landscape
particularly vulnerable to soil erosion and areas experiencing complete soil lost increase by 5 – 7 percent
annually. This process is known as rock desertification and presently affects around 60,000 km2.
iii) Land and Mudslide: Many places in the southwest zone, a mountainous region with high steep slopes and
deep valleys, have an unstable geological structure. Human influences on this precarious landscape have led
to regular landslides and mud-rock flows. Estimates indicate that landslide and mud-rock flows have
occurred in 16 percent of all settlements in Yunnan province, and there is a risk of karst collapse on the YunGui plateau.
iv) Freeze - Thaw: The freeze-thaw process can also lead to soil erosion, and is a problem in the high plateau
region, affecting around 1.04 million km2, especially the Tibetan plateau.
Desertification: Desertification in China, which is among the worst in the world, is very serious in the arid and
semi-arid northwestern and high plateau regions. The three provinces with the largest area of desertification
are Xinjiang, Inner Mongolia, and Tibet, where affected land is 46.3, 30.1, and 16.5 percent of (table 4.3). Figure
4.2 shows a map of desertification affecting arable and grasslands in western China.
Table 4.3 Statistics on Soil Deterioration in Northwest China
Desertification
Region
QingTibet
Soil salinization
Area (km2)
Ratio (%)
Area (km2)
/
/
/
/
/
/
9,500
1.7
248,900
43.9
/
/
100
0.1
76,700
43.5
/
/
Yunnan
800
0.2
146,500
37.2
/
/
Guangxi
2,400
1.0
11,100
4.7
/
/
Qinghai
Tibet
116,300
199,700
16.1
16.6
334,100
1,034,300
46.3
86.2
22,984
/
3.2
/
14,600
116,700
12,400
769,200
355,500
7.1
25.7
18.8
46.3
30.0
132,000
249,900
38,900
985,700
849,700
64.2
55.0
58.9
59.4
71.8
3,500
10,400
3,800
133,600
76,300
1.7
2.3
5.8
8.0
6.4
1,597,200
27.4
4,107,800
70.6
250,584
4.3
Chongqing
South
west
Water and soil loss
Sichuan
Guizhou
Shaanxi
Gansu
North
Ningxia
west
Xinjiang
Inner Mong
Northwest region
Ratio (%)
Area (km2)
Ratio (%)
Ministry of Land and Resource in 2000
Apart from climate, the most important aspect leading to desertification is the intensity and inappropriate forms
of land use. Desertification often starts with deterioration of the vegetation cover caused by deforestation, fuel
wood collection, increasing livestock levels and inadequate grassland management. The grassland deterioration
rate of northwest China (except Xinjiang) is much higher than the national average. The current threat in
Ningxia province is as high as 97 percent, and that of Shaanxi, Gansu, and Tibet are 59, 45 and 30 percent
respectively (table 4.4). The desertification process can be intensified in areas where annual water extraction is
27
larger than the annual recharge. These anthropogenic influences mentioned reduce ecosystem resilience to
extreme weather conditions and make them more vulnerable to desertification.
Figure 4.2 Desertification of i) Arable land and ii) Grassland
Table 4.4 Percent Forest Coverage and Grassland Coverage (2000)
Forest Cover
North west
Qing
Tibet
South West
Province
Chongqing
Shichuan
Gui zhou
Yunnan
Guangxi
South west
Qinghai
Tibet
Qing-Tibet
Shaan’xi
Ganshu
Ningxia
Xinjiang
Inner Mong.
North west
China
Cover km2
Sichuan
133,015
36,731
128,732
81,666
380,144
3,088
40,815
43,903
59,203
21,741
1,464
17,837
147,485
247,730
1,589,409
Cover (%)
% Change
(’88 – ‘98)
/
/
23.5
2.04
20.8
5.16
33.6
3.27
34.3
4.56
/
/
0.4
1.50
/
-4.28
/
/
28.7
2.32
4.8
0.69
2.2
2.18
1.1
1.77
12.7
0.48
/
/
/
16.5
Grassland
Deterioration
/
15.8
0
0
0
/
15.3
30.4
/
58.5
45.2
97.4
5.8
20.3
/
19.8
Forest &
Grassland
Cover (%)
/
45.9
52.4
57.8
51.7
/
59.2
64.4
/
61.2
38.7
41.4
34.9
74.4
/
/
Source: Ministry of Forestry
Salinization: Another process that contributes to, and accelerates, desertification is soil salinization (see table
4.3), which is a serious problem in the northwest. The total area affected in the northwest is 34,500 km2. Soil
salinization is caused by inappropriate irrigation and farming practices, often associated with poor drainage,
and leads to lower agricultural production capacity. This situation is extremely serious in the Hexi area, Tarim
Basin of Xinjiang, the southern edge of Junggar Basin, Qaidam Basin, Hetao area in Inner Mongolia, Yinchuan
plain of Ningxia and Weinan-Dingbian belt.
 Cultivated land: Much of this land is used for raising and grazing livestock, which contributes directly to
the desertification process, but is also vulnerable to its effects, negatively affecting the productive capacity
of the land. In many areas healthy grasslands can be transformed into degraded and decertified land by
this process. Once the desertification process is initiated it becomes difficult, and after a certain point
impossible, to stop.
 Grassland: Factors affecting grassland desertification include irrational reclamation, wood collection, over
grazing, industry and urban construction, and over exploitation of ground water resources. The region of
28
grassland desertification is mainly located in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Gansu, Qinghai, and Tibet. The
grassland deterioration rate of Northwest China (except Xinjiang) is much higher than the national average,
it is 97, 59, 45 and 30 percent in Ningxia, Shaanxi, Gansu and Tibet respectively (see table 4.3). The
proportion of desertification grassland in the total grassland area of desertification districts, Shaan’xi,
Ningxia, Gansu and Xinjing are all over 95 percent, while Qinghai and Tibet are 80 – 95 percent.
 Arable land: Factors leading to arable land desertification include drought conditions, irrational arable
land use, and poor irrigation systems. Desert arable land is mainly located in Inner Mongolia, Shaan’xi,
Ningxia, Gansu and Xinjing, the desert arable land accounts for 3.5, 5.3, 9.5, 11.2 and 4.7 percent of their
total area respectively. The amount of decertified arable land as a proportion of the total arable area in
desertification districts is quite high, in Inner Mongolia it is over 70 percent, Gansu is about 60 percent,
Ningxia is about 45 percent, while the other regions are all lower than 30 percent.
iii) Forest deterioration
Forests play an essential role in maintaining ecosystem services, protecting soil structure and nutrients, and
regulating water discharge from the ground. Changes in the level and quality of forest cover therefore have
major consequences for water and soil loss, floods, and frequency of sand / dust storms. The logging ban
established in 1998 decreased the extent of commercial tree harvesting and extensive plantation activities have
reversed the trend of reduced forest cover, table 4.4 shows that overall levels of forest cover are increasing in all
provinces (except Tibet). However, levels of virgin forest are actually declining because of conversion of
forested land into cultivated land, development of water resources, illegal logging activities, and fuel wood
collection (Xi and Zhang, 2001).
The assessment of forest status made for this study is based largely on quality criteria and the loss of important
virgin forest areas. There is a large difference between the environmental services provided by a natural (virgin)
forest and the ‘new’ forests that have been established. The later generally provide more ‘invisible’ regulation
and provision services, such as non-timber forest products, while new forests provide very little provisioning
and only some regulation services, see table 4.5.
Table 4.5 Environmental services provided by natural and ‘new’ forests
Natural Forest
‘New’ Forests
Rich species structure (high biodiversity)
Poor species structure (low biodiversity)
Good at mitigating against natural disasters
Provide disaster mitigation to a lower degree
Excellent water and soil self-control ability
Require a long time to support water and soil conservation
Provides a wide range of resources
Limited range of resource provision
iv) Pollution
The pollution categories considered here are wastewater, solid waste, and air pollution.
Wastewater: Pollution prevention and control is not well enforced in western China. For example, municipal
wastewater treatment rates range from 3.6 percent in Guixhou to 60 percent in Yunnan. Poor treatment rates
have led many urban rivers to become open sewage ditches, in many rural areas sewage is not treated at all. In
2003, the total amount of wastewater discharged in western China was 48.2 billion tons, domestic pollution
levels for each province are shown in table 4.5. In most cases municipal sources are the biggest emitters of
wastewater and COD. The Southwest, which has generally the highest rates of population increase and water
use, has the highest levels of wastewater, COD and Ammonium Nitrogen discharges. Sichuan is the biggest
polluter and Ningxia has the lowest level of emissions.
Southwest
Table 4.5 Wastewater pollution and treatment levels (2003)
Chongqing
Sichuan
Wastewater
discharged
(mill tons)
Municipal
wastewater
treatment (%)
Industrial
Municipal
820
26.19
110,028
150,590
COD (tons)
Ammonia Nitrogen (tons)
Total
Industrial
Municipal
Total
260,618
11,005
15,293
26,298
1,202
24.62
461,548
474,758
936,306
28,826
40,900
69,726
Guizhou
168
3.63
25,423
194,866
220,289
2,547
16,042
18,589
Yunnan
346
60.08
92,805
192,372
285,177
2,610
15,094
17,704
29
QingTibet
Northwest
Guangxi
1,193
Southwest
33.03
625,361
301,558
926,919
31,313
23,595
54,908
3,729
/
1,315,165
1,314,144
2,629,309
76,302
110,924
187,226
34
0.21
2,827
28,960
31,313
38
3,571
3,609
6
/
1,159
6,745
7,904
2
726
728
Qinghai
Tibet
Qing-Tibet
41
/
3,986
35,705
39,691
40
4,297
4,337
Shaanxi
335
22.40
121,519
199,600
321,119
2,654
21,538
24,192
Gansu
209
34.09
40,637
117,816
158,453
13,253
12,190
25,443
Xinjiang
164
57.05
126,305
102,492
228,797
2,222
16,908
19,130
Ningxia
107
35.24
76,419
25,143
101,562
9,328
3,353
12,681
Inner Mong.
236
41.09
134,754
139,610
274,364
9,076
19,600
28,676
1,051
/
499,634
584,661
1,084295
36,533
73,589
110,122
21,225
/
5,118,063
8,211,402
13,329,465
403,601
802,199
1,205800
Northwest
China
Source: China Statistical Yearbook (2004), and China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook (2004)
Solid waste: Separate waste collection stations are still rarely seen in western China and only a very small
fraction of wastes are recycled for beneficial use. Moreover, household waste sanitary landfill sites rely on outdated techniques, often using natural ditches and cave-in land to pile up wastes. Within urban areas waste
material is often piled up around riverbanks, ponds and villages. The phenomenon of waste “beseiging a city”
is widespread and is a serious problem in a number of medium and small-sized cities. Survey results from
SEPA (2004) indicate that garbage disposal rates are less than 20 percent. Furthermore, only 27 percent of
garbage landfill sites have adopted infiltration-proof measures, 39 percent have no leachate collection and
disposal facilities, and living garbage creates problems for atmosphere, land, groundwater and landscape
qualities in some districts.
Air pollution: The industrial sector in western China, which is focused on production of raw materials and is
reliant on out dated technology, is highly pollution intensive. Compared to central and eastern regions
pollution loads in western provinces are not large in absolute terms, but most industries are concentrated in a
few locations and pollution in these areas is very serious. For example, the cities of Urumchi, Lanzhou, and
Chongqing are all amongst the world’s top 10 cities in terms of air pollution, with serious health impacts for
local citizens. Sulfur is a major component in the region’s air pollution problems (see table 4.6), because the coal
used for electricity generation (especially in the southwest) has a high sulfur content, and treatment facilities do
not remove much of it. The level of emissions from electricity generating plants reached 47.29 billion tons in
2002, which accounted for 68 percent of the total emission amount in the western region. These emissions, along
with the climate, topography, and physiognomy results a relatively high level of acidity in the rain, which
affects around 170,000 km2 (around Sichuan, Guizhou, Guangxi and Yunnan). In many cities the air quality is
very bad and has contributed to health problems for urban citizens. Acidification of agricultural land affects soil
productivity and leads to lower yields. The annual losses caused by acid rain are estimated at around 8 billion
RMB (Li Zongkai et al, 2000).
Table 4.6 Air Quality (2003 and 2004)
Chongqing
Chongqing
0.142
0.113
0.067
Compliance with
grade II standard
(days in year)
243
Sichuan
Chengdu
0.115
0.067
0.048
309
Guizhou
Guiyang
0.083
0.094
0.024
337
Yunnan
Kunming
0.085
0.069
0.040
351
Nanning
0.078
0.061
0.034
348
Qinghai
Xining
0.127
0.024
0.027
280
Tibet
Lhasa
0.052
0.003
0.020
358
Shaanxi
Xi’an
0.142
0.049
0.033
260
Gansu
Lanzhou
0.172
0.071
0.045
204
Southwest
Region
Nor
thw
est
QingTibet
Guangxi
City
PM10
(mg/m3)
30
SO2
(mg/m3)
NO2
(mg/m3)
Xinjiang
Yinchuan
0.122
0.054
Ningxia
Urumqi
0.114
Inner Mong.
Hohhot
0.080
0.040
323
0.102
/
258
0.045
0.038
311
Source: Report on State of the Environment in China 2004
v) Loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services
Western China has a high level of biodiversity and some particularly important hotspots, for example the
region is home to three (of the worlds 25) biodiversity hotspots. The region’s biodiversity attractions are
drawing a growing number of tourists – mainly from other parts of China. Among the better known and
charismatic of these species is the Panda bear, which occurs in provinces such as Gansu, Shaanxi, and Sichuan.
Box 2. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) – China
Western China was included as a sub-regional assessment area for the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
(MEA) project, undertaken between 2001 and 2005 using ecological zoning and surface modeling. Material is
available from; www.millenniumassessment.org
The assessment results indicate that all ecosystems are deteriorating, to some degree, and that the extent of
desertification has increased in the last twenty years. The study suggests that the processes leading to loss of
biodiversity and ecosystem services are expanding. Typical causes include habitat degradation and conversion,
as the level of environmental appropriation is driven by demographic and economic growth. As a consequence
the natural vegetation partly, or in case of land conversion completely, disappears.
The MEA assessed population pressure in the western region using an ecological threshold model (Jiyuan 2005),
and unsurprisingly found that the current population is within sustainable limits, but there may be some
examples of local over population. The population pressure index, representing demand for services, found that
pressure in western china (8.93) was much lower than the national average (14.09), but that some provinces are
relatively high, e.g. Chongqing (27.8) and Guishou (25.15), though some local areas have values above 50.
The assessment included scenario analysis, which showed that bio-temperature and precipitation levels should
increase in most of western China, potentially leading to an increase in ecological diversity, forest coverage, and
ecosystem productivity. This positive development leads to a general conclusion that over the next century land
cover types that will increase include woodland, construction land, and desertification land, while land types
that will decrease include cultivated land, desert and wetlands.
Box 3. Integrated Ecosystem Assessment of Western China (MAWEC)
In April 2001, MAWEC was approved as one of sub-global assessment. In May 2001, MAWEC was launched to
provide scientific foundations for assuring the successful implementation of the Western Development Strategy.
Trends and scenarios of ecosystems in western China are assessed in terms of specially developed simulation
31
models and method of earth information science under the conceptual framework of Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MA).
On the basis of ecological zoning, a method of high precision surface modeling is established by means of
fundemental theorem of surfaces, surface modeling of population distribution is developed by means of grid
generation method, a scaling index for ecological diversity is constructed by means of multi-fractal theory, and
an ecological threshold model is developed by means of the theory of entropy production and excess entropy
production. They are used to accomplish the specified contents of MAWEC, analyze the change trend and
future scenarios of ecological systems in the western region of China, evaluate the provisioning services and
regulatin services and supporting survices, simulate direct driving forces and indirect driving forces leading to
changes of ecosystem services, give a solution to the problems of relation between spatial scales and temporal
scales, resolution transformation and cross-scale interaction, and analyze the relationship between ecosystem
services and human well being.
Assessment results show that all ecosystems were deteriorating in varying degrees, nival area continuously
decreasing, and desertification area expanding in past 20 years, while ecological diversity had an increasing
trend in western China. The western region of China is an important carbon source in China. As for carrying
capacity of ecosystems, although there exists overload problems in several areas, there is some potential of
carrying capacity in western China as a whole. The investigations and assessment in 9 selected typical areas on
local level indicate the conflits between ecosystem services and human wellbeing in different ecological zones.
