1
Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 9/7/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 1- 4
Appraising Ecological Power for Identifying Appropriate Districts for
Development Around Sahand New Town
Dr. Mohammadreza Pourjafar
Professor of Urbanism
University of Tarbiat Modares
Mahdi Montazerolhojah
Ph.D Student of Urbanism
University of Tarbiat Modares
Ehsan Ranjbar
Ph.D Student of Architect
University of Tarbiat Modares
Reza Kabiri
M.Sc of Environmental Planning
University of Tehran
Introduction
During the history, human being has always been dependant on nature and environment for providing
his main requirements, but during the time has caused many effects on the land because of their
management methods and different interventions. So with regard to human beings potential capability,
ecological capability has much importance for future development of land.
On the other hand appropriate developments of cities depend on appropriate use of land potentials.
Thus, identifying the potentials and capabilities of the area prior to its establishment and loading
usages and urban activies has a great importance. Otherwise the development of the cities and
inhabitats will be performed in a way that natural and ecologica limits will prohibit the continuity of
activies and practically a lot of used investments will be lost. According to these issues, before any
intervention in the land, ecological capability of the land should be assessed and regard to this
capability and considering social and economic needs we should develop cities.
The most important issue in evaluating the ecological capability of new town of Shahand is using
environmental criteria for obtaining sustainable urban development. In fact it can be said that the main
goal of this study is to determine the best location for urban development of new town of Sahand,
which has had the least amount of bad effects in the present and in long term.
Research Methodology
This study attempts to identify appropriate districts for Sahand new town and its future development
by using descriptive – analytical method. In fact Research method is descriptive and analytical method
and data collection has been performed by library ,studies and field observations, the required
information were also obtained from Omran company in Sahand new town, Urbanization and
Housing Organization of East Azarbaijan Province, Iranian Statistics Center, Meteorology
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
2
organization of East Azarbaijan, Geology and mine Exploration Organization of Iran , Research
Society of Water and Soil, and General office of Environment Protection of East Azarbaijan.
Discussion and Results
Sahand is a new established town in East Azerbaijan province which was constructed about two
decades ago for controlling the extreme growth of Tabriz city and for attracting the extra population of
this metropolis. Sahand new town is 20 kilometers far away from Tabriz. The area of lands allocated
for this town is about 12650 hectares and it is situated on the hillside of Sahand Mountain, but only
1050 hectares of which has been constructed up to now.
In this paper, for future development of this city in the areas with proper ecological properties and
capability, Sahand land areas have been evaluated based on logistic principles of the region. The main
goal of this study is locating the best area and place for the city development which has the least bad
effects in short and long term.
The process for assessment of ecological capability in the present research includes the following three
main parts, in which after passing these stages , the ecological property at this study area has been
determined
- First, identifying ecological resources
- Second, analysis and adding up the data
- Third, assessment and classification of the area
It should be mentioned that in the assessment of ecological capability of Sahand new town, GIS is
used in a way that there is no need to fill the table (the method generally used in geographical
information systems), but by converting maps to Resteri format and use of weight overlaying based on
Resteri data, the evaluation of ecological capability of the region has been studied, in fact the final
overlayed map covers all the information and date of the model.
After identifying ecological resources, analysis and adding up the relevant data and also comparing the
determined parameters as two by two, at the next stage, the final map of ecological capability of the
under study area has been extracted. This map, based on the score, has been classified in to two groups
of rather appropriate areas (grade 1) and medium appropriate areas (grade 2), and then the final map
which is obtained based on the acceptance of the two groups of rather appropriate and medium of
development and as overlaing of the maps of these two areas, determines the appropriate lands for
development
Conclusion
Assessment of ecological potential in Iran is based on multi factor assessment. With respect to the
exclusiveness of ecological features of each region, it is obvious that assessment of ecological
potential in each region has its own special criteria and regulations. In this research, based on the
criteria specified for development of Sahand new town, it is tried to to find the direction and area of
the most appropriate geographical limits for development of Sahand new town.
By implementing the indicated assessmemt criteria and after specifying the appropriate area from the
view point of ecological potential, the final area of development is determined through overlaying and
Appraising Ecological Power for Identifying Appropriate Districts …
3
separating the relevant ecological maps and appropriate land slope from urbanization point of view
(figure No.5). In the map for slope dividing, with respect to different types of suitable slopes in
urbanization activities, these slopes in three classes of 0-8%, 8-12%and 12-15% has been considered
in development of Sahand new town.
All the development land with an area of 3500 hectares is located at east and south east of Sahand. By
scrutinizating this area and not considering the areas which have no efficiency for providing the
appropriate lands of development, an area of about 3200 hectares is considered for planning the future
development of Sahand new town.Also, at the new recommended area, creating the areas with in
appropriate width has been avoided because such areas will increase the infrastructural costs.
Finally, this development area based on morphology, natural features and Sahand-Tabriz freeway were
divided in to four urban districts and was considered for future development of Sahnd town as
prioritization.
Keywords: Ecological capability assessment, City development, Sahand new town, AHP, GIS.
Refrences
1- Bontayan, N.C., and Bishop, I. D (1998). Linking Objective and Subjective Modeling for Land
Use Decision Making. Landscape and Urban Planning. Vol. 43, No. 1-3.
2- Burrough, P.A (1996). Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Rresources
Assessment. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
3- Chan, S.L., and Huang, S.L (2004). A System Approach for The Development of a Sustainable
Community, The Application of The Sensitivity Model(SM). Environmental Management, No. 72.
4- Freksa, C., Mark, D.M., eds (1999). Spatial Information Theory - Cognitive and Computational
Foundations of Geographic Information Science, Berlin, Springer.
5- Hosseini Abri, Sayyed Hasan (2000). the Theoretical Framework and Model of Rural Development
in Balochistan, Isfahan University Research.
6- Makhdoom, Majid (2005). Foundation of Land Use Planning, Sixth Edition, Tehran University
Publication, Tehran.
7- Monavari, S.M (1994). The Application of Geographical and Environmental Considerations in
New Towns site selection, Proceedings of International Conference of Urban Development and
New Towns, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development.
8- Monavari, S.M., and Tabibian, S (2006). Identification of Environmental Factors Determining the
site of New Cities in Iran, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 8, No. 3.
9- Montazerolhodjah, Mahdi, (2009), Considering Criteria of Landmarks Site Selection and Design in
New Towns; Case Study: Sahand New Town, East Azerbaijan, MA Thesis, Supervisor: Dr.
M.R.Pourjafar, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat Modares University.
10- Mostafapour, Ahmad (2005). Analysis of Realization of New Towns Goals in Iran; Case Study:
Pardis New Town, MS Thesis, Supervisor: Dr. H.Shakouei, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat
Modares University.
11- National Center of Land Use Planning (2006). Provincial Program Studies Guide, Management
and Planning Organization, Vol. I, Second Edition.
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
4
12- Noori, Hedayatollah (2000). Spatial Analysis in Agricultural Geography, Journal of Geographical
Research, Vol. 39.
13- Nouri, J., Sharifipour, R., and Babaei, A.A (2006). Ecological Capability of Land Use Planning
for Rural Development, Online Journal of Biological Sciences 6 (1).
14- Orartu, Consulting Engineers (1991). Strategic Studies of Sahand New Town, Vol. VIII: Physical
Development Patterns, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, New Towns of Iran
Organization.
15- Padisson , R (2001). Handbook of urban studies, London, SAGE publications.
16- Pourjafar, M.R (2009). Conservation of Old Towns. Tehran: Payam Press
17- Qodsipour, Hasan (2007). Analytic Hierarchy Process, Amirkabir University of Technology,
Tehran.
18- Rahnamai, Mohammad Taghi (1991). Environmental Capacities of Iran, Center for Architectural
and Urban Studies and Research, Tehran.
19- S.A.P (Sabz Andish Payesh), Consulting Engineers (2008). Review of Sahand New Town
Comprehensive Plan, Volume I, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, New Towns of
Iran Organization, Sahand New Town Organization.
20- Sharestan, Consulting Engineers (2005). Sahand New Town Detailed Plan and Land Development
Plan Studies, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, New Towns of Iran Organization,
Sahand New Town Organization.
21- Ziari, Keramatollah (1999). New Towns Planning, Samt Publication, Tehran.
5
Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 17/10/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 5- 8
Evaluating the Effect of Tectonic on the Entrenchment of Alluvial Fans’ Head Around
Danehkhoshk Anticline
Dr. Shahram Bahrami
Assistant Profess Geomorphology
University of Hakim Sabzevari
Dr. Mehran Maghsoudi
Associate Professor of Geomorphology
University of Tehran
Kazem Bahrami
M.Sc of Engineering Geology
University of Tarbiat Modares
Introduction
Alluvial fans are deposit landforms that their development is controlled by a number of factors such as
tectonic, climate, lithology, base level change and morphometric properties of catchments. Among
mentioned factors, tectonic has a major role in the fan development in tectonically active mountain
ranges. The velocity of tectonic uplifting in mountain fronts can affect the rate of river entrenchment
and the location of deposition in alluvial fans. When the rate of uplift exceeds the rate of streamchannel down cutting at the mountain front, deposition will tend to be focused near the fan apex.
Climatic changes is also an important variable affecting the alluvial fans aggradations and degradation.