Several optimization models are summarized, which could works as examples for assuring ecosystem
sustainability in western China. Scenarios developed by MAWEC show that bio-temperature would constantly
rise in western China and precipitation would increase in most of western China, which would lead to
considerable increase of ecological diversity, forest coverage, ecosystem productivity and carbon sink under the
assumption that ecological conservation and restoration would be successfully carried out. Nival areas would
constantly shrink back in Qinghai-Xizang plateau, Tianshan mountains and Qilian moutains. Desertification
area would slowly expand. Overall , food provision capacity of ecosystems would have an increase trend in
western China. Spatially, there would be a greater increase rate in northwestern China and a little decrease in
Inner Mongolia, Guangxi, Yunnan and some areas of Qinghai-Xizang plateau. Although there would be certain
increase in other areas if western China, the increase rate would be less than the one in northwestern China. In
short, food provision capacity could support population growth in this century in western China.
In short, in the future 100 years, ecosystems in western China would have a pattern of healthy cycle after
efficient ecological conservation and restoration. If human activities would exceed regulation capacity of
ecosystems themselves, the ecosystems in western China might be deteriorated more seriously.
4.2 Description of the causes of identified environmental problems
1. Poverty and a fragile natural environment interaction: Driven by the need to survive, most communities
in western China resort to deforestation, wasteland reclamation and farming on steep slopes in order to in
order to support their livelihood. However, the natural environment of western China is fragile and its
capacity to support these activities is limited. Environmental systems and resources have therefore become
seriously degraded and the occurrence of natural disasters has become increasingly frequent. This cause
and effect relationship creates a negative feedback loop, sometimes referred to as the ‘Poverty
Environment Nexus’, as the environmental degradation they cause pushes people further into poverty
over the long run (Zhao Yuelong, 1998). Environmental destruction is therefore closely connected to
poverty, and environmental protection must be integrated with poverty reduction as part of the GWDS.
2. Wasteland reclamation on a large scale: After the establishment of the People’s Republic of China (PRC),
the government implemented a broad long-term development strategy of grain-oriented production, local
grain self-sufficiency. Wasteland reclamation and steep-slope cultivation were conducted on a large scale.
A great deal of forestland and land suitable for animal husbandry was used to produce grain. In the end
the extent of cultivation was too large as farmers have been encouraged to expand into marginal lands and
inappropriate activities. Agricultural production ran into a vicious circle where the poorer farmers are, the
32
more wasteland they reclaim. A series of ecological problems were caused, such as vegetation damage to
forests, and increased rates of soil and water erosion, desertification and salinization.
3. Economic construction goes against environmental laws: Environmental deterioration in western China is
the result of long term neglect for environmental sustainability in economic planning. Neglect of
environmental concerns in the development pattern, intense interference with natural ecosystems, and
neglect for the carrying capacity of the local environment during the arrangement of economic
development has resulted in serious environmental damage and has impacted the overall level of
sustainability in economic development. Moreover, under these circumstances improved technologies will
not be able to mitigate the overall environmental impact, eco-investment will not yield sufficient profit,
and the desired results in environmental restoration could not be achieved.
4. Loose management system: Environmental protection lacks for many engineering and non-engineering
measures, involving many departments such as planning, agriculture, forestry, animal husbandry, water
conservancy and technology. It is required that comprehensive subsidiary measures should be adopted
according to concrete conditions and the characteristics of ecological problems. However, currently the
comprehensive returns of ecological protection are decreased by a loose management system, the lack of a
unified authority, un-coordinated control measures, and miss-allocation of funds (limited capital), which is
detrimental to the overall improvement of natural environment.
4.3 Environmental problems at the province level
The importance of challenges outlined above varies across each province in line with the environmental
conditions specific to each area. Table 4.7 provides an assessment of the current environment conditions in each
province for the eight environmental themes, based upon expert judgements, and international standards and
various databases. The findings indicate that there are significant differences in critical issues across western
sub-regions. The northwest is found to have water availability and land degradation problems (salinization and
desertification), while these issues are relatively minor concerns in the south. At the same time the south faces
more serious challenges with respect to biodiversity (ecosystem service loss) and pollution than northern
provinces. Table 4.8 provides more qualitative information on each of the environmental categories.
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinisation
Desertification
Forest deterioration
/ loss
Water & waste
pollution
Air pollution
Biodiversity / loss of
ecosystem service
Table 4.7 Current environmental problems per province
South West – Average
I
III
I
I
III
III
II
III
Chongqing
II
III
I
I
III
III
III
II
Sichuan
I
III
I
I
III
II
II
III
Yunnan
I
III
I
I
III
III
II
III
Guizhou
I
III
I
I
III
III
III
II
Guangxi
II
I
I
I
III
II
II
III
North west - Average
III
III
III
III
III
II
II
II
Shaanxi
II
III
III
III
III
II
II
II
Gansu
III
III
III
III
III
II
III
II
Ningxia
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
III
Xijiang
III
I
III
III
III
I
I
II
In. Mong.
II
III
III
III
III
II
I
III
Plateau Average
I
II
II
III
II
I
I
I
33
Tibet
I
Qinghai
I
III
I
III
II
I
I
I
I
III
III
II
I
I
II
Key: see table 1, page 1
Table 4.8 Status of environmental features at the province level
Gui zhou
Qinghai
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Ti
be
t
Qing-Tibet
Guangxi
Yunnan
South West
Sichuan
Chongqing
Criteria
Environmental Status
The overall environmental quality is generally good.
1,887 m3 per cap. Yangtze and Jialing rivers provide abundant water resources.
Soil erosion rate is as high as 44 percent.
No soil salinization problem.
Desertification rate is low, around 1.9 percent.
Forest cover 36 percent, and is quite stable.
Pollution in urban areas causes serious air and water pollution.
46 reserves (8,660 km2), generally good condition (similar to neighboring Sichuan).
The environmental ecological quality of Sichuan province is good.
2,977 m3 per cap. Province has 258,980 million m3 of water resources.
40 percent of land (194,000 M km2) prone to erosion. Soil & water loss 44 percent.
No salinization problem.
Soil qualities are good, with a relatively low desertification rate.
Forest cover 23.5 percent, increasing at 2 percent per year.
Pollution loads high and increasing, COD & SO2 emission 0.97 & 1.2 M tons.
120 reserves (70,770 km2). Biodiversity/ecosystem-services: biodiversity is good.
The overall environmental quality is good.
23,658 m3 per cap. The river network density is very high.
The situation of water and soil losses is serious with 44 percent.
No salinization problem.
Good soil and river qualities.
Forest cover is 36,731 km2 (20.8 percent).
Air quality is poor, SO2 emissions are 1.45 M tons (highest in west region).
107 reserves (8,090 km2). Biodiversity loss is an increasing problem.
The overall environmental quality is good.
3,889 m3 per cap. Abundant, province has 169,940 mill m3 of water resources.
Soil qualities are good, but soil and water loss rate is high 37 percent.
No salinization problem.
Desertification rate is 0.2%.
Forest cover 34 percent, increasing at 3-percent/yr. Highest level of vegetation cover.
Average pollution levels, COD and SO2 emissions are 0.38 and 0.29 M tons.
186 reserves (35,500 km2). Large abundance of biodiversity.
The overall environmental quality is good.
3,912 m3 per cap. Abundant, excellent river network (best in west China).
Soil qualities are good, water and soil loss rate is 5 percent.
No salinization problem [Conflicts with table 4.6 – please clarify]
Rate of desertification is 1 percent.
Forest cover 34.3 percent, increasing at 5-percent/yr. Vegetation cover 2nd highest.
Pollutant discharge intensity is relatively high.
67 reserves (14,810 km2). Province ranks second for biodiversity.
The environmental quality of Qinghai province is poor.
11,975 m3 per cap. Province has 63,470 mill m3 of water resources.
Soil qualities are average, but extensive grassland deterioration.
Soil salinization rate is 3.2 percent.
Desertification rate is 16 percent.
Forest cover 0.4 percent, increasing at 1.5-percent/yr. Vegetation cover 59 percent.
Water and air quality is good.
8 reserves (206,080 km2). Vulnerable ecosystems, poor shock recovery capacity.
2nd largest province, environmental quality good, pollution loads small.
176,189 m3 per cap. Province has 475,710 mill m3 of water resources.
34
Ningxia
Inner Mongolia
Xinjiang
North west
Gansu
Shaan’xi
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Overall status
Water availability
Soil erosion
Soil salinization
Desertification
Forest deterioration
Air / Water pollution
Biodiv. / ecosystem
Poor (grassland decline), freeze-thaw affects 0.9M km2 water/soil loss rate 86
percent.
No salinization problem.
Desertification rate is 17 percent.
The forest and grassland cover rate is 64.4 percent, decreasing at 4-percent/yr.
Best in western provinces in terms of air and water quality.
15 reserves (408,730 km2). Ecosystem is vulnerable but largely in tact.
Overall environmental quality is poor.
1,557 m3 per cap. Water resources limited, only 57,460 m3 and low river density.
Soil qualities are not good, soil and water losses rate of 64 percent.
Soil salinization rate is 1.7 percent.
Desertification rate of 5 percent.
Forest cover is 28.7 percent, increasing at 2.3-percent/yr.
Increasing wastewater / pollution problems, frequent dust & sandstorms.
32 reserves (70,770 km2). Shaanxi biological diversity index is average.
Overall environmental quality is poor.
951 m3 per cap. Limited water resources and only a few river networks.
Soil deterioration is very serious.
Soil salinization rate is 2.3 percent.
Desertification rate is 55 percent, Hexi Corridor one of worst cases in country.
Forest cover is 4.8 percent, very low, only 21,741 km2, increasing at 0.7-percent/yr.
Water pollution is very serious, dust pollution and frequent sandstorms.
47 reserves (87,860 km2). Poor biodiversity.
Limited carrying capacity, poor environmental quality hinders development
212 m3 per cap. Water scarcity, province has 1,230 mill m3 of water resources.
Not much loss of soil and water.
Soil salinization rate is 5.8 percent.
Desertification area grows and soil qualities are of average level.
Forest cover is 2.2 percent, increasing at 2-percent/yr.
Limited environmental carrying capacity.
12 reserves (4,920 km2). Ranks eleventh as for ecological quality.
Environmental quality of Xinjiang province is worst of all provinces.
4,767 m3 per cap. Limited and insecure distribution of water resources.
Worst soil quality of all provinces, water and soil losses are serious.
Soil salinization rate has reached 8.1 percent, the highest in the country
Desertification serious problem with wind erosion.
Forest cover is 1.1 percent, increasing at 1.7-percent/yr.
Air and Water quality is good.
26 reserves (215,290 km2). Biological diversity index is average
Overall environmental quality is poor.
2,082 m3 per cap. Serious lack of water, last in terms of on river network density.
Serious soil destruction, rate of water and a soil loss is 72 percent.
Soil salinization rate is 6.5 percent.
The rate of desertification is 23 percent.
Forest cover is 12.7 percent, increasing at 0.5-percent/yr. Vegetation cover 74
percent.
Air quality is good with little air pollution.
183 reserves (148,900 km2). Biodiversity being lost.
Indices in the table above are cited from ‘China Environmental Monitoring Centre’ (2004):
- Bio-abundance = (0.5 x forest area + 0.3  water area + 0.15 x grassland area + 0.05  other land use） / regional area;
- Vegetation cover =（0.5 x forest area + 0.3  grassland area + 0.2farmland area） / regional area;
- Water network density = river length / regional area + lake (reservoir) area / regional area + water resources amount / regional area;
- Land degradation = （0.05 x slightly eroded area + 0.25 middle level eroded area + 0.7 x heavily eroded area） / regional area;
- Pollution load = （0.4 x SO2 discharge + 0.2 x solid waste discharge) / area of region in study + 0.4 x COD discharge / regional
precipitation;
35
Chapter 5
Assessing the environmental impacts of GWDS
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
This chapter provides an analysis of the environmental impacts for each of the five KDDs over the next five
years. The overall results of this assessment are presented in table 1 (page 1), which shows the current status
and scenario predictions for each province across the eight environmental parameters. An outline of these plans
and their objectives is provided in section 1.2.3 (page 14).
5.1 Water resource development and utilization plans
In their current form water resource plans will have negative consequences for almost all areas, including the
stressed northwest region. In the northwest, soil erosion will be ameliorated, but salinization and desertification
may become worse. The impact on water availability, pollution, and biodiversity are discussed below;
Water availability
 Southwest and Qinghai-Tibet: Planned volumes of water exploitation only account for a small proportion
of the water resources and are therefore considered sustainable. However, the development of
infrastructure for hydroelectric power generation on a large scale will have a potentially detrimental
influence on the lower reaches of watersheds. Concerns include the maintenance of natural patterns of
water-flux and the level of water released in drought years (Dang, 2003).
 Northwest China: Levels of water exploitation are already very high and there is a serious lack of in-stream
flow, especially in interior rivers such as the Tarim River. Planned increases in exploitation in some areas
worsen the situation and lead to further deterioration in the health of rivers.
Water pollution
Wastewater treatment levels are continuously improving in western cities, but the construction of water
conservation and hydroelectric projects will impact water quality.
 Southwest and Qinghai-Tibet plateau: Development plans will lead to an increase in the discharge of
wastewater and solid-waste, however river carrying capacity will not be exceeded except on in few
passages in cities and some tributaries (SEPA, 2002).
 Northwest China: Low wastewater carrying capacity, due to low water volumes, means treatment facilities
need to improve in order to avoid deteriorating local water quality from increasing emissions (Liu, 2002).
Biodiversity
Construction of water infrastructure and hydroelectric projects will affect the region’s biodiversity. The current
plans call for many new dams, especially in the southwest, which will impact habitats in flooded and
downstream areas, and impede the passage of migratory aquatic species (Li, 2003).
Impacts on specific areas
 Minjiang River (upper reaches), Sichuan province: The construction of key water control projects, such as
Zipingpu dam, will improve water supply and flood control, but negatively affect the migration / survival
of fish, and the natural flow of water further downstream. Since the area around Minjiang does not suffer
from severe water scarcity the impact from this initiative should be sustainableYangtze River, Three Gorges
Reservoir Area The Three Gorges Reservoir is used for electricity generation and flood control, but its
construction will have serious consequences for many cultural relics, the local geological environment and
biodiversity. The reservoir will also have negative effects on river biology, downstream water volumes, and
will lead to changes in the slit discharge and scouring mechanism.
 Headwaters of the ‘Three Rivers’ (Yangtze, Mekong, and Salween). The current plans will lead to
exploitation activity (e.g. western line of south-north water transfer project) in the headwaters (source) of
three rivers, which will have an impact on local minority cultural heritage and the ecology/structure of
downstream areas.
Table 5.1 Consequences of water resource plans in the GWDS
36
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now Future Now Future Now Future
Desertification
Now
Forest
deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air pollution
Biodiversity
& ecosystem
services loss
Future Now Future Now Future Now Future Now Future
Chongqing
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Sichuan
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Yunnan
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Guizhou
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Guangxi
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