In the wetter glacial periods, sediment production in the catchments of fans were increased and hence
fans surfaces experienced aggradation while during drier present-day climate regime (interglacial
period), fans surfaces experience degradation and incision. Although several works have been carried
out on tectonic effects on alluvial fan development, little works have been done about tectonic effect
on the rate of alluvial fan entrenchment in Iran. The study area is located in the south of SarpoleZahab town, Kermanshah province, in western part of Iran. 103 alluvial fans have been formed
around uplifting Danehkhoshk anticline. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the uplifting effect of
Danehkhosh anticline on the entrenchment of alluvial fans.
Research Methodology
To evaluate the relationship between entrenchment rate of alluvial fans and active tectonics of
Danehkhosh anticline, boundaries of 103 alluvial fans were delineated based on Quick bird satellite
imagery as well as field works. After digitizing 20-meter contour lines from topographic maps of
Iranian National Geography Organization, at a scale of 1:50 000, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of
study area were prepared in ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) software. The
catchment's borders were identified by topographic maps and Quick bird satellite imagery. The
borders of fans and their basins were converted to polygons and thereby basin and fan areas were
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
6
obtained. To determine fan entrenchment, deepest channel on every fan surface was identified by field
works. Subsequently, the difference in elevation between the channel bed (C) and the old surfaces of
fan, in right (B) and left (A) sides of channel was obtained by a theodolite. Geological data such as
lithology, faults and cross sections were derived from 1:250 000 and 1/1000000 scale geological maps.
The strata dips of anticline limbs were measured at mountain front by a clinometer.
Discussion and Results
Studied alluvial fans are located around Danehkhoshk anticline that is tectonically active. The lateral
growing of anticline towards southeastern and northwestern ends and the presence of a deep canyon
(Golin canyon) in the southeastern end reveals that Danehkhoshk anticline is tectonically active and
growing laterally toward southeast and northwest. Field works revealed that most fans are composed
of inactive or degradational surfaces with large boulders and clasts. The presence of large boulders
and clasts, pitting of calcareous boulders, varnished clasts and some soil development on most fans
reveal that most of fans surfaces are now inactive. Data show that the areas of fans range from 0.21 to
30.5 hectares. The Largest basin (upstream of fan 74) has an area of 736.8 hectares whereas smallest
basin (upstream of fan 41) has an area of 3.77 hectares. The rates of fan entrenchment vary from 0.45
to 14 meters. Evaluating the rates of fan surface entrenchment and structural dips of anticline limb
reveals that rate of entrenchment of fans increases with increasing strata dips. Result of this study
shows that maximum depth of fan surface entrenchment has taken place over fan surfaces located on
steepest limbs of anticline. Data analysis represents that there is positive relation (with a correlation
coefficient of 65%) between the fan surface entrenchment and the strata dips at the upstream side of
fan. Results reveal that the correlation coefficient between the fan surface entrenchment and the strata
dips is higher (86%) among fans with larger catchments (50 to 736.85 hectares). This means that fans
with larger catchments are more sensitive to tectonic uplift (or strata dips) than fans with smaller
catchments. Results also represent that there is no positive relation between catchment areas and
entrenchment of fan surfaces so that correlation coefficient between two parameters is 9%.
Conclusion
Danehkhoshk anticline is part of Simply Folded Belt of Zagros, growing laterally towards southeast
and northwest. Studied anticline is composed of same lithology (Asmari unit; limestone and dolomite).
The difference in the rate of tectonic uplifting has resulted in the variation in the strata dips of anticline
limbs. Hence, this research was focused on the tectonic effects on fans entrenchment rate. Results
show that fans entrenchment rate is controlled by tectonic or strata dips of anticline limbs so that fans
entrenchment increases as strata dip increases. Data show that there is no meaningful correlation
between catchments area and fans entrenchment rate. It seems that this is due to the differences in the
tectonic and uplifting rates in different parts of anticline. Studied anticline was subdivided into three
tectonic zones. The rate of fan entrenchment is higher along steep slope mountain fronts (zone 1) than
gentler mountain fronts (zones 2 and 3). Overall, this research shows fan surface entrenchment is
perfectly affected by tectonic situation of strata dips of anticline limbs.
Evaluating the Effect of Tectonic on the Entrenchment of ...
Keywords: Tectonic, Alluvial fan, entrenchment, structural dip, Danehkhoshk.
Refrences
7
1- Abbas Nezhad, A (1997). Neotectonical surveys of fan deposits; applications from Kerman
Province. Geosciences, No. 25.
2- Abedini, M., Rajaei, A (2006). Evaluating the effective parameters in the development of alluvial
fans of Dareh Diz – Divan Daghi elevations by new methods and techniques. Geography
researches,No. 55.
3- Ahnert, F (1998). Introduction to Geomorphology. Arnold, London.
4- Azor, A., Keller, E.A., Yeats, R.S (2002). Geomorphic indicators of active fold growth: South
Mountain–Oak Ridge anticline, Ventura basin, southern California. GSA Bulletin, No. 114.
5- Beaumont, P (1972). Alluvial fans along the foothills of the Elburz Mountains, Iran.
Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, No. 12.
6- Blair, TC, and McPherson, J.G (2009). Alluvial fan processes and forms, In: Abrahams, A D and
Parsons, A J (eds) Geomorphology of Desert Environments, 2nd Edn, Springer.
7- Bull, W. B (1977). The Alluvial- Fan Environment. Progress in Physical Geography, No. 1.
8- Burbank, D.W and Anderson, R.S (2001). Tectonic geomorphology: Blackwell Science, Oxford.
9- Calvache, M.L., Viseras, C., Fernandez, J (1997). Controls on fan development-evidence from fan
morphometry and sedimentology, Sierra Nevada, SE Spain. Geomorphology, No. 21.
10- Crosta, G. B., and Frattini, P (2004). Controls on modern alluvial fan processes in the central Alps,
northern Italy. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, No. 29.
11- Goswami, P K ., Pant C C and Pandey, S (2009). Tectonic controls on the geomorphic evolution
of alluvial fans in the Piedmont Zone of Ganga Plain, Uttarakhand, India. Journal of Earth System
Science, No.118.
12- Harvey, A.M (1996). The role of alluvial fans in the mountain fluvial systems of southeast Spain:
implications of climatic change. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, No. 21.
13- Iranian National Geography Organization (1996). 1/50000 topographic map, sheet 5158-1.
14- Iranian National Oil Company (1963). 1/250000 geological map of Qasre Shirin Sheet.
15- Iranian National Oil Company (1969). 1/1000000 Geological map of south western Iran Sheet.
16- Kumar, R., Suresh, N., Sangode, S.J., Kumaravel, V (2007). Evolution of the Quaternary alluvial
fan system in the Himalayan foreland basin: Implications for tectonic and climatic decoupling.
Quaternary International, No. 159.
17- Maghsoudi, M (2008). Assessment of Effective Factors on Evolution of Alluvial Fans Case Study:
Jajroud Alluvial Fan. Physical Geography Research Quarterly, No. 65.
18- Malik, J.N., Sohoni, P.S., Merh, S.S., Karanth, R.V (2001). Active tectonic control on alluvial fan
architecture along Kactchh Mainland Hill Range, Western India. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie
N.F, No. 45.
19- Mokhtari, D., Karami, F., Bayati Khatibi, M (2005). Different types of alluvial fans around
Mishoodagh mountainous massif, with emphasis on the effects of tectonic activities on their
formation. Modares Quarterly, No. 53.
20- Ramesht, M.H., Shahzeidi, S., Seif, A, Entezari, M (2009). Effect of active tectonic in the
morphology of Derakhtegan alluvial fans in Shahdad, Kerman, Geography and Development
Quarterly, No. 16.
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
8
21- Robustelli, G., Muto, F., Scarciglia, F., Spina, V., Critelli, S (2005). Eustatic and tectonic control
on Late Quaternary alluvial fans along the Tyrrhenian Sea coast of Calabria (South Italy).
Quaternary Science Reviews, No. 24.
22- Roostaei, Sh, Zomorrodian, M.J., Rajabi, M., Maghami Moghim, Gh (2009). Effect of tectonic
activity in formation of alluvial fans in the southern slopes of Aladagh. Geography and
Development Quarterly, No. 13.
23- Sorriso-Valvo, M., Antronico, L., Le Pera, E (1998). Controls on modern fan morphology in
Calabria, Southern Italy. Geomorphology, No. 24.
24- Viseras, C. and Fernandez, J (1994). Channel migration patterns and related sequences in some
alluvial fan systems. Sedimentary Geology, No. 88.
25- Viseras, C., Calvache, M.L., Soria, J.M., Ferna´ndez, J (2003). Differential features of alluvial
fans controlled by tectonic or eustatic accommodation space. Examples from the Betic Cordillera,
Spain. Geomorphology, No. 50.
26- Whipple, K.X. & Trayler, C.R (1996). Tectonic control of fan size: the importance of spatially
variable subsidence rates. Basin Research, No. 8.
27- Yamani, M., Maghsoudi, M ( 2003). Evaluation of the effect of braided channel development in
the alluvial fan surface; case study, Tangueieh alluvial fans in Sirjan plain. Geography researches,
No. 45.