South
west
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Shaanxi
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Gansu
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Ningxia
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Xinjiang
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

III

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Tibet
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Qinghai
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Inner.
Mongolia.
North
west
Qing-Zang
I
II
II
III
II
I
I
I







Plateau
Note: Information is derived from a variety of sources and websites and predictions are based upon expert judgement.
Key: see table 1, page 1

5.2 Land utilization plans
Land use plans are judged to be predominantly negative implications across all aspects of the environment (see
table 5.2), with particularly damaging implications for soil erosion (leading to desertification in northern and
plateau regions), deforestation and biodiversity. These impacts are outlined in more detail below.
Water resources and water availability
Western China’s uncultivated arable land occurs in environmentally fragile and drought prone areas, which
require large volumes of water to support cultivation. Plans to cultivate such lands should include site specific
assessments to establish the likely sustainability of different activities. Expansion of agriculture activities will
have important consequences for local water demand, which will be particularly problematic in water scarce
areas, possibly threatening the local water balance, causing increased desertification.
In the longer term, urban and industrial expansion will place direct (e.g. increased water demand) and indirect
(e.g. reduced watershed vegetation cover) pressures on water sustainability. Lessons from water demand
associated with the expansion of urban areas and mining industries has highlighted water resource
management concerns in areas where water levels are already falling (e.g. lakes and groundwater).
Land degradation (soil erosion / salinization, and desertification)
Much uncultivated arable land in western China occurs in environmentally fragile areas, which, if used
inappropriately, will deteriorate into poor or decertified land. These very fine soils are easily degraded and are
susceptible to erosion (grass roots are not resilient and topsoil is easily lost), especially in windy or water scarce
areas (Shi, 2001). The loess plateau and the upper reaches of Yangtze River have experienced the worst water
and soil losses in western China (Dan, 2001). Specific threats include:
 Railway and highway construction: The movement of large quantities of earth and stone may lead to loss
of topsoil, altered water flow patterns, increased desertification and wetland loss (Ding, 2002).
37
 Soil structure: In the Qinghai-Tibet plateau, reduced levels of moisture in the frozen earth, along with other
human impacts, can lead to deterioration of grassland, desertification of the land and the losses of water
and soil in this region (Qin, 2002).
 Mining developments in water scarce areas: Mining operations typically lead to local loss of surface
vegetation, and deterioration in the quality of topsoil. In windy areas this process is likely to lead to (or
exacerbate existing) wind erosion, and mud-rock flow, leading to desertification.
 Landscape sensitivity: Detailed analysis of local soil and water balance is required before developing plans
to expand cultivation, without which many areas will be degraded, increasing the risk of desertification,
and water / soil loss.
An increase in levels of cultivation (grassland and woodland) in areas that are already water deficient will
seriously threaten the ecological balance and undermine any available economic benefits (Cai, 2003). The
exploitation of farmland and large-scale cultivation in the western region has typically lead to the loss of water
and soil moisture, reduced levels of organic content in the soil, and an overall thinning of topsoil. Furthermore,
in order to combat the arid and dry conditions many farmers use excessive amounts of irrigation, but this
approach has reduced groundwater levels and levels in rivers, thus affecting vegetation cover elsewhere (Wei,
2001).
Forest deterioration
Planned activities include some reforestation (around 86,000 km2), but it is not clear how much of this will be
developed into mixed species habitats that can replicate some of the services offered by a natural forest, and
how much will be single species mono-crops. The strategy may lead to more of the latter, with inappropriate
tree age compositions and poor species diversity in forests that will not offer the same levels of biodiversity or
ecosystem services as a natural forest. Elsewhere forests in karst landscapes are likely to be lost as a result of
urban development, the need for construction material, and expansion of grassland for livestock grazing.
Limestone forests are particularly vulnerable, and degradation of these ecosystems can lead to the thin soil
being washed off by rain and only bare rock being left (Wen, 2003).
Water and waste pollution
The environmental consequence of increased cultivation of arable land will lead to increased water pollution
loads. For example farmed land typically loses its ability to retain soil nutrients, as compared with natural
vegetation cover (e.g. forest), and increased levels of fertilizer application will lead to high nutrient levels in
local water bodies, which can initiate the eutrophication process. This may be a particular problem in areas
where a large number of farms operate in the same catchment area. There are also concerns about the treatment
of industrial and municipal wastewater from newly developed areas (Pan, 2004).
Air pollution
Extensive railway and highway construction plans overlap with river networks and will generate increased
levels of wastewater and domestic sewage, in particular around the construction sites of Qinghai-Tibet railway.
Construction activities will create mud and sand piles that may end up in local rivers. Urbanization has often
led to deforestation and vegetation loss in fragile lands, leading to increased sedimentation in rivers and dams,
and reduced levels of water soil absorption leading to lower groundwater levels and increased flood potential
(SEPA, 2002).
Air pollution from land utilization plans should only have a short tem localized impact from activities such as
the construction of buildings, factories and mines, development of the Qinghai-Tibet railroad in arid areas,
earth-and-stone construction sites, and secondary dust. Machinery used in the construction process will include
coal-fired oil construction equipment that releases many gasses (CO, NOx, SO2) into the atmosphere (Zhang,
2004).
Biodiversity loss
Plans to increase the level of agricultural irrigation in water scarce areas will lead to reductions in groundwater
levels and knock on effects for the water volume in local rivers and lakes. In other parts of western China this
process has undermined local biodiversity by reducing aquatic habitats as lakes and rivers have dried up, and
led to the loss of natural vegetation in un-irrigated areas. Overgrazing is likely to change the hereditary
structure of many plant species that need a large mature population to maintain a stable population.
38
In some areas deforestation will result in habitat loss and fragmentation, impede inter-species communication
(which may lower breeding rates and increase the likelihood of in-breeding), and weaken disease resistance and
adaptive potential. The establishment of inappropriate woodland structures also threatens biodiversity, as
mono-cultures do not offer the same potential for maintaining biodiversity or supporting environmental
services (Zheng, 2002).
In many cases animals may become locally extinct because of habitat and food shortage. Some species are
already under pressure, such as the Chinese Opposite Angle Antelope (Pu Original Antelope) that was once
widely distributed (Inner Mongolia, Qinghai, Ningxia), but is now restricted to the Lake Qinghai area. Its
population is presently only around 300 and due to habitat fragmentation the remaining animals are often
isolated.
Impacts on specific areas
 Shaanxi and Inner Mongolia: Excessive exploitation of arable land is likely to lead to serious desertification,
and water and soil loss.
 Northern foot of Yin shan Mountains (Mt. Huashan to ‘Cuba Yan’ and Mt Langshan, Inner Mongolia):
Overgrazing will reduce woodland and grassland areas, leading to reduced levels of productivity. The
process is likely to see woodland and grassland replaced by sandy wasteland, which will be vulnerable to
wind erosion.
 Loess Plateau (Shaanxi and Gansu): The most important problem is water and soil loss in an area of almost
half a million km2 that is associated with inappropriate land use. Plans to further exploit uncultivated arable
land will lead to increased levels of land deterioration and more serious water erosion.
 Three Gorges Reservoir (Yangtze) [3G dam is in Hubei province - not in western region!] and Lake Dianchi
basin (Yunnan): Both areas are vulnerable to natural disasters such as landslides and mud-rock flow and
are experiencing extensive rocky desertification as well as water and soil loss. Development plans in this
fragile area, such as construction of buildings, factories and mines, will damage the soil and exacerbate
these problems.
Table 5.2 Consequences of land utilization plans in the GWDS
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now Future Now Future Now Future
Desertification
Now
Forest
deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air pollution
Biodiversity
& ecosystem
services loss
Future Now Future Now Future Now Future Now Future
Chongqing
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Sichuan
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Yunnan
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Guizhou
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Guangxi
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

South
west
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Shaanxi
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Gansu
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Ningxia
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Xinjiang
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

III

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Tibet
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Qinghai
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Inner.
Mongolia.
North
west
39
Qing-Zang
I
II
II
III
II
I
I
I