9
Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 22/7/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 9 - 12
Sustainable Local Development and Attracting Maximum Participation of People
Case Study: The Experiences of International Project of Carbon Sequestration in South
Khorasan
Dr. Rostam Saberifar
Assistant Professor of Geography
University of Payam Noor
Dr. Mahmood Fal Soleyman
Assistant Professor of Geography
University of Birjand
Sedigheh Gheisari
M.Sc University of Payam Noor
Introduction
Although, villagers are the societies with simple social, cultural and economical relations, but in most
of the areas, the existence of cultural, ethnic, and religious conflicts issues and more important, the
intensive contrast of social classes has caused societies with its specific complications. For this reason,
developing proper approaches for entering in to such societies is the main concern of programmers
and policy-makers. The experiences of several decades of activities about rural development shows
that failure of programs and unsuccess in accompanying people and their maximum cooperation in
the plans and constructional, social, and cultural projects has a close relation with the attraction of
villagers’ confidence. Therefore, it seems that if we be able to increase the villagers’ confidence
toward programmers and policy-makers, a large part of these problems will be solved. The
experiences of some successful plans show that the best solution for this problem is to involve
practically villagers into planning, implementation and evaluation processes. The condition that is
noticed in some projects, including the Carbon Sequestration Project (CSP), which is implemented in
Hossein Abad of Sarbisheh region. The managers of this project who, through maintaining and
reviving natural resources of the region, have intended to increase the current Carbon Sequestration
realized that they cannot reach the targets without participation and accompaniment of people. This
group, after studing the social and cultural condition of the region and observing weak results of
previous plans reached to this end that they should concentrate their most attempts on attracting the
participation of people. They found that they should make plans together with people, instead of for
people. Also this research is implemented to introduce this project.
Research Methodology
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
10
This survey is implemented by descriptive and analytic method. Therefore, a sample size with 354
people is selected by random method. 188 people of this sample are the villagers who are inhabited in
the area of CSP and the inhabits of the adjacent villages who have not enjoyed from facilities of this
project. Moreover, to study the conformity of the considered priorities of the project authorities and
people, the priorities considered by senior authorities of the project area were considered and asked.
For more accurate and precise study of the condition, the required information were obtained through
questionnaire. Formal and local statistists were used in addition of field statistics and information. A
pretest is performed to determine the validity of the questionnaire in the under the study area; and then
0.94 Cronbach's alpha coefficient was obtained by using SPSS software which indicates that the
questions of the questionnaire have a great validity.
Discussion and Results
CSP has directly involved people into planning, implementation, and supervision fields to set demands
and proprieties of them. So that, it is sound that CSP has come to provide villagers demands and
needs, rather than to maintain and/or increase vegetation of the region. In fact, when the intended
priorities of the people and authorities were compared, this survey showed that the average of scores
that the people and the authorities have assigned, are too close together and nearly the same.
Therefore, participation in CSP has got near to 80 percent. In contrary to most of the plans, this
participation has been involved various groups of people. Maximum participation of people and
following-up the project implementation conditions through correct and democratic methods, have
brought specific consequences and blessings. For example, the current surveys showed that the income
condition of households that exploit from the facilities of the project are too better than the households
who are not located in the project. According to the obtained results and sequences from
implementation of CSP, it is identified that the people have highly got confidence to the project and
even they are hopeful to its future. so that, the results of the survey about forecasting a willing future
for this project and other similar projects show that 66 percent of the people are hopeful to the future
of these activities. On this basis, through realization of maximum participation of people ,the sense of
possession and participation in the results and consequences of constructional plans will be provided
and people play not only the role of its protector and supporter powers but also as the permanent
preserver and keeper.
Conclusion
Since, most of constructional projects in rural areas don’t face with the participation and willingness of
villagers, therefore they do not have distinguished results, and the main target of the current research is
to identify how this basic problem can be removed. For this reason, the obtained experiences from the
International Carbon Sequestration Project have been discussed. Initial surveys showed that significant
revolution occurred in economical and social condition of Hossein-Abad-e Ghinab area, through
implementation of CSP. Within the process of designing and implementation of the Project, firstly
authorities of the project tried to lead the people. In second step, after presenting necessary training
and information, they limit their performance range to guidance and cooperation. In third and final
Sustainable Local Development and Attracting Maximum ...
11
step, authorities sufficed to present necessary and demanded consulting by villagers. By this way,
villagers, themselves, take the initiative and really get involved into practice .
Continuing this procedure caused that the people not only contrast against the CSP but also they be
considered as designer and executer of that, by presenting their little savings. This action has brought
good and effective results, including maximum people participation in the plan, increase of villagers’
income, decrease of immigration, sense of possession to the established installation and equipments
and consequently protecting and maintaining them, etc.
Mainly, the obtained results and sequences from this project showed that if people practically got
involved into constructional plans and projects and their views be used in this issue, not only the
budgets and the spent cost will not be wasted, but will have results and consequences more that what
forecasted. For this reason, it is advised that the experiences of CSP to be considered preciously take
an attention and practically applied in other plans and projects about rural development and even in
urban and regional plans.
Keywords: Local development, Directed interventions, Rural society, Participation, Carbon
sequestration project.
Refrences
1- Andishe-ye Sabz (2007). Why Carbon Sequestration?, Andishe-ye Sabz, Promotional Journal of
CSP, Vol. 1, No. 1
2- Andishe-ye Sabz (2008). Abstract of Carbon Sequestration Project Operation, Vol. 2, No. 3
3- Carbon Sequestration Project (2008). Basic factors for implementation of participatory
development, Andishe-ye Sabz, Vol. 1, No.2
4- Chambers, R (1992). Rapid Rural Appraisal and Participation, I.D.S., Sussex.
5- Chambers, R (2003). Reflection on P. R. A. Experiences, Pathway to Participation, I.D.S.,
Sussex.
6- Chambers, R (2004). Prioritizing The Poors, Translated by M. Azkiya, Tehran Tehran University
Press.
7- Khorashadizadeh Gh. et al (2007). International Carbon Sequestration Project, Execution Report,
National Forests, Pastures, and Watershed Management Organization: International carbon
Sequestration Project Office.
8- Lewin, E (2006). Feminist Anthropology, Blackwell, Oxford.
9- Malhotra P, Dutta S, Pal RC, Sharma S, Ramana PV(2000). Rural Energy Matters:The Dhanawas
Experience, Data Energy Institute, New Delhi.
10- Malhotra P, Dutta S, Ramana PV (1998). Participatory Rural Energy Planning: A Handbook, Tata
Energy Research Institute, New Delhi.
11- Malhotra, P (2006). Management of Community-Based Energy Interventions In Rural Areas of
India, Calina in Waey, India.
12- Matthews, L (1994). Manual for Social, the Agha Khan Rural Support Programme, Pakistan.
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13- Moseley, M.J (2004). Rural Development: Principles and Practice, Sage, Publications, London.
14- Naraghi, Y (1991). Development and Developing Countries, Press Corporation, Tehran.
15- Nomads Affairs Administration (2000). Planning and Implementing Inhabitation Site for Nomads
of Hossein-Abad-e Ghinab, Nomads Affairs Admministration of Khorasan, Masshhad.
16- Perat, Bryan, Louses, and Peter (2008). Selecting Research Method, Translated by E. Hasanpour
Ahi Dashti, Pubished by research and Survey rural affairs.
17- Poland DHV Consulting Engineers (1992). Guidelines for Programming of Rural Centers, Rousta
va Tose’a Press.
18- Saberifar, R (2002). Social and Economical Study of River and Bed of Kalat-e Nader River,
Sazab-e Shargh Consulting Engineers Company.
19- Saberifar, R. and Gheysari, S (2009). Management of Rural Areas and Eliminating Poverty, Case
Study, Hossein-Abad-e Ghinab, Village and Development, Vol. 20, No. 2
20- Shirzad, A and Azkiya, M (2006). Rural Management, Ministry of Interior.
21- Taleb, M (1997). Rural Management in Iran, Tehran Tehran University Press.
22- Third Monitoring CSP (2008). Monitoring Plan for Carbon Sequestration Economical and Social
Studies Sector: Forests, Pastures, and Watershed Management Organization, Forests, Pastures,
and Watershed Management Department of South Khorasan.
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of Hossein-Abad-e Ghinab, Nomads Affairs Admministration of Khorasan, Masshhad.
13
Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 8/6/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 13 - 15
Temporal and Spatial Analysis of Hail in Iran
Dr. Manuchehr Farajzadeh
Associated Professor of Remote Sensing
University of Tarbiat Modares
Taher Mostafapoor
M. Sc of Climatology
University of Tarbiat Modares
Introduction
Hail is one of the most important climatic hazards in the world and Iran. Hail is a phenomena related
to thunderstorm which occurrs in unstable atmosphere with high level of moisture. Hail damages
human and agricultural products. The damage of hail is serious in comparing with tornadoes and
storms. Most of these damages occurrs in agriculture sector and on the crops, so that sometimes all the
annual crops are destroyed in a few minutes. Iran has a mountainous condition in Alborz and Zageos
area that in association with climatic system creates a suitable area for hail occurrence. In order to
prevent the damages of hail, it is necessary to study the frequency and other climatic features. In this
study, the temporal and spatial distributions of hail have been investigated in Iran.
Data and Method
The present study has concentrated on the observation data from 67 synoptic stations of a 20-years
period (1986-2005), and the spatial distribution has been demonstrated on the country map. In this
research, the analyses have been performed by statistical method. At first, the data collected through
statistical tests, were examined and then the related data base has been created.the next process was
the extract of frequencies for each station, which is performed by SPSS software. After that the
calculated frequencies has been entered in to GIS software (ArcGIS) frequency mapshas been
prepared and analyzed.
Discussion and Results
The prepared geographical distribution maps indicate the frequency concentration in Iran. Maximum
amount of frequency is 4.7 which has been recorded on northern, western and eastern stations of Ilam
and other stations are Abali with the average of 4.3 and Maragheh station with an annual mean of 3.2.
Regarding the hail seasonal distribution, the highest amount is recorded in spring in which the highest
frequency of 1.7 has been recorded for Abali weather station. After spring, the second one is winter
which is recorded for Ilam of about 2.5. Autumn and summer have the low frequency so that in most
stations, the hail precipitation in summer is zero and in autumn it reaches to 0.1. The monthly
distribution of hail precipitation belongs to March, April and May months.
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
14
The highest frequencies of hail occurred in March with 22 cases and April and December with 21
cases which recorded for Ilam and Abali weather stations. Regarding the hourly distribution of hail,
the highest amount of hail is recorded between 6 am to 15 pm on Greenwich Time (9:30 am to 18:30
pm for local time). The analysis indicated that distribution of hail occurrence in Iran as a common
phenomenon has not been the same for all the regions but it mainly occurres in special regions. It is
entirely due to the climatic changes and topography conditions, because the condition for unstable
atmospheric systems is suitable for the occurrence of hail. The temporal conditions for occurrence of
this phenomenon are on late March and early April. In that time of year, the whole country is
influenced by Mediterranean systems moving from west. During this time the temperature difference
in plains and mountain regions covered with snow and the topographical condition of main regions
which hail is occurred, an increase in temperature can be obsereved. Moreover, the hail occurrence
especially at early hours in the afternoon, in which the temperatures difference between the mountain
and plain regions is significant is probably one of the reasons of hail occurrence in this time of a day.
Conclusion
The analysis shows that hail is concentrated on east ranges of Zagros extending toward north west of
Iran on a direct line to the boarders of Ilam province and also concentrated on the southern parts of
central Alborz range, from this point to the southern parts of the country, the hail frequency is
decreased and in some stations located in the southern parts of Iran, the hail is almost zero. There are
two weather stations in the eastern parts of the country namely Birjand and Torbatheydarye where a
higher level of hail is recorded in comparing to the other parts of the country probably due to high
altitudes such as Qayenat Mountain ranges and Birjand.
Keywords: Hail - Hailstorm- Thunderstorm- Temporal and spatial distribution- Iran.
References
1- AbdeManafi, Dina (2004). The study of erratic indicators, wind right angle cut and the situation
234567-
of moisture at the time of hail precipitation, an M.A thesis, Tehran university.
Alizadeh, Amin (2006). The principles of applied hydrology, Astane Ghodse Razavi
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province, 11th conference on geophysics of Iran.
Charles, A. & Doswell, C,A (1993). Scientific Approaches for very short range forecasting of
severe convective storms in the united state of America.
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Frisby, E.m (1961). Relationship of ground hail damage patterns to features of synoptic map in
the upper Great plain of the united state. J.Appl. meteorology. No1.
15
8- Giaiotti, Dario &etc (2003). The climatology of hail in the plain of Friuli Venezia Giulia ,
Atmospheric Research ,No 67 -68.
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climatological events, Journal of Applied meteorology, No 3.
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11- Qorbani,Azam (2006). the analysis and study of hail phenomenon and cloud classification using
GIS and RS in Zayande Rood basin, an M.A thesis, the university of Tarbyat Moalem.
12- Mir Moosavi, SayedHoseyn & Akbarzadeh, Yunes (2009).The study of disorder indicators in
forming hail at Tabriza aerology station, FazayeJoghrafyayi, NO9-25, 105, 95.
13- Mir Musavi, SeyedHoseyn & Akbarzade, Yunes (2009). applying poacen and negative
functions in evaluating the occurrence possibilities of hail precipitation (case study): East
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15- Seyf, Mehrzad (1996). The study of the distribution of hail precipitation in Iran and its case
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thermodynamic environment, Applied Climatology, No 75.
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19- Weorer, john & Lindsey, d (2004). Some overlooked severe Thunderstorms Characteristic
observed.
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
16
Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 2/5/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 16 - 20
A Survey on Capacities and Problems for Sustainable Development of Mountainous
Valleys Using the SWOT Model
Case study: Kardeh Valley in the North of Mashhad City
Dr. Ali Asghar Kadivar
Assoistant Professor of Geography
University of Payam Nour
Dr. Mohammad Mosavi
Assoistant Professor of Management Governmental
University of Payam Nour
Introduction
After several decades of struggle for development of rural districts and protection of water and soil of
these regions, Unfortunately,The Poverty and jobless and damages to natural resources is further on
progress in many countries, particularly rural regions of the developing countries. The reason for this
situation is that ,the index for poverty reduction, jobless and imbalance in development definition has
not been considered for three decades (1950-1980) and the development has been defined only as a
per person income . The surveys and different experiences in the far distance of the world, particularly
in developing countries, shows that the reduction in poverty, reduction in jobless and sustainable
utilization of natural resources in rural environment as well as a decrease in distance between poor’s
and wealthy people could not be achieved successfully only by looking to agricultural problems. But
a structural looking to residents in villages and consideration of all residents’ problems if accompanied
with a progress in non – agricultural business and income creation, using all rural capability in the
region, could be a good solution for rural problems. Therefore ,in recent decades, the policies of the
countries toward the different economic activities particularly in development of rural tourism as
generation of a new income has been recommended to resist against the rural poverty and rural
jobless. Attention to non agricultural activities in rural environment accompanied by social– economic
improvement in rural families (those with no or less property and water) will bring a reduction in
environmental hazards of the rural districts and also will reduce the urban problems of suburbs and
environmental pollution.
Now days, the new participatory look is the central column of sustainable development .Participatory
management is a people satisfactory method and includes the role of local societies in sustainable
development as a determinant factor. Participation in decision making, share in responsibility and
having the authority, could be the best particularity and a symbol of real participation. Participation in
public affairs will familiarize the most of people with possibilities and particularly with limitations
A Survey on Capacities and Problems for Sustainable Development ...
17
exist around them. They will learn to act not only as an individual but also as a social group so that the
potential of people power in different levels could be appeared. Using the managers and the local
superior groups to determine the most appropriate strategies for development is the correct decision.
Although it has not the benefits of horizontal participation but it is close to Ozalid Strategy and it has
been useful and suitable method in many regions particularly in rural regions of developing countries.
Therefore, to make the activities of the rural societies sustainable, the present research is to make
known the various capacities of mountainous valleys for creation of variation in job occupation and
enhance the income based on the views of local authorities and using SOWT model. To achieve the
results and goals of the research, two important questions should be answered:
1- Considering the natural conditions of the in villages of Kardeh valley, What are the strength points,
the weak points, opportunities and threats in this region ?
2- To reduce the existing problems and challenges in this region particularly in natural resources,
which kind of guidelines and strategies are there with consideration of the weak points and
opportunities?
The Method of Investigation
This investigation has been done through field study and with a descriptive-analytic method using
SWOT model. In the field study, local managers questioners (including village governor and members
of Islamic council in the study area) with a total number of 45 persons were used. The study and
determination of weak points, strength points, opportunities and threats were undertaken in two steps
in the study area. The collected data were classified and totalized and based on totalized data and using
SWOT model of David, the appropriate strategies were compiled and presented.
Discussion and Results
The external factors evaluation Matrix
The external evaluation matrix is the result of strategic study of external factors. In matrix, the
opportunities and threats of external environment are collected and evaluated. If the amounts of total
external factors were between 1 to 2.5, the result would show the treat and if between 2.5 to 4 it
determines the existing of opportunities. So, the number 2.18 in the matrix table of external factors
evaluation shows that a relative threat in the area exists.
Internal factors evaluation matrix
The internal factors evaluation matrix is the result of strategic study of internal factors. This matrix
writes and evaluates the main strength points and weak points. if the amounts of final internal
evaluation of internal factors were between 1 to 2.5, this indicate the weakness and if the result shows
number 2.5 to number 4 that means the strength . So the number 2.65 in the internal factors evaluation
means that a relative strength exists in the study area.
The written strategies:
Considering the extracted data from questioners, the internal and external factors evaluation matrix
was written and by using the SWOT analysis matrix, the strategies were written too. At the end, using
the 4 boxes matrix of internal and external factors (IE), the appropriate strategies were selected from
presented strategies and then the result was proposed.
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
18
The final mark for internal factor evaluation(IFE)
As it is shown in matrix of external factors, variation in job occupation considering the limited source
for water will come in box (3) or competition box. This point shows that diversify in occupation with
consideration of water limitation has a good situation but from the point of external factors it has not a
good situation.
The final mark for internal factor evaluation(IFE)
A Survey on Capacities and Problems for Sustainable Development ...
19
As it is shown in the table , the points resulted from Minimum and Maximum of internal and external
standard deviation around the points (2.65 , 2.18 ) shows that the concentration of points are in box (3)
and dispersion of points are in boxes of (1) and (4) . This means that, in addition of competition
strategies, the attack and defending strategies should be compiled and be executed too.
Conclusion
The result of the present investigation, based on the views of local managers, gives us a new guideline
in all-inclusive development with consideration the capabilities and the problems of space and location
in the mountainous valleys in the suburbs of towns.
Based on the investigation results, the area under investigation has appropriate conditions from the
points of internal factors. But the area has not a good condition from the points of external factors.
therefore, considering the results achieved from the four boxes matrix of internal and external factors
and concentration of mean points in box number three (competition) and dispersion of points in boxes
No.1 (Attack) and No.4 (conservative action), the competitive strategies and diversification in job
occupation, considering the limitation in water resources as the first priority and the conservative
action and defending as later priority, should be confirmed.