Plateau
Note: Information is derived from a variety of sources and websites and predictions are based upon expert judgement.
Key: see table 1, page 1
5.3 Energy resource exploitation plans
Environmental impacts from energy developments are wide-ranging, and negative impacts can be significant.
For example land quality will be undermined by planned mining and hydro operations, energy activities could
lead to widespread water pollution, and habitat loss will affect biodiversity in the south.
Water resources and water availability
Exploitation of oil resources requires considerable quantities of water, but the majority of oil reserves in the
western region occur in water scarce locations such as the Gobi (Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang). The development of
oil industries in these arid locations will inevitably lead to increased appropriation of underground water
resources, resulting in further reductions to the water table. The landscapes are typically extremely dry (arid)
with fragile habitats, very limited vegetation cover, and in many areas underground water is quite limited added pressure could lead to further drying up of local rivers and lakes with a range of knock on effects.
Land degradation (soil erosion / salinization, and desertification)
The development of oil industries in scrub and desert landscapes will cause disruption to local vegetation and
intensify the desertification process. Pipeline construction will affect large and vulnerable areas across the
region and may cause soil and water loss. The process of pipe laying is particularly damaging to the surface soil
layer, and in vulnerable locations can lead to long term soil erosion (Ding, 2002). For example, the planned
Shan-Gan-Ning gas pipeline will pass through some of the most seriously water-stressed regions in China (Lu,
2000). Pipelines will also affect the availability of land for other uses such as agriculture.
Plans for hydropower developments will require flooding of large areas and construction of facilities
(permanent and temporary) near river networks. The establishment of new reservoirs will raise water levels in
the surrounding areas, which could cause soil salinization (SEPA, 2002). The strategy includes plans for
vulnerable areas such as the Yellow River (northwest, Qinghai, Gansu, Ningxia, Inner Mongolia) and in the
Karst landscape of the southwest. The Yellow River is already prone to natural disasters such as landslides and
hydro-developments may increase this vulnerability. The mountainous karst landscape is a fragile system that
takes extremely long time periods to recover from degradation. Soil erosion in this area rapidly leads to bare
rock surfaces and increases in the scale and frequency of mountain torrents, mud-rock flows and landslides.
Plans for the development of coal exploitation sites, which will require approximately 0.5 million km2, will
generate considerable quantities of waste, such as coal gangue11 and flyash. Mine sites, especially open cast
mines, create disturbance for land surface and vegetation around the mine site and may lead to increasing
desertification.
The large quantities of loose material produced by mining operations will cause serious water and soil losses
when exposed to heavy wind or rainwater. Mine development will also destroy surface vegetation, disturbs
surface soil, and increase the likelihood of further erosion. Open cast mining will change physiognomy
formation, increase grade, form a mass of excavate surface, destroy the stability of rock soil layer and increase
gravitation eroding. Inner Mongolia has been greatly disturbed by mining activities and the desertification area
has increased to around 60 percent. The main environment problem of underground coal exploitation is land
subsidence, which can damage floor architecture, and in some cases will lead to local communities having to be
re-located to safer locations.
Forest deterioration
The large land area required for coal mines will, in some places, displace forestland, as exploitation activities for
oil and coal will occupy and damage allot of grassland, farmland and forestland.
Water and waste pollution
11
Gangue is the waste material that is left over after desired mineral is removed from ore.
40
Leakage of oil-based liquids from artisanal wells will pollute surface and underground water. In Xinjiang both
oil and gas reserves are distributed under the forth system underground water storage body. Various artesian
wells of oil and gas field must expose the forth system underground water storage body. Artesian layer
isolation impropriety and well fixing errors must generate high-pressure oil and gas bunch-layer, which will
seriously pollute underground water and surface gas belt. And this is deep hidden pollution sources that hard
to identify and treat.
The GWDS calls for more rapid development of hydroelectric facilities. The establishment of hydropower
reservoirs will close the flow of upstream rivers, resulting in the shortening of pollution belt, and the increasing
of width Under these conditions, the deepness of pollution material will increase and water environment
pollution will be sharpened. Influenced by backwater’s tipping in the reservoir, the pollution in sub river
sections is being intensified. During the construction phase of hydro developments large quantities of waste
material is typically mixed with remained detonators, waste oil, waste chemicals, some even contain radioactive
materials.
The exploitation of coal also causes significant damage and pollution to water resources, mainly through three
processes, i) acidity mine water pollution, ii) coal production waster water, and iii) sedimentation pollution.
Air pollution
In many areas, where new energy developments will cause air pollution, the potential for air circulation and
renewal is relatively low, and the region already suffers from serious acid rain and SO2 pollution, especially in
southwestern areas such as Guizhou. The most serious form of air pollution is generated by coal burning, which
release pollutants such as SO2, CO2, and particulate matter of various sizes. Coal from the southwest is
particularly high in sulfur, and the level of selection and cleaning, and de-sulfuraization of coal is very low in
the western region. Sources of harmful gasses include oil and gas fields, (e.g. raw oil pollution and flares), and
pollution from coal stockpiles and during transportation. Air pollution around open-caste mines, and can lead
to increased levels of respiratory disorders with serious health consequences.
Large-scale development of thermal power systems in the southwest, in controlled zones such as Guizhou
Province, will cause environmental degradation and air pollution, even if mitigation measures (e.g. outside
discharge of pollutants) are taken.
Biodiversity loss
Proposed oil-field developments will affect a number of species that have state or municipality protection, e.g.
the wild camel and yellow sheep (Xinjiang). The development of oil field infrastructure and associated
municipal facilities will alter natural habitats and cause noise pollution, which will have an impact on the local
abundance of various species. Oil field enlargement and developments over the last few decades has already
had an impact and the abundance of once common species such as wolfs has fallen significantly (Li, 2003).
The development of oil and gas transport infrastructure (pipelines), e.g. in Xinjiang and Shanganing, will affect
vulnerable landscapes such as deserts, Loess slopes and river valleys, and large areas of nature conservation
sites. The pipelines are also likely to affect local aquatic biology in the rivers that must be crossed. The
Northwest region also belongs to continent drought and semi-drought climate region, whose natural natural
environment is fragile, sight structure simple, surface vegetation coverage degree relatively low, and the entire
biology system anti-water and electricity development disturbance ability is also weak.
Social problem
The development of water and electricity projects will lead to many people being displaced from their homes,
especially in southwest area. In many of these areas there is a relative shortage of arable/plow land and the
environmental capacity to support these people is limited, and reservoir construction will impose further
constraints (Wang, 2002).
Impacts on specific regions
 Shanxi, Shaanxi and Inner Mongolia border area: Coal exploitation requires appropriation of significant
amounts of land and may lead to land subsidence. Damage to surface vegetation from coal mine
exploitation will increase the threat from desertification. Open cast mining has already had a significant
41



impact on the landscape in Inner Mongolia and can lead to environment problems such as air pollution and
well-water pollution, and problems with coal production sewage and sedimentation.
Upper Tarim, and Heihe drainage area: Expansion of oil exploitation in the western region will lead to a
lowering of the level of ground water in places such as the Tarim Basin. In some cases this may even result
in the drying up of water resources, and an increase in the salinity concentration and hardness of
groundwater. In other areas the development of oil exploitation will displace grassland, farmland and
forests, which will damage local eco-systems. Industry related pollution (e.g. oil) will pollute surface and
ground water and may have a negative impact on local animal and plant resources.
Yellow River headwaters: The Yellow River is already fragile and susceptible to natural disasters, and
increased of water and electricity development in the region is likely to increase disaster frequency.
Three Gorges Reservoir (Yangtze) and Dianchi drainage areas: Water and electricity construction projects
require land and will raise the water level around reservoirs, leading to soil salinization and an increase in
the frequency of mountain disasters such as mountain torrents, mud-rock flow and landslides. After filling
the reservoir water pollution in the main water body, and in some secondary rivers affected by hydropower
exploitation, will be more serious. Finally, coal burning will lead to atmospheric pollution worsening acid
rain and sulfur dioxide pollution problems in the region, especially southwest areas such as Guizhou.
Table 5.3 Consequences of energy exploitation plans in the GWDS
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now Future Now Future Now Future
Desertification
Now
Forest
deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air pollution
Biodiversity
& ecosystem
services loss
Future Now Future Now Future Now Future Now Future
Chongqing
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Sichuan
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Yunnan
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Guizhou
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Guangxi
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

South
west
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Shaanxi
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Gansu
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Ningxia
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Xinjiang
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

III

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Tibet
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Qinghai
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Inner.
Mongolia.
North
west
Qing-Zang
I
II
II
III
II
I
I
I








Plateau
Note: Information from province energy development office websites and expert judgement in environmental/ecological sciences.
Key: see table 1, page 1
5.4 Biodiversity protection plans
An outline of these plans and their objectives is provided in section 1.2.3 (page 20). As well as extra support for
ecosystems and biodiversity these plans offer a wide range of benefits, such as improved land management
addressing deforestation and desertification.
Water resources and water availability
42
The establishment of protected areas in key regions and drainage basins is an important step. In other areas
arable land will be returned to forest and grassland, and natural forest initiatives will be used to control local
water and soil loss, and protect local biodiversity (which is important for maintaining water balance).
Land degradation (soil erosion / salinization, and desertification)
Around half of the desertification in the area has been associated with farming activities and returning arable
land to forest and grassland will halt or slow down desertification in many areas. This process will resume soil’s
humus and renovate the root structure in the soil, strengthening the binding of the thin soil materials, thus
preventing serious desertification and salinization. The most serious cases of water and soil loss are in the Loess
Plateau and upper reaches of Yangtze River, but following restoration measures the extent of erosion should be
gradually reduced (SEPA, 2002).
Forest Deterioration
Forest protection and reforestation projects will reduce surface water loss, provide better soil protection, and
strengthening of ecological services such as protection against flash floods. Forest protection projects will
preserve original forests and support biodiversity in the region. However, in many cases the planned woodland
structure will not enhance natural forest systems because of poor species and age diversity in the new stands.
Natural forest systems will be replaced by single species ‘economic’ forests.
Water and waste pollution
The establishment of protected areas around the headwater of various rivers will safeguard many key areas and
should make it easier to justify and enforce water pollution control measures. Furthermore, improvements to
river basin habitats further downstream will reduce levels of soil erosion, improve species abundance and
biodiversity levels in local habitats, which will support better water quality.
Biodiversity loss
The GWDS will provide significant support for forest and grassland ecosystems. Annual consumption of forest
resources in this region will fall by 0.52 billion m3 in the next 5 years and more effective management will
ensure that environmental degradation will be reduced. Over the next 5 years 13.3 million hectares of arable
land will be returned to forest and grassland, increasing their level of coverage by 2 percent. This massive
undertaking will include the establishment of 5.5 million hectares of water/soil conservation and water
restraint forests in key regions that suffer from erosion, such as the Loeses Plateau and the mountainous
northern regions. For example the implementation of the Yangtze River Protection Forest increased total forest
coverage by 9.6 percent between 1998 and 2003, to 29.5 percent. These forests will support biodiversity by
increasing the area available for important and endangered species, and will improve sustainability by
protecting important habitats and the ecological services they provide (Jiang, 2004; Li, 2004).
It is estimated that by the end of 2010 the western region will have 1,400 protected areas, accounting for 42
percent of the national total (84 percent by area), 600 of which will have been established under the GWDS. The
GWDS will also support biodiversity protection with plans to develop around 250 wild animal breeding and
preservation centers, and around 400 centers for preservation and dissemination of wild plant genes and germ
plasma.
Impacts on specific regions
 Upper Minjiang River and Ruoergai everglades: This area represents a transition from Yungui tableland to
mountainous terrain and is important for biodiversity protection. Overgrazing has changed this area from
species rich everglade and forest habitats to a barren sandy landscape and has seriously degrading the
natural environment. Following GWDS forest and grassland restoration work in the upper reach of
Minjiang habitat structures and biodiversity levels are rapidly improving.
 Yinshan (north foot): This is a typical transition area from grassland to desertification grassland and
represents a biologic barrier protecting North China and Beijing from serious environmental degradation. A
multi-year forest and grassland reconstruction and vegetation protection project has increased the level of
vegetation coverage in the region. A regional ecological protection system has been established, which has
reduced problems associated with sand and dust storms and improved air quality in cities such as Beijing.
Table 5.4 Consequences of biodiversity plans in the GWDS
43
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now Future Now Future Now Future
Desertification
Now
Forest
deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air pollution
Biodiversity
& ecosystem
services loss
Future Now Future Now Future Now Future Now Future
Chongqing
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Sichuan
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Yunnan
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Guizhou
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Guangxi
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

South
west
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Shaanxi
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Gansu
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Ningxia
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Xinjiang
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

III

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Tibet
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Qinghai
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Inner.
Mongolia.
North
west
Qing-Zang
I
II
II
III
II
I
I
I








Plateau
Note: Information is derived from a variety of sources and websites and predictions are based upon expert judgement.
Key: see table 1, page 1
5.5 Tourism development plan
An outline of these plans and their objectives is provided in section 1.2.3 (page 22). In spite of the underlying
importance of environmental quality for the sustainability of tourism operations in the region, these plans will
have generally negative impacts, especially in terms of water availability and habitat loss.
Solid and noise waste
Development of tourism in urban areas will increase the level of noise, dust, population, noise pollution and
rubbish, especially in weekends and high season. These factors, together with construction noise will
undermine the quiet environment that makes the region an attraction in the first place (Fu, 2002).
Land degradation (soil erosion / salinization, and desertification)
The focus of tourism pressure on specific areas poses a significant threat for accelerated desertification, as in
vulnerable habitats such pressure can lead to rapid land degradation and vegetation loss, which increases the
area of exposed soil and encourages water and soil loss. Furthermore the ‘trampling’ effect around tourist sites
can harden soils and degrade the organic structure of the surface layer, leading to a reduction in fertility and
increase in the pH value.
The total level of tourist visitors in the western region in 1999 was 2.75 million and generated a gross income of
USD 1.36 billion, but this only accounted for 9.6 percent of national income from international travelers. At the
provincial level the level of tourism varied quite substantially; the level of foreign exchange earnings was 340,
198, 150, 49, 113, and 29 million USD in Yunnan, Shaanxi, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Chongqing, and Guizhou
respectively.
Forest deterioration
44
Construction of facilities for tourists generates increased demand for forest products, especially wood, and
poorly managed forest use for recreation can negatively impact biodiversity and ecosystem functioning.
Activities that area associated with tourism, such as woodcutting and firewood collection, hunting, starting
forest fires, and trampling are likely to increase in areas with significant tourism development. This will
damage vegetation around tourist attractions and lead to forest loss and habitat degradation.
Water and waste pollution
Of particular concern is the impact of tourism development on water resources in the western region.
Wastewater and sewage generated by tourist facilities, which are often located in environmentally sensitive
areas, e.g. near pristine lakes, is rarely treated and poses a threat to the environment. Pollutants include organic
matter, oil, suspended solids, and heavy metal compounds. However, it is noted that wastewater treatment
levels have been slowly improving in many western cities (Pang, 2001).
Biodiversity loss
Tourism developments and associated activities are likely to disturb the habitats of some animals. Impacts to
key (and rare) species, through game hunting and for restaurants can have a wide impact on the habitat and
food chain. In many cases species are collected specifically because they are rare or are considered trophy
animals. For example, the Yunnan Jade Dragon Snowy Mountain has suffered with the development of travel
industries in the local area, as tourist behavior has caused environment destruction, e.g. reduced area of virgin
forest. If not properly managed tourists can impact local habitats by trampling on sensitive vegetation, which
will eventually affect soil structure and material circulation, and can lead to species loss (Wang 1999).
Impacts on specific regions
Three Gorges Reservoir Area: Tourism and the Three Gorges Project have intensified the level of environment
pressure in this area, the losses of which can not be estimated at present. By 2020 Qinghai Province plans to
complete the Three Gorges region into China's main travelling destination. Factors such as vegetation
degradation and slope reclamation, water and soil loss have created serious problems, but a number of GWDS
initiatives, such as returning farmland to forest and grassland are improving the situation.
Table 5.5 Consequences of tourism plans in the GWDS
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now Future Now Future Now Future
Desertification
Now
Forest
deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air pollution
Biodiversity
& ecosystem
services loss
Future Now Future Now Future Now Future Now Future
Chongqing
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Sichuan
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Yunnan
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Guizhou
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Guangxi
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

South
west
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Shaanxi
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Gansu
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Ningxia
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Xinjiang
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

III

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Tibet
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Qinghai
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Inner.
Mongolia.
North
west
45
Qing-Zang
I
II
II
III
II
I
I
I







Plateau
Note: Information is derived from a variety of sources and websites and predictions are based upon expert judgement.
Key: see table 1, page 1

5.6 General observations about development in the western region
It is also possible to consider the issues surrounding development of the western region without explicit
reference to specific GWDS plans. The process of this investigation has highlighted four key areas that pose
specific problems for development in the region.
 Industrial structure: To date economic development in the western region has been guided by the
perception that resources are abundant, which has lead to resource waste and over use. For example
industrial emissions of gas in the western region are 50 percent higher than the national average, and in
many cases the cost of using local natural resources is higher than the import cost.
 Structure of investment: Authorities in many western regions still have the ‘pollute now – clean up later’
approach, i.e. pollution and environmental damage are acceptable at the early stages of development. In
many cases eastern provinces have exported their highly polluting industries, which offer very low value
added, to the west. Foreign investors capitalize on flaws in Chinese environmental policy undertake
polluting activities using outdated equipment in the west. Some governments of the west blindly absorb
foreign investment to speed up such investment. Some enterprises in the west indiscriminately sell out
primary products and rare resources. Many enterprises increase consumption of resources and emissions in
order to become economically competitive.
 Economic transformation: The environmental dimension of GWDS discourages investment in traditional,
heavily polluting industries, and prohibits farmers from cutting trees and mining for resources. However,
the environment friendly industry cannot adjust to local economic advantages and slows down economic
growth. Attracting and accepting traditional industry has become the desirable choice. The ban on logging
and small-scale mining, as well as the policy of reforesting cultivated land, threatens traditional ways of
living. Some peasants continue logging and mining, seriously damaging the environment, with silent
approval from some local governments. The unclear division of power in the environmental system
between horizontal and vertical authorities disables the local environmental department from full
supervision and administration from an environmental point of view.
 Implementation of forestation and grassland projects: Land allocation for forestation has been poor, often
leading to forest plantations in arid or semi-arid areas, thus wasting labor and financial resources.
Forestation policy has not been flexible enough to respond to local environmental conditions and account
for the suitability of land for tree planting. There is also a lack of incentives to promote sand and grass
industries. Overall there has been a tendency to view land use policy from a narrow perspective, whether it
be poverty reduction, forest growth or something else.
46
Chapter 6
Recommendations
___________________________________________________________________________________________________
The previous chapters have shown that, generally speaking, the GWDS has made an excellent start with respect
to the construction of energy and transportation infrastructure. However, the environmental implications of this
strategy include a range of positive and quite negative implications (see Table 1). The strategy includes a
number of components directly related to the environment, e.g. reforestation, grassland conservation, and
efforts to improve water conservation, and many aspects with less direct, but equally important, environmental
consequences. In spite of the initiatives that have been made to address environmental deterioration this report
has identified many areas where the GWDS can be improved and strengthened at both regional and provincial
levels. On the basis of this study of the environmental impacts of the GWDS the following recommendations
have been developed.
6.1 Regional level recommendations
General Recommendations
Special Protection Zones: In spite of the increased emphasis on sustainable development it is worth reiterating
the need to ensure that development plans for the 11th FYP take local factors fully into consideration. This
would help to avoid the problems that have been experienced through poor allocation of land for forestation,
which has led to a wide number of failed projects. Such an approach would allow planners to establish zoning
plans that align development plans with local conditions, and would be particularly useful in managing
impacts with a clear spatial dimension (e.g. soil erosion / salinization, loss of important habitats and
biodiversity, and pollution issues) in areas of special importance or vulnerability. In such cases ‘special
ecological protection’ zones could be established to protect environmental ‘hot spots’, such as land that is
vulnerable to desertification or habitats that provide key environmental services (e.g. flood or soil protection).
For example, this assessment found that the most damaging impacts from land-use plans are actions increasing
soil erosion and desertification. Apart from the general need for desertification control projects (which are
already being implemented through the GWDS), the strategy should investigate options for land use-zoning
systems in vulnerable areas, to ensure that activities are compatible with local environmental conditions and
will not accelerate desertification.
Pollution Management: In order to minimize present and avoid future pollution local authorities should ensure
that thorough EAs are conducted when planning new industries or industrial parks and that BATs are applied.
Industrial pollution is the product of, i) industrial structure (e.g. share of heavy industry etc), ii) technology
used (e.g fuel type and efficiency), and iii) end-of-pipe abatement (e.g. filters). Given the negative consequences
identified in chapter 5, especially related to energy plans, we suggest;
 Industrial Structure
 Technology: water-conservation irrigation technology, sewage treatment tecnmology etc.
 End-of-pipe: Electrostatic filters (ESP) on all new facilities. Use of scrubbers. On fuel use, washed coal. Low
sulfur coal? Coal briquettes? Coal to gas conversion? Etc.
Targeting vulnerable areas: Efforts should also be made to draft development plans for key areas in western
China, such as the Longhai and Lanxin areas, upper reaches of the Yangtze River, and the ‘Nanning – Guiyang
– Kunming’ Economic Zone. This approach would provide local authorities with appropriate scientific
guidance on development and construction options and facilitate their decision making process. The
compilation of development plans for key areas in western China should reflect the goals of GWDS, i.e.
environmental protection and increased economic development (in order to reduce the east-west gap) of
western China.
Integrated Sustainable Development: Each province should prepare an integrated sustainable development
plan taking the environmental aspects into consideration. The local authorities and all stakeholder
47
representatives should be involved in this process. An SEA can provide the framework for such a participatory
planning process. An integrated basin management plan is a good example of such a plan that is more directed
to the development of a watershed often crossing provincial boundaries.
Water Resource Use
Protection of headwaters: Given that the western region accounts for a large share of these rivers, including
important headwater areas, effective river management should be a key objective of the GWDS. A sensitive
aspect of GWDS water planning is the proposal to initiate exploitation activities in the headwater (source) of the
‘Three Rivers’ (Yangtze, Mekong, and Salween). These headwaters are a very important ecological area for
water supply in China, and the GWDS should reconsider planned interventions and seek to protect the integrity
of natural systems and cultural legacies of minorities.
Integrated river basin management: The strategy should investigate options for introducing Integrated River
Basin Management, which is supported in the 2002 re-draft of the Chinese Water Law, in order to address interprovincial issues and promote more equitable levels of water use.
The new Water Law indicates that river basin management should be set up by the water administration
department under the State Council, with the following functions, i) planning, ii) protection of water resources,
water areas and projects, iii) water resource allocation and saving, and iv) water dispute resolution. Lessons
from the successful implementation of this model should be gathered before considering options for application.
Data management: The development of data management software has created opportunities for integrated
data management and decision support systems. However, experience has shown that in many countries the
objectives for IT systems has been set too high, as an overly complex and ambitious system may not achieve
anything properly. Therefore, development should be preceded by a full analysis of the needs and costs, and
the different uses, i.e. i) internal control of water facilities operation and industrial process control, ii) enterprise
compliance, and iii) following trends in water quality. In spite of the potential pitfalls the strategy could
improve the sustainability and management of water resource by supporting the use of appropriate information
technology, such as the Digital Drainage Area project Digital watershed management system Management
systems can be designed to collect and compile information on descriptive statistics such as water quality and
volume, characteristics, and data management systems can be used to share information between agencies and
promote more effective inter-agency coordination.
Water saving: Water saving and recycling options should be implemented and further investigated in order to
reduce the burden of water demand. The GWDS is implementing water saving measures in the agricultural
sector, but it is likely that industrial and municipal sectors may also offer significant potential for savings. A key
element in water saving will be to build water efficiency into new investments, especially water intensive
industries such as oil fields, e.g. by including specialist environmental engineers at an early stage in the
planning and design process. Furthermore, it may be that ‘water saving’ lessons are already being learnt in
China’s ‘model cities’. One option for water recycling is ‘cascade management’, where water is used and is
transferred among different sectors (municipal – industrial - agricultural) with appropriate levels of treatment.
Appropriate responses to water scarcity: Water scarcity (especially in the north) is the most pressing natural
resource question and should be tackled with appropriate policy tools. Crucially the Chinese government has
been making strong efforts to increasing its understanding of the issue over the last few years, and the World
Bank is actively engaged with dedicated research work in this area. These dedicated studies will generate
technical recommendations for the sector, but at the general level we observe a number of policy problems
contributing to the water scarcity issue. For example, to date the favoured policy response to water scarcity
issues has been to be grand-scale infrastructure investments, e.g. diverting water from the South. However, we
submit that a more flexible approach, employing the price mechanism in combination with smaller (compared
to water diversion) investments in waste water treatment and fixing leaking irrigation is likely to deliver much
more value for money. In light of the problems of the sector a carefully argued study that outlines a flexible
policy strategy would be useful, e.g. actively develop mechanisms for water pricing (keeping in mind that for
many users price structures should be introduced gradually).
48
Groundwater: Groundwater resources in the Northwest are overexploited, especially in Ningxia, Gansu and
Xinjiang, and falling water tables have intensified the process of land and soil degradation. An important
element of the GWDS should be a clear strategy for sustainable utilization and regulation of groundwater
resources. However, there is a lack of comprehensive data, such as time series information on quality,
contaminants, or volumes (World Bank, 2001). Data form the China Statistical Yearbook highlights the problem,
as the reporting of ground and surface water volumes does not sum to the reported volumes for total water
resources in each province (see table 3.3). Any strategy for protecting groundwater quality has to be based on a
comprehensive assessment of the chemical state of groundwater.
 In summary, to reduce the exploitation of ground water resources gradually
 To establish the monitoring system of water resources
 To adjust the ways of water resources exploitation in north-western inland basin, to use ground water resources in highefficiency
 To promote the exploitation and utilization of water in rock aperture in south west
Land Use
Targeting forestation: The GWDS refers to the need for effective forest protection and there have already been
extensive afforestation activities leading to an overall increase in forest cover in recent years. This study
supports afforestation in areas that were previously forested as a key step to fighting soil erosion, desertification,
flash floods, and increasing water retention. Protection and re-establishment of forests in hilly areas and river
basins are particularly important and should receive special attention. However, great care should be taken to
account for local conditions and we do not support general policies for planting ‘new’ forests in arid and semiarid ecosystems (such projects often end up as ecological disasters).
Combating desertification: The comprehensive treatment of stone desertification in southwest China should be
strengthened. To promote the comprehensive treatment of stone desertification of karst regions in southeast
China, firstly, it is necessary to work out plans to comprehensively treat stone desertification all over the
country, to clearly define treatment goals, stages and key areas and to put forward the counter measures at
present. Secondly, according to the real situation of stone desertification, it is necessary to identify key counties
and cities to be treated and to give them capital and policy support. In a short period of time, the government
should stress the treatment of these key counties and cities so as to prevent the expansion of stone
desertification and the continuous deterioration of the ecological environment of mountainous area and to
improve the living standards and living environment of people in the mountainous area. Finally, the
government should organize departments and experts concerned to work out and issue the “Stone
Desertification Prevention and Treatment Law” so as to legalize and standardize the treatment of stone
desertification.
Energy Use and Exploitation
Elements of concern: The GWDS identifies potential for increasing levels of hydropower generation and the
need to develop higher quality coal in the western region, but it is important that these activities are developed
on a sustainable basis.
Of particular concern is the environmental impact caused during the development phase when large volumes
of material are moved and the landscape is significantly altered.
Environmental considerations are particularly important for open cast mines in arid areas and reservoir
construction in important or vulnerable river basins. With respect to hydropower the proposed exploitation of
the Nu River (west to east hydropower transfer) is a particular concern. The watershed’s special geology and
landform mean that hydropower developments could increase the risk of problems such as landslide and debris
flow, and would threaten local biological diversity and landscape values. Other potentially problematic
hydropower developments include the Xiluo Ferry and Xiangjia Dam in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River.
49
Need for assessments: These concerns mean that project implementation should be preceded by comprehensive
assessment of ecological and environmental issues through preliminary impact assessments, full EIA and SEAs,
and assessments of the costs and benefits of such actions. Factors to consider include the likely impact on
processes such as desertification, species loss, impact on items of cultural importance, and the likelihood of
landslides.
Tourism Development
Impact minimization: From this assessment if is anticipated that increasing numbers of tourists will cause an
increasing pressure on the environment, resulting in pollution and disturbance. The challenge for GWDS
planners is to develop the tourism sector with the minimum possible level of environmental pressure. This
objective should be built into tourism development planning at the micro-level, and EIAs should be undertaken
for projects of an appropriate scale and in sensitive locations. Measures one could think off are spatial zoning of
nature areas which are more or less vulnerable to tourist development, and development of buffer zone
development.
Policy co-ordination: The western region has significant potential as a tourist destination but faces many
constraints. The GWDS sets out to fill the infrastructure gap by building roads and developing tourist sites, but
it does not make clear provisions to address the institutional, policy and financial constraints that will affect the
development of the region’s tourism industry. There are many pieces to put into place in establishing tourism
(e.g. marketing, licensing etc) Addressing these issues in an integrated fashion requires a level of coordination
that is currently lacking at the provincial level. A key recommendation is therefore to establish an active and
engaged coordination group, within the State Council Western Development Office, to provide strategic level
support. The process should also be supported by development of appropriate laws, e.g. to ensure the
sustainability of developments, and policies to promote the sector, e.g. preferential tax treatment, subsidizing
travel to the west, low land lease rates, and streamlined visa approval systems.
Water pricing [1.9]: Actively develop and gradually introduce mechanisms for water pricing, pricing systems
are being developed in various parts of China and lessons should be studied and employed.