According to the present investigation results, the following strategies as appropriate strategies are
presented on the priority importance:
1- Creation of jobs in the form of productive – service cooperatives to reduce the pressure on water
and soil resources
2- To improve the water utilization method in agricultural sector
3- The promotion and strengthening the mechanism of participatory management with the priority in
using the skilled and educated local human power.
4- To create and develop the multipurpose people companies.
5- Improvement and approving the laws and the pertinent regulation in water resources management.
6- Creation and strengthening the watershed management to protect the natural resources.
7- Development and promotion the required skills in the optimum utilization of resources through
organization of local and regional training workshops.
8- Creation and development the changeable industries and packaging to enhance the increased value
of agricultural and husbandry products.
9- Creation and development of new methods in utilization of soil and water resources.
Refrences
1-Tavassoli, Gholam Abbass (1382). Social Participatory in conditions of an atomic society , Tehran
University Publication.
2- Twodaro micle (1370). economic development in the third world, Volum I, Translated by : Gholam
Ali Fardjadi, Tehran . Budget and plan organization
3-Regional Water Company of Razavi Khorassan (1386). a data book of yearly Hydrometric of
Kardeh River : Mashhad
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
20
4 Shahi Ardabili,Hekmat (1386). The role of rural industries in Optimum income distribution , PhD
Thesis , Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.
5-Shayan, Hamid and Shahi, Hekmat (1386). The role of rural industries in Optimum income
distribution , Village and Development magazine , summer 1386.
6-David,Fred R (1382). Strategic management , translated by :Ali parsian and seid Mohammad
Aarabi,Tehran, The Office for cultural research, 4th eddition .
7-Fain, Ben (1385). Social invest and social Theory , Translated by : Seid Mohmmad Kamal sarvarian,
the publication of research Institute of Guidelines studies: Tehran.
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protection,Translated by : Gholam Abbass Tavassoli, publication of Hekayat Ghalam Novin: Tehran.
9-Kadivar, Ali Asghar (1388). a survey on the effects of building dams in river Basins , Case study the
dams of Kardeh and Bidwas in Khorassan Razavi & Khorassan Shomali, a PhD Thesis , Ferdowsi
University > Mashhad.Iran
10-Moosavi, Seid Mohammad (1388). compilation of the Strategies of Human resources “, PhD thesis,
the faculty of accounting and management , University of Allameh Tabatabaee , Tehran.
11-The Climatology Center of Northeast of IRAN (1386). Statistical certification of Rain gauge
stations of Mashhad (1350-1386).
12- Iran Center for Statistics (1385). public census for population and housing , www.sci.org.ir
13-Homayoonpoor, Parvis (1380). “ New Participatory guidelines” , Proceedings of the technical
workshops , IRICID:Tehran
14-Bale .Johm, smith .David (1989(. Ecology and development in the Third World,London and New
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15Brant .Steven & Fekri Hasan (2000(. Dam and cultural heritage management, university of Florida.
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Research Institute. Washington, D.c.
17-Maestu .Josefina )2003(. Public participation river basin management in Spin, availbel at :www .
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21
Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 25/5/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 21- 24
Spatial Monitoring of Groundwater Salinity in Drought and Wet Periods
Case Study: Tabriz Plain
Dr. Fariba Karami
Associate Professor of Geography
University of Tabriz
Haneih Kazemi
M.Sc University of Tabriz
Introduction
Groundwater, which forms part of hydrologic cycle is a reliable source for supplying the water
required by human being. The occurrence of droughts and heavy precipitations are the most important
climatic extremes having both short and long-term impacts on the ground- water availability. The
results of climatic extremes propagate through the hydrological system, including surface water and
groundwater (unsaturated zone and saturated groundwater). These impacts include changes in
groundwater recharge resulting from the erratic behavior of the annual and seasonal distribution of
precipitation and temperature; changes in evapotranspiration resulting from changes in vegetation.
Drought is a recurring, natural phenomenon, which affects every part of the hydrological cycle.
Droughts are mostly caused by periods of lower than average precipitation and propagate through the
hydrological system. Fall of water table and decrease of groundwater chemical quality cause
secondary soil salinity, surface water salinity and reduction of soil fertility in arid and semi-arid
regions. These phenomena, which salted soil and water resources, are effective factors of
desertification in the world. Thus, spatial monitoring of groundwater chemical quality at the time of
climatic extremes is necessary for stable management and planning water and soil resources in the
area of exposed to salinity hazard. Continued and intense droughts occurred in Iran and Tabriz plain in
past years (1998-2008). The impacts of droughts make dry surface water resources and bring down
water table strongly. In Tabriz plain, Farmers used surface waters of Aji-chai, Komor-chai and snikhchai rivers. Also, they used groundwater of plain. In drought periods, that precipitation declines and
groundwater level falls, high exploitation of groundwater resources change chemical quality waters.
Low quality waters aren’t suitable for agriculture. Also, salt waters cause secondary soil salinity in
plain. Therefore, the aims of this research are determination of drought and wet periods in Tabriz plain
by SPI index and spatial monitoring of chemical quality groundwater in the study years in Tabriz
plain. Tabriz plain is located at the east of Urmia lake. Its west limit is salty swamps of Urmia lake
margins. Moro Mountain is located in the north of Tabriz plain and Sahand Mountain is the south limit
of Tabriz plain. The Onebne-ali elevations are forming the east limit of Tabriz plain. Aji-chai River is
flowing in Tabriz plain toward Urmia Lake. Other rivers such as Saeedabad-chai, Mehranrud-chai and
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
22
Gomanab-chai are joining to Aji-chai River. There are two types of aquifers in Tabriz plain (Confined
aquifer and unconfined aquifer). Unconfined aquifer located in east, northeast and southeast of the
study plain. There are confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer in parts of west. Unconfined aquifer
into plio-pleistocene tuffs has high quality waters and located in North Slope of Sahand Mountain. The
plio-pleistocene tuff is composed of red and green andesitic tuff admixed with large quantities of
blocks, gravel and sand of volcanic and alluvial origin. Also, unconfined aquifer into alluvial tuff is
the most important aquifer in the area has been known for many years as a good aquifer.
Methodology
In this research, for defining the study region, topographical maps (1: 50000), geological maps
(1:100000) and IRS satellite images were used. For calculating drought periods, monthly precipitation
of selected stations in Tabriz plain in the study periods (1972-2008) were used .For studying the
chemical quality of ground waters, the chemical analysis results of groundwater samples of 40 deep
and semi-deep wells were used. Quality indexes include Electrical Conductivity (EC), Sodium
Absorption Ratio (SAR) and Total Dissolved Solid (TDS). The electrical conductivity of water
estimates the total amount of solids dissolved in water -TDS, which stands for Total Dissolved Solids.
TDS is measured in ppm (parts per million) or in mg/l. Quality indexes maps (EC, SAR) draw by
Arc/GIS , for studying spatial variation groundwater chemical quality. Then, drought and wet periods
selected by Standard Precipitation Index (SPI). The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is a way of
measuring drought. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is a probability index that considers
only precipitation. The SPI is an index based on the probability of recording a given amount of
precipitation, and the probabilities are standardized so that an index of zero indicates the median
precipitation amount (half of the historical precipitation amounts are below the median, and half are
above the median). The index is negative for drought, and positive for wet conditions. As the dry or
wet conditions become more severe, the index becomes more negative or positive.
Results and Discussion
The results of SPI index show that in the study period of (1972-2007), precipitation positive anomalies
is high in slopes of plain margins. Gradually, negative anomalies increase toward center and northwest
of plain. Based on Standardized Precipitation Index SPI in the index drought year, the northern and
southern mountains plains of Tabriz plain have a normal situation. Ground water’s EC show that
excellent quality waters are involving % 30.38 and good quality ground waters are including %23.25
plain aquifers in drought period (2000-2001). These ground waters belong to aquifers of Sahand
mountain and north elevations of Tabriz plain. Gradually waters quality decrease toward plain center
and Urmia Lake. So that 17.8% of the area underground waters have a medium quality. Therefore, the
ground waters are unsuitable and very unsuitble in these regions. Salt ground waters involve %13.02
plain aquifers and very salt ground waters contain %15.18. The base of EC rates and drought maps of
plain, salty and very salty ground water conform to drought and strongly drought areas. SAR index of
Tabriz plain ground water in drought period (2000 October) show the very alkalinity water. These
aquifers located in central and end parts of Tabriz plain. These lands conform to drought and intense
Spatial Monitoring of Groundwater Salinity in Drought and Wet Periods
23
drought areas. The rate of SAR ratio reduces toward elevations. Water quality increases toward
elevations especially Sahand mountain. Moderate alkalinity waters contain %15.27 of the plain
aquifers. Excellent and good waters are %36.9 and %22.48 plain aquifers Spatial distribution of
quality indexes differ in wet period (2003 October) from drought period. Fresh ground waters rates are
high in wet period. Salt water (% 9.47) and very salty water (%8.86) belong to the northwest plain
aquifers. Excellent (%27.5) and good (%23.26) waters belong to Sahand mountain aquifers. Sodium
Absorption Ratio (SAR) map show that there are high alkalinity ground water in small area and they
located in west of Tabriz plain in wet periods. The base of (SAR) Ratio, moderate water quality
includes %16.33 plain ground water.
Conclusion
The study of SPI index in periods (1972-2008) show that drought and wet periods alternately have
occurred in Tabriz plain. Also, frequency of short dry periods is high as compared with long dry
periods. Generally, precipitation negative anomalies increase toward plain. Chemical analysis results
of 40 samples water show that excellent and good groundwater belong to Sahand mountain and north
elevations aquifers, but water quality decrease in the course of center of plain and Urmia coasts. These
conditions intensify drought periods.
Keywords: Spatial Monitoring, Groundwater Salinity, Drought, SPI, Tabriz Plain
References
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25
Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 20/4/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 25 - 30
A Survey on the Level of Agricultural Development and its Effective
Indicators in Hirmand
Dr. Mahmood Reza Mirlotfi
Assistant Professor of Geography and Rural Planning
University of Zabol
Dr. Hamid Shayan
Assistant Professor of Geography and Rural Planning
University of Mashhad ferdowsi
Dr. Seyyed AmirMohammad Alavizadeh
Associate Professor of Geography and Rural Planning
University of Payame Noor
Introduction
From geopolitic point of view, the underdevelopment of the border regions which creates basic
challenges for country has a large amount of effects on the developing process of the country. Solving
the problems of the border regions specially providing stable security in these regions is not merely a
security and military issue but it is political, economical, social and cultural in nature. In this regard,
the strategy for organizing and developing the rural areas in these regions becomes highly important.
In fact, agriculture and its various activities have a special role in different economical, social and
environmental dimensions of rural areas (Whelan, 2003:7).
Lack of attention for assessing the magnitude of their effect decreases the agricultural potentials of the
rural areas and if this process continues, the agricultural sector and therefore the social and economical
stability of the rural areas will be destroyed. The scope of the activities in the agricultural sector in the
country's rural areas in one side and the occupational and income dependence of villagers on this
sector on the other side, requires the planners to pay more attention to this issue because the national
development and the real economical independence of every region is contingent upon the agricultural
sector.
Many studies have been done by researchers about the factors affecting on the growth and the
development of agriculture and each of these studies have pointed to particular causes and factors such
as adverse geographical conditions like water shortage, lack of fertile lands and hot weather
(Meijerink, 2007:47); focusing on all of the production factors and promoting productivity (Nin–pratt
et al., 2009:101); technological development and local production, tax cuts, government investments
on researches and infrastructures and the mechanization of agricultural sector(Chen et al., 2008: 581).
Some researchers state that the public infrastructures have an important role in the development of
agricultural sector (Mamtzakis, 2003:169), and some believes that the productivity of labor force in
promoting the agriculture level (Baylis, 2008:75), and the integration of farmlands in order to increase
utilizing mechanization and the deep development of agriculture by increasing the function and the
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
26
intensity of cultivation are considered to be among the most important strategies for agricultural
development by other researchers (melor,Gavi,1999:25).
Others cite that the essential training for effective access to modern technologies and the farmers'
awareness about the market conditions and their literacy level are the major factors in agricultural
development and these researchers believe that those strategies which do not focus on human force are
not successful (Stiglitz, 2000:552). Some researchers approve that the close relationship and
interaction between researchers, county agents, farmers and policy-makers is of high importance in
agricultural development (colemon, 2000:311). Physical infrastructures and technologies for achieving
high rate of agricultural growth are considered to be essential by some other researchers (Ravallion &
Datt, 2002: 383).
On this basis and with respect to the performed studies and the spatial differences and various
environmental factors and also for achieving a unit development pattern in each region and a
comprehensive knowledge of effective and exclsive factors, in this research it is tried to study a
special area (Hirmand township), in this regard, the current study seeks answers for the following
questions:
Do the effective factors in agricultural sector of this region have different impacts?
What effective factors should be prioritized for promoting the agricultural level of this region?
To answer the above questions, the following hypothesis can be presented:
The various and effective factors on the agricultural sector of the region are of different level of
importance.
Among the different effective dimensions, production dimension and its indices affect mostly on the
development of agriculture.
Research Methodology
The current study is an applied research and analytic-descriptive research methods and statistical
methods have been used for analyzing the data. The data have been collected from the sample villages
through methods and field studies and the major amount of data from the sample population have
been gathered through questionnaire which have been finalized after it was approved by experts and
also after doing a pre-test. The collected data have been analyzed by EXCEL and SPSS software and
the reliability of items has been calculated by Cronbach’s Alpha test statistic with a range of 0-1 and
its value is 0.819.
Regarding special conditions of agricultural activity in this region and also some basic features such as
pragmatism, dependence upon the environmental capabilities and an all-directional trend in agriculture
planning (Noori, 1379:10), the explanatory components of agricultural development have been
analyzed in four administrative, social, structural and producing dimensions (Figure 1 and Table 1). It
is worth saying that the above-mentioned dimensions have been offered by The Committee of The
International Geographical Association for identifying agricultural types in different parts of the world
(Grick, 1375:7).
A Survey on the Level of Agricultural Development and its Effective ...
27
The indices of different dimensions of the level of agricultural development have been examined in 40
sample villages. The qualitative scores of different dimensions are the average of scores of every
different dimension's indices for every village (Figure 1). To have symmetric non-Likert indices, they
were scored according to Likert scale (1-5) and range, therefore the average number of each index
shows the score or value of village in that index and the sum of all averages of indices in each
dimension shows the village score in that dimension. Considering the range of the average of
dimensions’ scores and the dependant variable, villages were clustered into three groups (by the
cluster analysis option in SPSS software).
The explanatory factors for agricultural development variable were introduced by using factor analysis
and at the end the villages were categorized into two groups according to the scores of agricultural
level and based on (Si) ± 0/2µ and for finding a suitable strategy indices which have significant
differences between these two groups of villages will be introduced.
The sample population consists of 12207 households who live in 197 villages with more than 20
households. According to the Sharpe & Cochran’s formula and the correction formula (Saraee,
1371:129 and 137), the volume of the sample villages was 40. Using proportional allocation method,
the number of sample villages in Jahan Abad, Doost Mohamad, Ghergheri and Margan townships
were respectively 10, 13, 9 and 8. The villages were selected randomly after codifying (them) by minitab software.
Discussion and Results
According to the nation-wide census of 1385(2006), the extent of Systan region is 15197 square
meters whose population is 400'000 who concentrated in 6 urban areas and 937 villages. 250'000 of
this population live in villages. District of Miyankangi, among them, with an area of 1009 square
meters and a population of 73254 is one of the important border regions in Systan. This region has 100
kilometers common border with Afghanistan and consists of 300 habitable villages (The Statistical
Center of Iran, The nation-wide census of 1385/2006).
During the history, because of flat and fertile plain lands and also Hirmand River, the main activity of
the villages in district of Miyankangi has been based on agriculture. In current situation, because of
high percentage of farmer families (67.85%), the economical base of this geographical region under
the study is agriculture. Yet, agriculture in this region has always been facing eith different challenges
such as water level fluctuations of Hirmand River and substantial decline in farming activities. For
example, the average of cultivated lands with an area above 30'000 hectares in the 1383-1384 crop
year was decreased to about 40'000 hectares. In these situations, of course, the existence of more than
2000 water holes can be a good contribution for stable agriculture. Although in the suitable water
conditions still the water consumption is up to 9000 cubic meters per hectares for cultivating wheat,
the productivity of 1900 kilograms per hectare cannot be achieved (The Crusade for Agriculture of
Zabol, 1387).
It is worth noting that lack of real agriculture vitality in the region affected by traditional exploitation
systems, lack of complementary cycles in the process of agriculture production for increasing added
value, the weakness of vocational training, lack of public organizations,… have caused the instability
of the pillars of the economy there. The consequence of the above procedure along with the adjacency
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
28
to Afghanistan have provoked a group of active forces to seek for jobs other than farming and
producing occupations specially goods smuggling or working as an unskilled worker in cities like
Rafsanjan or Yazd.
These factors have resulted in the prevalence of unemployment, increasing unofficial jobs, widespread
poverty (20% of this region's population receives the services of The Imam Khomeini Relief
Foundation), the exit of capital and human forces, the destruction of resources and leaving the major
villages of the region. According to the above issues and by considering the previous researches and
geographical differences and various environmental factors, and also for finding a unified
developmental pattern for each region, a comprehensive understanding of effective and unique factors,
in this research it has tried to study a specific region (Hirmand city). The results show that the villages
under study have different levels of agricultural potential, for example Ghajar-e-Barani has maximum
average of agricultural development level that is 3/26 and Galle Bache has minimum average of
agricultural development level that is 1/36. The results of the regression analysis show that the
production dimension and its indices have influenced the agricultural development of the region
mostly.
Conclusion
Many strategies have been offered for achieving agricultural development. But they are not
encompassing because of variety in situational conditions and as a result recognizing various and
effective factors on the agriculture of the regions are highly important.
Regarding the results of correlation coefficients and the level of agricultural development of the rural
areas, we should take action in terms of increasing the number of livestock and wheat productivity as
the main cultivated crop in the region, increasing the literacy level and creating motivation and interest
by supporting farmers in the process of production to distribution, family planning programs, and
paying more attention to remote rural areas. Above all and by considering the results of factor
analysis, quick expansion of greenhouse cultivated areas and providing suitable conditions for using
farm machinery such as tractor in agricultural development programs should be prioritized. According
to the results of t-test, the quality and quantity level of services offered by The Crusade for Agriculture
in specialized issues (specially providing education and extension sessions, controlling the cultivated
lands by experts, providing cultivation programs), farm machinery and constant management for fair
distribution of inputs should be promoted.
Keywords: Agriculture, Agricultural Development, Sistan, Hirmand County.
A Survey on the Level of Agricultural Development and its Effective ...