To promote the water pricing reform, especially in Yellow river basin, make water refect the cost
To improve water price, especially agricultural water use, so as to promote water saving
To establish water pricing management agencies
To provide subsidy for the use rain water and reuse of waste water, to support their development
50
6.2 Provincial level recommendations
In order to prioritize provincial level comments and recommendations it was felt that the most important issues
for planners to consider are those where the environmental situation is currently most critical (level III) and
proposed activities will lead to further degradation. Furthermore, due to the scope of this study these
considerations have been limited to 2 – 4 themes per province. In many cases, given the vulnerable
environmental situation, the proposed activities warrant a dedicated province level SEA to analyze the impacts
and options in more detail.
Chongqing
Table 6.1 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Chongqing
Plans
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Land use
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Energy
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Biodiversity
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Tourism
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Overall
II

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Soil erosion
 Base on the characteristic of soil erosion, working out scientific plan of soil land water conservation.
 Changing steep slope cultivated land to plant trees and grow grasses.
 Enhancing the project of preserving natural forest and tree planting.
 Controlling live stock quantity.
 Improving natural grass land and recovering degraded grassland.
 Carrying out the comprehensive management of small valleys.
 Solidifying and strengthening the construction of farmland and irrigated works.
Air pollution countermeasures
 Use cleaner energy. (natural gas, solar energy ect).
 Prevention motor vehicles pollution.
 Prevention dust pollution.
 Prevention industry polltion.
Biodiversity / ecosystem protection
 Strengthening the construction of natural reserve
 Perfecting administrative mechanism and systems
 Scientifically verifying the organization, heightening quality of administor
 Strengthening the legislation and execution
 Intensifying propaganda and education, enhancing scientific research
Agricultural impacts on water resources
 Promote water-saving irrigated farming and finish the construction of 100,000 km2 water saving irrigation
farm in the period 2005-2010.
 Control pollution from non-point sources (e.g. agriculture), especially in the reservoir area where water
may need to be treated.
51
Natural disaster Mitigation
 Take comprehensive measures to prevent and control natural disasters, taking into account the fragility of
ecosystems in the region, especially the Three Gorges reservoir area.
Eco-tourism
 Organize eco-tourist activities in a rational way with reliance on the building of Three Gorges Reservoir
Area. In particular authorities should endeavor to manage the environmental pressure and limit the size of
the industry (e.g. tourist numbers) to a scale that is compatible with local ecological sustainability.
Sichuan
Table 6.2 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Sichuan
Plans
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Land use
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Energy
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Biodiversity
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Tourism
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Overall
I

III

I

I

III

II

II

III

Soil erosion
 This problems caused by over-exploitation agrichulture and overgrazing, they should be pain great
attention.
 Biological restoration measures should been carried out.
 Control the growth of population, improve population quality and implement necessary ecological
emigration project.
Coal Industry restructuring
 Province authorities should fast track structural adjustment of the coal industry (especially in the south). In
the current energy development plans for Sichuan the emphasis has been on development strength of coal
resource. We suggest a more fundamental re-structuring of the coal industry (especially in the south), with
a view to reducing the sulphur content of coal outputs. Mines producing high sulphur coal, that are
irrationally distributed, or that do not meet the safety requirements (e.g. for sulphur) should be closed. The
objective should be to increase the level of exploitation of high-quality anthracite coal (low sulphur content)
and ash in southern mines.
Sewage treatment
 Province authorities should pay more attention to strengthening sewage treatment in cities on the Yangtze
River. This will not only have local benefits but is especially important for water quality in downstream
sections of the river.
Guizhou
Table 6.3 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Guizhou
Desertification
Forest
deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Land use
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Energy
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

52
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Water
availability
Plans
Biodiversity
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Tourism
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Overall
I

III

I

I

III

III

III

II

Soil erosion
 Karst terrain is widely distributed in Guizhou, karst terrain is mountainous limestone area, with barren soil,
severe water-soil erosion, fragile ecosystem and frequent drought and flood disasters. Measures should be
considered to protect these habitats include;
Forest development and protection should be a key priority in karst mountain regions.
Make more efforts to protect karst forests in Maolan Natural Reserve and prevent them from piecemeal
encroachment.
Encourage more sustainable land practices, e.g. integrated forestry and farming, which would increase
the vegetation coverage and prevent water-soil erosion. In areas with serious rock bareness (70 percent
or above) the zone should be closed to human activity and allowed to regenerate. Recovery in these
habitats can take a very long time.
Forest deterioration
 Measures should include return of sloping fields to forests or grassland; develop soil quality, thickness, and
supplement organic substances; strict enforcement of mountain protection to facilitate natural afforestation
(e.g. prohibit grazing and tree felling); and restore areas afflicted with serious rock desertification.
 Province authorities should advocate ecological reconstruction and animal husbandry in Guizhou.
 Carry out structural adjustment of agriculture and develop reasonably corresponding forestry or gardening.
water&waste pollution countermeasures
 The river network density is very high in Guizhou. Province authorities should pay more attention to
strengthening sewage treatment in cities.
 Constiture and implement integrated wastewater discharge standard strictly.
 Improve population quality.
Air pollution countermeasures
 Guizhou Province (an acid-rain control zone) should support installation of de-sulphurization facilities in
newly built, or reconstructed, coal power plants with a sulfur content above 1 percent and all existing
power plants affecting downtown areas of key cities.
 The west - east power transmission project is the basis for energy development in the province, the
updating of high-tech, advanced and applicable technologies as the focus. Make preferential policies for
and give financial aid to high-tech projects in the field of clean coal and hydropower in order to do more
good to the environment and comprehensive utilization.
 Top-quality coal bases, such as China coalfield, Songhe coalfield and Gemudi Mining Area in Shuicheng
coalfield, should be developed in more locations in the province.
Biodiversity / ecosystem protection
 Set up natural conservation. Fanjing mountains is the transitional natural conservation in Guizhou, at
present, there are more than 100 natural conservation in Guizhou.
 Protaction of wildlife resources.
 Control invasion of exotic species.
53
Yunnan
Table 6.4 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Yunnan
Desertification
Forest
deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Land use
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Energy
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Biodiversity
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Tourism
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Overall
I

III

I

I

III

III

II

III

Plans
Soil erosion
 Soil qualities are good in Yunnan, but soil and water loss rate is high 37 percent. In the future, this trend
will be aggravate.
 This process should include mountain enclosure and natural afforestation, prevent and control water and
soil losses, and improve the abilities to withstand natural disasters such as landslide and mud-rock flow.
Water& waste pollution
 The province encompasses important sections the Yangtze, Lancang and Nujiang rivers. Authorities should
look for ways to intensify eco-environment monitoring in river basins and provide early-warning systems.
Biodiversity/ecosystem protection
 Because Yunnnan had large abundance of biodiversity. So the protection of its ecosystem is very important.
First of all, improve the quality and awareness of population.
 Intensify investigation and investment on protection of wildlife resources.
 Predatory exploitation on wildlife resources should be strictly prohibited.
Hydropower issues
 Establish an ecological compensation system designed to mitigate environmental impacts of hydropower
developments, featuring;
Integration of compensation and financing;
Bring into reality ecological construction of hydropower;
Solve problems in ecology, environment and resettlement that are caused by hydropower development.
Protection of karst landscapes
 Many areas of the province’s extensive karst landforms are suffering from rocky desertification. Measures
should be considered to protect these habitats include;
Prevent man-made vegetation destruction
Encourage more sustainable land practices, e.g. integrated forestry and farming, which would increase
the vegetation coverage and prevent water-soil erosion.
Provide incentives (e.g. financial and in-kind support) to farmers living in mountainous areas to
manage the landscape sustainably, this may require focused efforts to address the level of poverty in
the area.
In areas with serious rock bareness (70 percent or above) the zone should be closed to human activity
and allowed to regenerate. Recovery in these habitats can take a very long time.
54
Guangxi
Table 6.5 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Guangxi
Plans
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

Land use
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

Energy
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

Biodiversity
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

Tourism
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

Overall
II

I

I

I

III

II

II

III

Forestry and Ecology
 Pay attention to the establishment of ecological compensation systems in rock desertification areas.
 Promote forestry development in hilly areas.
 In rivers systems authorities should undertake work to establish forest systems to provide river basin
protection. This could include, i) develop and protect around 40 large water conservation forests in the river
basin, ii) establish protection forests for 121 reservoirs (large and small sizes), iii) establish bank protection
forests with tree planting projects.
Biodiversity/ecosystem protection
 Since the shrinked of grasslands in Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, we should put attention to
protect the grasslands.
 Karst terrain is widely distributed in Guangxi, karst terrain is mountainous limestone area, with barren soil,
improving the capability of resisting natural disaster by afforesting and increasing the forest and grass
coverage should be emphasized.
River basin management
 Conduct the integrated management plan.
 Build some large, middle or small-sized hydraulic engineering.
 Improve the ability of water supply.
 Increase irrigation area.
 Develop integrated controlling plan of all dams, and collect water quality and water quantity information in
order to establish watershed management information system.
Energy Development
 The Chinese government is looking to develop natural gas industries in the western region, notably in
provinces such as Xinjiang, but plans in Guangxi are much smaller. Given its potential and activities in
related sectors (e.g. oil), we recommend that authorities should consider establishing large-scale natural-gas
power plants in Beibuwan Basin and Yinggehai Basin of Guangxi for there are oil and gas resources.
 Speed up the development and utilization of new energies such as methane, solar energy and wind energy.
55
Qinghai
Table 6.6 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Qinghai
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Land use
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Energy
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Biodiversity
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Tourism
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Overall
I

I

III

III

II

I

I

II

Plans
Desertification
 This area has a very special natural environment. Under the cold and arid condition, the ecosystem is very
fragile and sensitive, and responds to global climate change very quickly. Therefore the ecological
reconstruction in this area should focusing on these issuses;
protecting existing narural ecosystem
strengthening the protection of natural grassland in upper stream of Yangtze River and the Yellow
River
establishing the policy of constructing natural reserves
at the same time it is urgent to enforce the disaster prevention capability for earthquake, landslide,
slide-debris flows, heavy snowing etc.
take integrated measures to protect the eco-environment of Qinhai Lake drainage area, and prevent
the vegetation deterioration around the lake to stop and the tendency of desertification in lake
areas
Mitigating permafrost melt
 Province authorities should investigate countermeasures to mitigate impacts from melting of frozen soil.
Permafrost melting will have an impact on new and existing infrastructure for transportation (especially the
Qinghai-Tibet Railway) and other construction activities. Province authorities should ensure that this risk is
accounted for and built into project plans.

Province authorities (especially in Qaidam Region) should develop more water conservancy facilities, plant
trees and grass, prevent soil degeneration, control wind and fix sand, adjust the development orientation of
different places and the proportion of farming to animal husbandry, and bring into play soil advantages.
Tibet
Table 6.7 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Tibet
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Land use
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Energy
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Biodiversity
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Tourism
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

Overall
I

III

I

III

II

I

I

I

56
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Water
availability
Plans
Erosion control to limit desertification
 Province authorities should take measures to control desertification and erosion in the ‘One River & its Two
Branches’ (Naqu and Ali in north Tibet) area, by making more effective use of water resources.
 Wind erosion is one of the biggest threats, but the impact can be reduced by establishing ground vegetation,
stabilizing sand dunes through irrigation, and work further to change sand dunes into forest, grasslands, or
even farmland.
 Following recommendations from the Western China MEA, province authorities should look to protect
vulnerable grasslands by managing grazing patterns (seasonal, breaks etc), and, when water is available,
establishing high yield pastures.
Biodiversity/ecosystem protection
 The wildlife (especially SE areas of the province) is very rich in biodiversity but there is a need for more
effective protection. Authorities should establish biodiversity reserves designed to account for
representative of biological habitats.
Renewable energy
 Initiatives to develop renewable energy sources are already included in the current plans for Tibet. We
(along with the authors of the MEA western China) recommend that province authorities fully pursue
options to develop solar and wind energy sources. These options have great potential in areas with low
population density and poor infrastructure for conventional supply, and renewable energy can reduce
environmental pressure by replacing bio-fuels such as straw and dung.
Shaan’xi
Table 6.8 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Shaan’xi
Plans
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Land use
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Energy
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Biodiversity
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Tourism
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Overall
II

III

III

III

III

II

II

II

Soil erosion
 Improve soil quality;
Loess Highlands: gradually increase the content of organic substances, nutritional elements, structure
and fertility of soil.
- Guanzhong Plain and river terraces: emphasis should be put on soil pollution control and industrial
“three wastes” must be prevented from entering soil ecosystems.
- Low hilly land in Qinling and Dabashan Region: reclamation and cultivation must be controlled, and
grassland must be exploited and upgraded.
- Middle and high mountain areas: protective development should be adopted and felling and planting
be combined to stabilize the fluctuation of systems.