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Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 11/6/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 31- 39
Geomorphology and Genesis of Sahl Abad Playa – East of Iran
Dr. Seyyed Naser Raisossadat
Assistant Professor of Geology
University of Birjand
Dr. Mohammad Hossein Zarrinkoub
Associate Professor of Geology
University of Birjand
Dr. Mohammad Mahdi Khatib
Associate Professor of Geology
University of Birjand
Introduction
Sahl Abad playa is located at about 120 kilometers south of Birjand at Birjand-Nehbandan road in
South Khorasan province. This playa is geographically located between 58o 40′ to 60o 10′ east
longitude and 31o 50′ to 32o 15′ north latitude , the area of playa is about 1116 km2 (Figure 1).
The study area is located in dry and arid climatic conditions. Since there is no meteorology station in
Sahl Abad playa, therefore based on the figures of the surrounding areas, it is possible to estimate the
annual average of precipitation of all the area about 150 mm (Eshagian, 1990).
Formation of Sahl Abad salt flats has made a new ecology in the north east area of Nehbandan, in this
area, extraction of salt storages and different kinds of industrial salts creates a suitable opportunity for
sustained job opportunity in the deprived area of Sahl Abad. Therefore recognizing its geomorphology
features and natural geography will be a great help for development planning of the area. It is hoped
that this study leads to a better recognition of the said flat and be used in the studies for geographical
investigations of the area, watershed management, flood control, exploring natural and mineral
resources and other similar cases.
Sahl Abad playa is an active sedimentary basin in quaternary. Geomorphology and morpho-tectonic of
this playa and the mechanism of its formation are the main goals of the present study.
Research Methodology
Methods include studying aerial in 1/55000 scales, satellite photos in 1/1000000 scales, field works
and sampling from sediments and salts up to two meters depth.
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
32
Figure 1: position of Sahl Abad playa on satellite image that shows main faults and position of
topographical cross sections of Figure 6. (From Landsat 8).
Discussion and Results
First works were done by Krinsley (1970) and Samani (1973). However this is the first work on Sahl
Abad playa. Many works have been done on playas around the world. Here some works that related to
our work can be referred here such as Castaneda et al. (2005) on facies identification within the playalakes of the Monegros desert in Spain, Gutirrez-Elorza et al., (2005) on Origin and evolution of playas
and blowouts in the semiarid zone of Tierra de Pinares, Duero Basin, Spain, Messina et al., (2005) on
Macropolygon morphology, development, and classification on North Panamint and Eureka playas,
Death Valley National Park CA and Mann et al., 1983 on the effects of structure geology on playas.
Quaternary sediments are important in formation of Sahl Abad playa. These sediments include recent
alluviums, alluvial terraces, alluvial fans, sand dunes and salt plain. The study area is a folded, faulted
and crushed zone that is formed in a convergent area. Faults are mostly trust and strike slip. Trends of
folds and faults are mostly in north west- south east. The tensional stress with this trend has formed a
Pull-apart basin (Figure 1). The most important faults are Shir Shotor, Sahl Abad and Esmaiel Abad
(Figure 1).
Sahl Abad playa extended 1880 kilometers squares. Based on geological and topographical maps,
aerial photos, field observation and Krinsely (1970), Samani (1973), Ahmadi (1988) and Torshizian
(1994), two types and few faces have been identified.
1- Mud flats types: There are five facies including puffy and soft faces, plough surfaces (Figure 2),
clay plain, Nebka and clay-slat polygons (Figure 4).
Geomorphology and Genesis of Sahl Abad Playa – East of Iran
33
2- Salt plain type: there are five faces including clay polygons, salt faces with clay –salt blossoms, salt
polygons and black salt faces, salt polygons with salt blossoms (Figure 5) and salt faces (Figure 6).
There are three distinct parts from margin to center of playa.
1- Clay flat: this part is formed by clay, silt and a little salt. Margin of this part is frequently dry and
show a puffy ground. This part is about 37.5% of the salt plain (Figure 7).
2- Wet zone: in this part moreover Sodium chloride, gypsum and other salts are present. This part has
more salt than the previous part. The extension of this area changes during year and depend on
precipitation. This part is about 18.6% of the salt plain.
3-Salt crust: this part has perfectly white colour because salt crust is thick here. This part has lowest
elevation and therefore ground water surface is high in this part. Due to evaporation and capillary
pressure salt coming up to surface and forms salt crust. This area is about 17.45% of the salt plain.
Figure 2: Plough surfaces in north west margin of Sahl Abad
Figure 4: Clay-salt polygons
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
Figure 5: Polygons with salt blossoms
34
Figure 6: Salt faces with a thick layer of salt that is formed
in high evaporation of brackish waters
Figure 7: Sahl Abad Geomorphologic zones that is prepared with aerial photos
Structural elements in the study area shows Sahl Abad playa is surrounded by strike slip faults and
activity of these faults has effected on formation of salt plain. Mann et al., 1983 believes that strike
slip faults are seldom straight and will be bent or split. They probably are connected together or far
away from each other. Such transform faults will lead to formation of ellipsoid or spherical basins.
Geomorphology and Genesis of Sahl Abad Playa – East of Iran
35
Strike slip basins have been discussed (Balance, 1980; Crowell, 1976; Mann & Burke, 1982; Burke et
al., 1982).
Paull-apart term was introduced by Burchfiel and Stwewart (1960) for the first time and then applied
for about 60 quaternary basins that are formed along strike slip faults (Aydin and Nur, 1982).
Enechelan faults normally produced a regional movement. This might lead to formation of extensional
and compression zones. Where there is an extension, sedimentary basins are formed and where there is
compression, high lands are formed and will be under erosion. These materials will fill the formed
basins. Shape of these basins is related to faults patterns. Pull-apart term has been introduced for all
strike slip basins.
Based on the above explanations, structural geology of study area, strike slip faults with thick
terrigenous sediments in their margins, shape of basin and faulted margin, a Pull-apart basin is
suggested for Sahl Abad playa (Figures 1 and 8).
Figure 8: A development model of Pull-apart basin formation
In addition to the above factors, river sinuosity increases with slope decrease that sinuosity changes
could be related to tectonic activities. Therefore with increase of slope, channel morphology will
change to distributed channels shape and this could confirm tectonic rising of the area.
Based on definition, channel sinuosity is channel length to down valley length (Adams et al., 1999.)
SV C
V= length of channel
C= straight length of channels along valley
For investigation of this morphometeric index in sahl Abad playa, 33 channels have been selected
(Figure 9) and their sinousity have been calculated (Table 1). The results could be intrepreted as
tectonic activity of the study area and uprising of the margins of Sahl Abad playa and depression in
center.
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
36
Figure 9: channels position for sinuosity
Table 1: Calculated channel sinuosity in study area
Calculated
sinuosity
Channel
Calculated
sinuosity
Channel
Calculated
sinuosity
Channel
1.14
Y
1.03
X
1.1
A
1.07
Z
1.06
M
1.09
B
1.09
AA
1.11
N
1.05
C
1.08
BB
1.07
O
1.03
D
1.11
CC
1.05
P
1.09
E
1.04
DD
1.03
Q
1.02
F
1.08
EE
1.09
R
1.06
G
1.08
FF
1.06
S
1.05
H
1.12
GG
1.05
T
1.1
I
1.07
U
1.09
J
1.09
V
1.06
K
1.02
W
1.11
L
Position of channels are
platted in figure 13.
Geomorphology and Genesis of Sahl Abad Playa – East of Iran
37
Conclusion
Two types of clay and salt plains have been identified in Sahl Abad playa. In Mud flats types, four
faces including puffy and soft faces, plough surfaces clay plain, Nebka and clay-slat polygons and in
Salt plain type five faces including clay polygons, salt faces with clay –salt blossoms, salt polygons
and black salt faces, salt polygons with salt blossoms and salt faces have been recognized.
Based on structural setting, strike slip faults and thick clastic sediments beside the faults, shape of
basin and faulted margins can probably suggest that Sahl Abad is a Pull-apart basin. Generation of this
basin is interpreted due to strike slip fault actions (operation) that are branched from Nehbandan fault.
However, it could be mentioned that this basin is in young stage and there is no volcanic action.
Based on Sahl Abad active fault and morpho-tectonic interpretation it is suggested that the basin is in
extension state. Calculation of channel sinuosity also confirmed an active tectonic in the area and it is
expected that Sahl Abad plain is going to be bigger.
Further studies on Sahl Abad area are suggested and it is hoped that the result of this study could be
used in natural geography, water management, flood control and mineral resources.
Acknowledgment: This research has been supported by the University of Birjand (Research affairs).
We thank M. Bardeh (previous student of Geology Dept. of Birjand University) and Mr. E. Yazadan
panah (PhD student of geology Dept. of Birjand University) for their help in field and lab works.
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Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
40
Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 26/4/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 40 - 43
Recognition of Weather Types in Ardabil Synoptic Station and its Relationship
With Atmospheric Circulation Patterns
Shahram Razmjuei
M.Sc Student of Climatology
University of Mohaghegh Ardabili
Dr. Bromand Salahi
Assistant Professor of Natural Geography
University of Mohaghegh Ardabili
Introduction
Determination of weather types as one of the goals of Synoptic climatology is identification of similar
weathers variables. Hence, weather types in fact visualize air masses. In other words, a weather type is
a different set of atmospheric characteristics which is different from other series. Today, identification
of weather type based on climatic variables is one of the important tools for climatologists to
understand about the weather and climactic problems & disasters due to atmospheric circulations. On
the other hand, the weather types are associated with surface events and by identification of these,
environmental phenomena such as floods, pollution, pests, etc, are predictable. Many of the processes
concerned with environmental problems, are affected by atmospheric circulations. Since in synoptic
studies, the relationship between changes in atmospheric circulation patterns and environmental
phenomena and processes are reviewed, the results of these studies could lead to explain and predict
phenomena and environmental conditions.