Province authorities should increase their support for the return of farmland to forests and grassland,
increase vegetation rate, control wind erosion, and stabilize sand dunes, reduce water and soil losses, and
combat desertification.
Desertification
 This area is short of water resources, has a large area of sand land. First of all, combining biological and
engineering measures to increase forest and grassland proportion by protection and cultivation
 Promoting the restoration of natural vegetation
57


Forming a forest-grassland belt to fix the sand
In the edge of desert, integrated measures should be taken to fix and control sand
Forest deterioration
 The Grain-for-Green Project is planned by “two belts and three zones” according to the zonal regularity of
vegetation distribution.
 The area with annual precipitation more than 550mm, the south of Yan’an in Shann’xi Province, can plant
manmade forest extensively. Coniferous forest and broad leaved forest or bushes, such as Chinese pine,
acacia, sallow thorn, little leaf peashrub and Astragalus adsurgens Pall can be mixed.
 For areas with an annual precipitation less than 450mm, from the north of Yan’an in Shann’xi province to
Great wall, the high forest can be only planted at the foot of ditch and slope with better moisture conditions,
while the vegetation in this region should center on meadow and bushed, such as Astragalus adsurgens
Pall, lemon grass.
Biodiversity/ecosystem protection
 Set up natural conservation.
 Intersify investigation and protection of wildlife resources
 Control invasion of exotic species.
Gansu
Table 6.9 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Ganshu
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Land use
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Energy
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Biodiversity
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Tourism
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Overall
III

III

III

III

III

II

III

II

Plans
Water availability
 Measures should be taken to enforce the ecological recovery and protection, and to protect the natural
mechanism of water resource formulation in Qilian mountainous area.
 Water use rate is very high (49.2 percent) and authorities should prioritize water use measures;
Heihe River Basin: exploit to a moderate degree groundwater.
Dunhuang: restrict groundwater exploitation.
Longzhong: intensify water conservation construction in arid areas of Longzhong.
Exert all efforts to use groundwater for agricultural irrigation.
Develop well irrigation as well as vertical drainage.
Increase the recycle rate of industrial and agricultural water.
Soil erosion
 The key points of ecological treatment are to restore vegetation close to the boarder of oasis
 To plant forest around large and medium cities, factories and mines.
Soil salinization
 Farmers to use just a little more water than the crops need, the extra water can carry salt away from the
roots of the plants.
 Farmers can also build underground pipes or dig deep holes near crops, this can help remove extra water.
58
Desertification
 The province should implement wind erosion and sand fixing, e.g. measures (combined bioengineering
works) to fix and control sand by increasing level of vegetation. However, it is stressed that extreme care
should be taken to select appropriate species to ensure that the situation is not exacerbated, and lessons
from elsewhere in China should be investigated.
 Special consideration should be given to the protection and expansion of natural vegetation in the Qilian
mountainous area, as a means for maintaining natural water balance and ensuring the sustainability in the
threatened (desertification) Hexi Corridor.
Forest and grassland deterioration
 Arid desertification area and mountainous grassland in Gansu are short of water resources. The ecological
environment is very fragile. Overburden and heavy gazing is serious and productivity of animal husbandry
is low and unstable. The main development focus should be;
- protection of natural grassland.
- In the areas with annual precipitation less than 250mm and in grassland having severe degeneration,
desertificaion and salinization problems, enclosure and rotation grazing in divided zones should be
carried out.
- In serious deteriorated grassland, annual fallow should be adopted and in medium deteriorated
grassland, seasonal fallow during regreening and productiove phase should be adopted to favor
natural restoration of grsssland.
- Xeric meadow and bushes should be planted on border of sand land or desert to increase the vegetation
cover rate and to inhibit grassland desertification.
Biodiversity/ecosystem protection
 The biodiversity is poor in Gansu. First of all, set up natural conservation.
 Intensify investigation and protection of wildlife resources.
 Control invasion of exotic species.
Hydropower developments
 Planning for hydropower development already exists for Gansu, but we would stress that priority be given
to exploitation in trunk streams of the Yellow River. Furthermore, in order to mitigate against potential
impacts on biodiversity, local habitat, and environmental qualities, it will be important to centralise
environmental consequences in the planning process.
Ningxia
Table 6.10 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Ningxia
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Land use
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Energy
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Biodiversity
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Tourism
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Overall
III

III

III

III

III

III

III

III

Plans
Water availability
 Water conservaion is the basic measure to solve the problem of water resource shortage in Ningxia province.
First of all, it is the basic policy of Ningxia to establish water-conservation agriculture, water-conservation
industry, and a water-conservation society.
59


Water- consumption projects should not be implemented.
Agriculture irrigation accounts for more than 70% of the total water utilization, and it is even higher in
Ninxia. But effective irrigation water is only one third of total agriculture irrigation water. From these data
we can see the potential of water conservation in agriculture.
- improving water-conservation irrigation technology.
- Establishing water-conservation rotation system and cultivation drought-resisting crop species etc.
Soil salinization
 Farmers to use just a little more water than the crops need, the extra water can carry salt away from the
roots of the plants.
 Farmers can also build underground pipes or dig deep holes near crops, this can help remove extra water.
Desertification
 Water and soil loss is a major issue in the Loess and hilly areas in south Ningxia. Authorities should
strengthen comprehensive treatment of small watersheds, support tree planting and establishment of grass
vegetation cover, create water conservancy forests and fuel-wood forests, and gradually return sloping
fields to forests or grassland.
Air Pollution
 Ningxia Province should support installation of de-sulphurization facilities in newly built, or reconstructed,
coal power plants with a sulfur content above 1 percent and all existing power plants affecting downtown
areas of key cities.
 Make preferential policies for and give financial aid to high-tech projects in the field of clean coal and
hydropower in order to do more good to the environment and comprehensive utilization.
Land use planning
 Province authorities should pay attention to the pattern of development;
Central, gentle-slope hilly areas: Given eco-environmental protection and desertification control.
Authorities should therefore develop and utilize backup land resources and organize mineral
exploitation zones.
North, Yellow River irrigated areas: Protect farmland, strictly control expansion of urban and rural
settlements, and carefully select sites for infrastructure development (e.g. transport).
Mountainous regions (e.g. Helan and Liupan Mountain): Reinforce woodland conservation and
construction of nature reserves, develop agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry according to local
conditions.
Xinjiang
Table 6.11 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Xinjiang
Plans
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

Land use
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

Energy
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

Biodiversity
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

Tourism
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

Overall
III

I

III

III

III

I

I

II

Water availability
 Develop and utilitze international river water resources actively and firmly. Due to the lag of economic
development, water resource utilization is insufficient in Xinjiang. Erix River, Yili River, Aksu River play a
very improtant role in the development of Xinjiang. Therefore, we should amend and censor the
exploitation plan of the three main international rivers scrupulously, design the controlling engineering
60
plan elaborately, and prepare future negotiation about water resource distribution among countries. The
exploitation and utilization of international rivers influence the relationship between circumjacent
countries, so we should follow the guideline that will not only maintain the rights and interests of water
resources in our country, but also deal well with the neighborly and friendly relationship with circumjacent
countries.
 Enclose and afforest mountains along the river valleys of the Irtysh and Ulungur rivers, in the Ili Region
and the middle of Tianshan Mountain.
 Protect grassland and bring into fully play the role of forests and grassland in ecological conservation.
 Enlarges in the Irtysh river coast, the Ulungur river valley, the Ili area and middle the Tianshan Mountain
afforestation dynamics, increases to the land supervising and managing dynamics, appears the reasonable
feasible laws and regulations.
 To maintain existing hydraulic facilities and to construct Xiabandi, Bulunkou-gong’ger, Dashixia,
Kenchiwate, Shimenzhi and other hydro junction，to implement water transfer project and to ensure the
supply of U’lumuqi and Kelamayi city. To finish water-saving reconstruction of large irrigation area and to
conduct integrative managemt of Talimu river watershed. To implement water transfer for the purpose of
ecological protection (such as, vegetation growth, desertification mitigation), to finally promote sustainable
management of water and land.
Soil salinization
 Irrigation works improving measurements. (irrigation, drainage, grow rice, defending seep etc.)
 Biology improving measurements. (increasing organic fertilizer, growing plants and grass which is able to
bear salt, tree planting and forestation).
Desertification
 Sand treatment project should focus on the protecting and reconstucting of vegetation, protecting the
existing vegetation
 Strictly forbidding randow hewing, reclaiming and grazing.
 The treatment should be strengthened in the semiarid areas by forbidding reclamation in areas with annual
precipitation less than 300mm and building basic farmland and stop irrational reclamation.
Energy development:
 Key areas for the development of hydropower include the Ili, Kaidu, Yarkand and Irtysh rivers.
 Strengthen the development and utilization of wind energy, solar energy and biomass energy
Eco-tourism:
 The province is rich in tourist resources, including many places of cultural and historic interest, e.g. “Silk
Road” and many colorful ethnic customs. Province authorities therefore have a strong characteristic base
upon which ecological and cultural tourism activities can be built. However, planners should limit the
environmental pressure and the size of the industry (e.g. tourist numbers) to a scale that is compatible with
local ecological sustainability.
Inner Mongolia
Table 6.12 Summary of overall impacts from GWDS in Ningxia
Plans
Water
availability
Soil erosion
Soil
salinization
Desertification
Forest
Deterioration
Water &
waste
pollution
Air
pollution
Biodiversity
ecosystem
services loss
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Now
Future
Water res.
II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

Land use
II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

Energy
II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

Biodiversity
II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

Tourism
II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

Overall
II

III

III

III

III

II

I

III

61
Water availability
 Constitute and implement water conservation strategy. Water conservation in the basic measure to solve
the problem of water resource shortage in Inner Mongolia. It is the basic policy of Inner Mongolia to
establish water-conservation agriculture, water-conservation industry, and a water-conservation society.
 Strengthen water reserve, management and allocation. Inner Mongolia is located in arid or semiarid zone,
where evaporation exceeds precipition greatly. Water resources should be well planned to achieve balance
and reasonable allocation between regions according to economic development and ecological construciton.
Desertification
 The formation of desertification and sandstorm is an extremely complex process. The process has a close
relationship with global warming, ocean circumfluence changing, and irrational utilization of natural
resources. First of all, human damages should be forbidden, and limiting fiscal capital and human resources
should be used in area where is easier to be recovered and require less input.
 State Ecological Construction Planning has brought forward short, middle and long-term targets of 50 years
for desertification treatment. They should be implement strictly.
 Focus on the protecting and reconstructing of vegetation, protecting the existing vegetation
 Strictly forbidding hewing, reclaiming and grazing.
 The state Ministry of Forestry has drawn up “the implementation scheme of integrate treatment project on
sandstorm sources of Beijing”, the implementation of action plans to achieve the maximum treatment
benefit should be strictly.
Forest and Grassland management
 Grassland and pastoral areas in the province (e.g. Mongolia and Ordos Plateaus) are vulnerable and require
improved protection. There should be reform of grazing land management, including strict limits on the
use of grassland to prevent overgrazing, as well as measures such as rotation grazing, seasonal fallow, grass
storehouses, and man-made grassland
 Natural forest resources (e.g. Daxing’an Mountain) require strengthened protection and establishment of
sustainable utilization patterns.
Biodiversity / ecosystem protection
 Set up natural conservation. Inner Mongolia as the main original areas of sandstorm should be protected.
 Intensify investigation and protection of wildlife resources. Wild couple-hump camel species and
Mongolian wild horse species are important wildlife resources, they should be protected strictly.
 Control invasion of exotic species.
Coal energy sector re-structuring
 The large amount of prairie (area km2), which is already under stress, is threatened by the energy
development plans - for coal and electricity operations. We recommend that these energy plans are
reconsidered in the light of a dedicated EA
 Province authorities should promote measures such as green exploitation practices and implementation of
clean coal technologies; use of byproducts and waste; land consolidation; and reclamation and ecoreconstruction in mining areas. Mineral (e.g. coal) exploitation in the border area of Shanxi Province and
Inner Mongolia, environmental assessment systems should be fully enforced, and excessive cultivation and
discarding of wastes should be prohibited.
 Application of clean coal technologies can be investigated in Wuhai Coal Chemical Base, Dongsheng CoalWater Slurry Base, Humeng Tongliao Lignite Underground Coal Gasification Base and Ameng Taixi Coal
Export Base.
Eco-tourism
 Promote the eco-tourism industry with a focus on the province’s impressive pasture landscape and by
advocating ecological conservation activities. The success of this policy is likely to depend on (among other
things) the extent of forest, grassland, and vegetation restoration activities.
62
63
6.3 Lessons learned and next steps
In addition to the recommendations outlined above it is felt necessary to set out a logical sequence of events that
should follow from this first step in strategic environmental assessment of the GWDS. An important element in
undertaking these next steps will be to fill in the significant gaps left by this study, and where possible follow
on work should include a process for public participation and consideration of social impacts (though these
aspects may only be feasible in province level assessments).
1. To our knowledge there has not been any consistent or thorough monitoring of the implementation of the
GWDS activities to date. To fully utilize the benefits of SEA, it is important to continuously monitor the
implementation and provide modification or alternative suggestions as necessary. The process is especially
important given the extensive time frame of the GWDS. Monitoring activities should be designed to take
advantage of existing systems and information. For example the sub-global millennium ecosystem assessment
for western china should provide a good baseline description to measure changes in ecosystem/biodiversity
values. Design of the monitoring process can be simplified by selecting a representative range of easy to
monitor indicator variables.
2. This study has highlighted the importance of energy plans in terms of potential environmental consequences.
However, this report only provides a superficial analysis and, while general recommendations can be made (e.g.
need for measures to reduce demand and make energy supply cleaner), the study has not been able to analyze
the sector in sufficient detail to provide more specific policy guidance. Therefore, an appropriate next step
would be to initiate an SEA on energy related issues targeted at the province level where energy issues are most
serious. Important examples include hydro plans in Yunnan, Guanxi, and Guizhou (exporting to Guangdong,
and the coal dependence of most other provinces. The assessment would examine large-scale economic
development, demand projections, energy supply proposals, emissions projections, and likely environmental
consequences from these factors. Such a study should also have terms of reference requiring investigation on
fuel switching potential including hydropower, coal washing, briquetting, low sulfur coal, boiler efficiencies in
power plants and industries, district heating, and end of pipe technology such as scrubbers and filters.
3. Since the GWDS involves many government agencies at multiple levels the findings and recommendations
from the study should be discussed amongst a wide constituency including stakeholders whose primary
responsibility is not environmental protection. This would help increase awareness and support to the use of
SEA in general.
4. A sub-objective of this work has been to enhance China's SEA capacity. In this respect, it is crucial that
experience and lessons learned through work such as this and other project related SEAs are widely shared and
are used to give practical feedback to EIA/SEA practitioners in China. SEA training should be targeted to meet
different stakeholder needs. For example, while practitioners require detailed information and hands on
experience (e.g. technical guidance, International SEA experience), policy makers should be provided with
awareness raising material (e.g. background information and trends). Funding and assistance for such a
program should be secured through bi-lateral or multi-lateral development assistance and tied into the wider
need for SEA capacity in China. The World Bank is already making efforts to disseminate SEA information in
China, and in many other countries, access to much of this information is available at the website given below,
and details of recent and ongoing SEA capacity building activities are provided in the CD-ROM attachment.
Web-link for World Bank SEA training material available in English and Chinese (select SEA from right hand
column): http://www.worldbank.org/wbi/sdenveconomics/sea/offerings.html
Further, since 2001 the World Bank has implemented the ‘Structured Learning Program’ to expand effective
application of SEA among member countries. The site materials are continually being updated in order to keep
pace with ongoing developments in SEA best practice. Web-link is below:
http://uk.f315.mail.yahoo.com/ym/ShowFolder?rb=ABZ&reset=1&YY=96113&inc=25&order=down&sort=date&pos=0&
view=a&head=b&box=Inbox
64
65
References
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
Abaza, H., Bisset, R., & Sadler, B (2004). Environmental impact assessment: Towards an integrated approach.
UNEP.
Bailey J, Dixon J (1999). Policy environmental assessment. In: Petts J, editor. Handbook of environmental impact
assessment, vol. 1. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Bao, C-K., Lu, Y-S., & Shang, J-C. (2004). Framework and operational procedure for implementing strategic
environmental assessment in China [J]. Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 24, 27-48.
Bao Cunkuan, Shang Jicheng (2000). SEA System and Working Procedure. China Environmental Science [J], 20
(suppl.): 47-50.
Brown, A. L., & Therivel, R. (2000). Principles to guide the development of strategic environmental assessment
methodology [J]. Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal, 18 (3), 183-189.
Cai Yumei, Zheng Weiyuan, Zhang Xiaoling, Jia Kejing, Yang Feng (2003). Assessment on Environment impact
of Land Use Planning, Progress in Geography. 22(6): 567-575.
CEQ (1997) The National Environmental Policy Act – A Study of its Effectiveness after Twenty-five Years, US Council
on Environmental Quality, Washington, DC
Che Xiu-zhen, Shang Jin-cheng, Wang Jin-hu (2002). Strategic environmental assessment and its development in
China [J]. Environmental Impact Assessment Review. 22: 101-109.
Chen Bin, Zhang Luoping (2003). Practice of SEA of Port Plan [J]. Shanghai Environment Science. 22(12): 10131016.
Cheng Aiguo, Peng Suping, (2000). Comprehensive Evaluation and Plan for Coal Resources’ Potential in the
West Area, Journal of Xi’an University of Science & Technology, 2000, 20 (suppl)
China Daily (2002): Go-west campaign’s first two years declared successful, Issue of February 2, 2002.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/en/doc/2002-02/20/content_107274.htm
China Daily (2004): Going west still a top development strategy, Issue of March 22, 2003.
http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2004-03/22/content_316800.htm
China Environmental Monitoring Centre (2004). Study on China’s Eco-environmental Quality Assessment.
Chinese Environmental Sciences Publishing Company, Beijing. ISBN: 7-80163-808-5.
Dan Chenglong, Li Wei, Wang Wanmao (2001). Exploration on Land Resource Sustainable Utilization of
Western Region. Ecological Economy. 10: 44-47.
Dang Jinqian, Yan Ningxia, Li Jing (2003). Water and Soil Erosion and Environment in Western Development
Project. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 17(5): 92-95.
Dalal-Clayton & Barry Sadler (2005). Strategic Environmental Assessment – A Sourcebook and Reference Guide
to International Experience.
Dalziel A. and Ward M. (2004) EIA and SEA in New Zealand, in Status of Progress and Emerging Challenges in EIA
and SEA: Ten Years after the Quebec Summit, Proceedings of the 8th Intergovernmental Policy Forum on
Environmental Assessment (April 25 2004, Vancouver, BC), Canadian Environmental Assessment Agency,
Ottawa
Ding Yihui (2002). Evaluation on Evolvement of Western China Environment—Estimation on Environment
Change of Western China (Volume) [M]
Fang Min (2000). Rationalization of Exploitation and Utilization of the Mineral Resources in China’s Western
Parts, Geological Technoeconomic Management, 2000, 22 (2).
Fu Yueying, Liu Qin (2002). Status Quo and Development Proposal of Ecological Tourism of Western China.
Geography and National Land Research Journal. Gao Hu (2003), Abundant Water and Electricity Resource in
the West and the Diversion of Electricity from the Western to the Eastern Regions. China Energy. 25 (10): 41-44.
Gelb C., Chen D. (2004). Going West: A Progress Report. China Business Review, March 2004.
http://www.chinabusinessreview.com/public/0403/chen.html
Hao Mingjia, Guo Huaicheng (2003). Research on Assessment of Environment Impact of Shengyang City
66
Hunna New District Plan [J]. Science of Environmental Protection. 29: 42-45.
Jiang Enlai, Chen Zhaojun(2004). On the Objectives, Roles and Policies of Returning Arable Land to Forest in
Western China. Journal of Beijing Forestry University. 3(2): 23-26.
Li Wei, Yang Zhifeng, Liu Dongxia (1998). SEA toward Sustainable Development [J]. China Environmental
Science.18(Suppl.): 66-69.
Li Shukun (2002). Strategic Environmental Assessment and Regional Environment Review. China
Environmental Science[J], 20(suppl.): 59-63.
Li Wei, Yang Zhefeng (2000). The Exploration on Assessment on Environment Impact of Significant Economic
Policy-Assessment on Environment Impact of China Automobile Industry Policy [J]. China Environment
Science. 20(2):114-118
Li Wei, Cheng Hongguan et al. (2002). Studies of General Strategic Environment Assessment of GWD
[J].Environmental Science and Technology. 25(3): 35-37.
Li Chunhui, Yang Zhifeng, Guo Qiaoyu (2003). The Influence of Yellow River Laxiwa Hydropower Station on
Regional Landscape [J]. Journal of Safety and Environment. 3(2):27-30.
Li Lei, Liu Liming, Xie Hualin (2004). Estimates on Soil Conservation Effects and Eco-economic Value Brought
by Projects to Return Arable Land to Forest and Grassland. Journal of Water and Soil Conservation. 18(1): 161167.
Li Wei, Wang Donghua, Wang Shuhua (1996). Policy Environmental Impact Assessment and Public
Participation – Public Participation in EIA of State Toxic Chemical Legislation [J].Environmental Herald. 4: 5-7.
Li Shuzhi (2003). Major Ecological Problems Incurred by Coal Exploitation in Western China and the
Countermeasures [J]. Coal Preparation Technology. 1: 1-3.
Li Xiaodi, Zhao Wenzhi, Zhang Guosheng, (2003). Potentiality and Prospect of Oil and Gas Resources
Development in Western China, Resources Science, 2003, 25(4): 20 – 24.
Li Zongkai et al, (2000). Estimation of loss caused by acid rain in China, Research on Environmental Sciences. 35
(8): 12-18.
Liu Jiyuan et al (2005) Integrated Ecosystem Assessment of Western China. Millennium Ecosystem Sub-Global
Assessment. Project group of integrated ecosystem assessment of western China.
Liu Lanfen (2002). Research on Environment Benefit of River Water Power Development and Major
Environment Problem Journal of Hydraulic Engineering. 8: 121-128.
Lu Chunxia, Jia Huilan, Yu Yunjiang (2000). Economic Appraisal on Negative Impact of the Oil and Gas Pipe
Project to the Resource and Environment. Resources Science. 22 (6): 67-70.
Luo Weijian, Wang Kelin, Liu Ming (2003). Progress Made in Environmental and Ecological Studies on Land
Utilization and Its Structural Changes [J]. Journal of China Eco-agriculture.11(2):150-152
Meng, X.L., Wu, B., Su, D.L. (2001). Approach on the practice and development of Strategic Environmental
Assessment [J]. Environmental Assessment, 27(105): 36-46.
NBS (2004): China Statistical Yearbook, China Statistics Press. See tables 4.5, 10.8, 11.3.
NDRC (2005): Report on China’s economic and social development plan, presented at National People’s Congress
March 5, 2005. http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2005-03/16/content_425561.htm
ODPM (2004) A Draf Practical Guide to the Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive. Proposals by ODPM, the
Scottish Executive, the Welsh Assembly Government and the Northern Ireland Department of the Environment
for Practical Guidance on Applying European Directive 2001/42/EC .on the assessment of the effects of certain
plans and programmes on the environment. Office of the Deputy Prime Minister, July 2004, London.
Partidário, M R (2000). Elements of an SEA framework- improving the added-value of SEA[J], Environmental
Impact Assessment Review, 20: 647-663.
Peng Yingdeng (1999). Regional Environmental Impact Assessment. Environmental Science Press, Beijing:
China.
Pan Changying, Liu Weidong (2004). Brief Discussion on Assessment of Environment Impact by Land Use Plan.
China Population Resource and Environment. 14 (2): 134-137.
Pang Zhengang (2001). Studies on Eco-tourist Development of Western China. Eco-economy. (Natural Science
Edition).4: 49-51.
67
Qin Dahe (2002). Assessment of Environment Evolvement in Western China——General Report on Assessment
of Environment Evolvement in Western China (Comprehensive Volume) [M].
Sadler, B., and Verheem, R (1996). Stratgic environmental assessment-status, challenges and future directions.
Den Haag: VROM. Report No.53. The Netherlands: ministry of housing, spatial planning and the environment.
SEPA, State Bureau of Surveying and Mapping (2002). Maps of Western China Ecological Environment Status
Quo survey [M] Science Press.
Shen Zhen-yao, Ding Xiao-wen, Yang Zhi-feng (2004). Construction of Plan Environmental impact assessment
system in China [J]. Environmental Informatics Archives,2: 1-8.
Shi Shengtai (2001). Western Ecological Environment [M], Gansu People’s Press.
Sims, T.L. and J.J. Schiff (2000): The great western development strategy. China Business Review, NovemberDecember. http://www.chinabusinessreview.com/public/0011/sims.html
Therivel, R., and Partidário, R.P (1996). The practice of strategic environmental assessment [M]. London:
Earthscan.
Vermeulen, J. and Whitten, T. (1999). Biodiversity and Cultural Heritage in the Management of Limestone
Resources: Lessons from East Asia. The World Bank, Washington D.C.
Wang Liping, Wang Xuemei (2004). Travels the development to have the environmental effect to Tibet’s
enlightenment. Tibet science and technology.
Wang Shaowu, Dong Guangrong (2002). Assessment of Environment Evolvement in Western China——
Environmental Features and its Evolvement in Western China (Volume I) [M] Science Press.
Wang Yue, Qian Yuhao (1999). Development and Protection on Western Tourism Resources. China Geophysical
Society.
Wei Shuying (2001). Proposals and Countermeasures on Western Land Use Status Quo and its Exploitation.
China Agricultural Resources and Regional Planning. 22 (2): 8-11.
Wen Mingju (2003). Survey and Evaluation of Land Resources in Grand Western Development. China Land
Press.
Wood C (1995). Environmental impact assessment: a comparative review [M]. Edinburgh: Longman.
World Bank (2001). China Air, Land, and Water; Environmental Priorities for a New Millennium. World Bank,
Washington, D.C.
Xu He, Zhu Tan, Jia Chunrong (2000). Strategic Environmental Assessment in China – Regional Environmental
Assessment [J]. Urban Environment and Urban Ecology. 13(3): 4-6.Yin Hongzhen, Dou DengKui (2003).
Marketing Research on Western Ecological Tourism Model. Resource Development and Market. 3: 190-191.
Zhang Junlian, Zhou Lingxia, Xie Junqi, Li Xianwen (2004). Western China Water and Land Resource Matching
Model and Policy Research. Chinese Journal of Eco-Agriculture. 12(2): 12-14.
Zheng Weiyuan, Zhu Mingjun (2002). Exploitation and Utilization of Backup Farmland in Wester China and
Preliminary Analysis of Ecological Rehabilitation [J]. China Land Scienc. 16(3): 31-35.
68