Research Methodology
In this paper, in order to determine and investigate the synoptic weather types in Ardabil synoptic
station, 18 climatic variables such as wet and dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, direction &
speed of wind (for 03, 09 & 15 GMT) mean of rainfall, maximum and minimum of temperature
belong to Ardebil synoptic station in years 1978 – 2005 have been used. 9918 days has had complete
data of the above variables. First, a P Matrix (9918×18) created and then the data standardize process
has been performed. On this Matrix, by using cluster analysis, weather types of this station have
recognized. based on correlations, 6 days selected as representative days of 6 synoptic types in Ardabil
synoptic station. So, in these representative days, climatic characteristics of sea level pressure and 500
hecto-pascal geopotential height maps were investigated.
Discussion and Results
In this study, using the climatic data of years 1978-2005 of Ardabil synoptic station and performing
the cluster analysis by Ward method on standardized data, six weather types were identified.
Including: 1) Warm and dry , windy 2) Very warm with low rainfall 3) Very cool & rainy 4) Cool and
Recognition of Weather Types in Ardabil Synoptic …
41
dry, windy 5) Moderate 6) Warm & wet. At first, these types were located in 2 clusters (warm and
cool). Types 1, 2 and 6 belong to the warm cluster and types 3, 4 and 5 belong to the cold cluster. It
seems that the obtained weather types for this station almost represent spatial and temporal climatic
conditions of this station. The results showed that type 1 is the most discordant type. Types 3 and 2,
respectively, have the highest and lowest rainfall. The coldest and warmest types of the station are
types 3 and 2. Type No. 6 has the best representation day with a 95 percent correlation with the other
day and it had the longest duration among other types. Types 1 and 4 are the windiest types
respectively. Type 6 (which belongs to the warm season), has the most and type No 1 has the lowest
frequency of occurrence of weather types. In winter, the Siberian high pressure in north of Iran and the
unstable mid-latitude out of tropical flow causes the influx of high-latitude cold weathers on the
northwest of Iran. Consequently, the cold weather types in winter influenced more by controller
planetary factors of station than local factors. In other seasons of the year, the effective air mass enters
in to the region mainly from the northern regions and affects on its climate. In total, in this station, the
frequency of warm types is more than cold ones (53.8 vs. 46.2 percent). Among the studied types,
types 1 and 5 have more moderate climatic conditions than types 2 and 6 (warm types) and types 3 and
4 (cold types). Investigation of 500 hpa level and sea level patterns of representative days of weather
types, showed the Influx of cold air of upper latitudes by Siberian & European high pressures and low
pressure of Iceland on station and existance of high pressure closed center of Azores on center of Iran.
In general, study of ground level and 500 hpa atmospheric circulation patterns, justified cold types
(types 3, 4 and 5) more than warm types (types 1, 2 and 6). Although in warm types, especially types 2
and 6, the arrangement of atmospheric circulation patterns play a decisive role in the occurrence of
these weather types, Since weather types of each area are related with the occurrence of environmental
phenomena, therefore the discovery and analysis of this relationship can take important steps in
preventing and dealing with these phenomena.
Conclusion
The results of cluster analysis showed that there are 6 weather types in Ardabil synoptic station;
1- Warm and dry, windy. 2- Very warm with low rainfall. 3- Very cool & rainy. 4- Cool and dry,
windy. 5- Moderate. 6- Warm & wet. Statistical analysis shows that number 5 (moderate) and 6 (warm
& wet) types were active in 29.5 & 17.5 percent of the year respectively and considered as the
dominant types of Ardabil station. Weather Type 3 has the most precipitation & the least temperature
and weather type 2 has the highest temperature & the least precipitation. weather type 1 has the most
inharmonious & windy. The warm & wet type of weather has the longest term among the other types
of weather. The results of synoptic analysis of weather types show that in Ardabil synoptic
station,each of weather types are related to a special atmospheric circulation pattern. The cold flows of
high latitudes creates by Siberian & European high pressures, high altitude of Azores, west & southwest winds are the main atmospheric patterns in sea level pressure and 500 hecto-pascal geopotential
height maps.
Keywords: Ardabil synoptic station, Cluster analyze, Synoptic analyze, Weather type.
References
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Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
42
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Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
44
Geography and Development
10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012
Received : 16/12/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012
PP : 44 - 46
Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Erosion on Southern River Basins
Adjacent to Mashhad and its Environmental Impact
Dr. Mohammad Jafar Zomorodian
Associate Professor of Geography
University of Ferdowsi Mashhad
Ramin Rahimi
M.Sc in Geomorphology
Introduction
Erosion and especially soil erosion can be considered as one of the most threatening factor for the
environment in general and for soil and water resources in particular. Because soil is made from the
composition of fine material, mineral and homos and its a natural-dynamic environment in which
plants are grown. Nowadays, soil erosion is one of the problems and challenges which cause huge
damages, particularly in Iran. This happens because erosion has many other consequences including
soil loss and degradation, water pollution, reduction of water reserves and dams water filling
operation, threatening general health and etc. Therefore, the assessment and control of erosion and its
consequences can be considered as a major step for moving towards sustainable development. As a
result, many researches and administrative activities are done and many models are employed in this
field. Fundamental research related to soil erosion was started in 1915 for the first time and Wotiy was
the first person who did comprehensive research in this field. Many researches also carried out in this
field in Iran in general and in khorasan Province in particular and present study is in parallel with these
research, because city of Mashhad is located in northern slope part of Binalood Mountain range, and it
is surrounded by four river basins including Torogh, Mayaan, Dehbar, and Jaghargh. Unsurprisingly,
the negative consequences of soil erosion in these areas have an impact on city of Mashhad and its
citizens. This study was carried out to identify the details of this erosion in this area and appropriate
ways to control it.
Research Methodology
This research is designed based on experimental method, quantitative and qualitative analysis, field
study and also laboratory research. This study employed MPSIAC Model with consideration of data
and natural features of the selected area (9 factors including: geology, climate, run-off and discharge ,
topography, soil, plant coverage, land use, river erosion, and superficial soil erosion). Results of this
study are compared and analyzed with data from sediment analysis stations in the region. In order to
obtain better results, this research employed variety of maps including Topographic maps, Geological
maps, etc. Moreover, this research also used Remote Sensing images in order to achieve its objectives.
Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Erosion on Southern ...
45
Discussion and Results
Area covered in this study is located in the North-East of Iran (Khorasan-Razavi Province) between
36,4 -36,21 North latitude and 59,10-59,37 East altitude. The flow of these mentioned four river basins
are derived from the north slope of Binalood Mountain range and they are flowing into Mashhad Chenaran plain and ultimately joining Kashafrud River. These river basins covered area is about 429
km2 and with respect to geomorphology are agree with Binalood. From litho logic point of view,
metamorphic schist and Mashhad filith (slate, schist, schale, ophiolith, and etc) have covered 90% of
these basins. Also several faults exist in this area in which Sangbast Shandiz is the most famous one.
Climate of this area can be categorized as semi-dried and cold and the annual average of rainfall is
about 256.3 mm. Length of the major branches of these river basins is about 25 km in average and
they seems to be in the form of permanent rivers. The average of annual water flow is 4.455 M3/S.
The land coverage in these areas is mainly cliffs, Scree, roads and civil structures and in terms of plant
coverage can be considered as a relatively poor area. This area also includes agricultural land area that
in the recent years were converted to restaurants and constructions in which Jaghargh can be
considered as the first place regarding this ranking. These environmental and natural characteristics
and features as independent or as a common or a combination of factors were effective in creating the
erosion and sedimentation processes of the area and has had particular environmental consequences.
Conclusion
Results of quantitative and qualitative analysis indicate that, firstly, Jaghargh River basins has the
most erosion and sediments compared to other river basins studied in the region. Secondly, the
MPSIAC Model is applicable in this region, because as an example, according to MPSIAC Model, the
amount of sediments measured in Jaghargh river basin was 531 Ton/Km2 per year, whereas, in
sediment measuring station in this area, amount of sediment measured was 547 Ton/Km2 per year.
Thirdly, the amount of erosion and sediment in the region studied in this research were constantly
increasing which is affected by changes in land use patterns and also human disruptions. Increasing
erosion and sediment in the region also had a negative impact on the environment (changes in linear
river section, reducing the life-cycle of dams in the region, dusty weather conditions in Mashhad, and
etc).
In terms of qualitative analysis, it is needed to mention that, in addition to the above quantitative
analysis and its results, the existence of series of factors in the region led to increase erosion and also
intensified it. These factors mainly include: the characteristics and features of elements and
environmental and natural factors (e.g. Schistozite, the range of temperature variation in a day and
during the season which intensify Thermoclasty and Cryoclasty in one hand and on the other hand,
topography, high levels of rainfall with relatively high snow coefficient, and high water flow in rivers
which strengthening the process of erosion and sediment), changes in land use patterns in recent
decades (particularly in Jaghargh river basin), and (due to population increase) in recent years.
Keywords: Quantitative and qualitative analysis, River basin, Erosion and sediment, Environment,
Sediment measuring, MPSIAC.
References
Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012
46
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