Freshwater Quality in the Brazilian Amazon
Author: Leah Gainey
August 2015
Fresh Water Quality in the Brazilian Amazon: August 2015
Table of Contents
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 2
1. Freshwater in the Amazon .................................................................................................................. 3
1.1
Deforestation .............................................................................................................................. 4
1.2 Dams and Waterways ................................................................................................................... 4
1.3 Pollution ........................................................................................................................................ 5
2. Water Quality Analysis – São Joaquim ................................................................................................ 6
3. Acquabox- São Joaquim ...................................................................................................................... 8
Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................. 10
References ............................................................................................................................................ 12
Source: CGV
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Fresh Water Quality in the Brazilian Amazon: August 2015
Introduction
While over 70% of planet Earth is covered in water, only 2.5% of this is fresh water. Additionally, only
1% of this fresh water is actually accessible for human consumption, with the remainder frozen in the
icecaps of Antarctica and Greenland, present as soil moisture, or lying in deep underground aquifers
as groundwater – inaccessible for sustainable consumption1. On the 28th of July 2010 the United
Nations General Assembly officially recognised access to water and sanitation as a human right,
acknowledging that ‘…clean drinking water and sanitation are essential to the realisation of all human
rights’2.
Despite this official recognition, it has been five years and the statistics indicate that access to clean
water remains an enormous problem for much of the developing world. It is estimated that
approximately 750 million people worldwide have no access to clean drinking water – almost 10% of
the global population – and over 840,000 global deaths per year are as a result of water-related
diseases3.
Furthermore, the distribution of fresh water across the world is inherently uneven, and this
distribution can even be subject to huge variation within specific regions. This may explain the fact
that despite being home to 27.6% of the World’s total accessible fresh water, some 36 million people
in Latin America and the Caribbean have no access to clean water at all.
Image 1: Total renewable freshwater resources of the world, in mm/yr ( 1 mm is equivalent to 1 l of water
per m²). Source: Global fresh water modelling tool WaterGAP (Döll &Fiedler (2008)).
1
http://www.globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange2/current/lectures/freshwater_supply/freshwater.html
http://www.un.org/es/comun/docs/?symbol=A/RES/64/292&lang=E
3
http://water.org/water-crisis/water-facts/water/
2
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Fresh Water Quality in the Brazilian Amazon: August 2015
The following report aims to highlight the problem of accessing clean drinking water in developing
countries by focusing on the water quality found within the Trocano Araretama REDD+ Project. After
emphasising the urgency of the matter, the report will conclude by outlining one particular solution
implemented within the project area in an attempt to begin addressing the issue to clean water for
the 10,700 residents of the Trocano Araretama REDD+ Project.
1. Freshwater in the Amazon
The Amazon River is the largest river by discharge of water in the world, with an average discharge of
about 209,000 cubic meters per second - greater than the next seven largest independent rivers
combined. The Amazon basin is also the largest drainage basin in the world, about 7,050,000 square
kilometres, and accounts for approximately one-fifth of the world's total river flow. The portion of the
river's drainage basin in Brazil alone is larger than any other river's basin.
Image 2: Sunset over the Amazon River. Source: CGV
Freshwater ecosystems are connected via the hydrological cycle to adjacent systems: laterally (waterland), longitudinally (up- and down-stream), and vertically (atmosphere surface water-ground water);
this hydrological connectivity of freshwater ecosystems makes them highly sensitive to a broad range
of anthropogenic impacts. The structure and function of Amazon freshwater ecosystems are being
increasingly impacted by rapid expansions in infrastructure and economic activities. These impacts are
having direct effect on the quality of the water, which in some riverine communities is directly
consumed for drinking.
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Fresh Water Quality in the Brazilian Amazon: August 2015
There are a number of factors contributing to the alteration of the Amazon water quality, three of
which are outlined below.
1.1 Deforestation
Image 3: Deforestation along the Lower Madeira River. Source: CGV
Deforestation, the conversion of natural forest into other land use types, has altered approximately
697,770 km2 of the Amazon basin (10%), the majority as a result of agriculture and cattle farming. This
deforestation has a variety of consequences on the quality of the water surrounding it, with specific
outcomes depending on the location of the deforestation. In the uplands, deforestation results in an
increase in water runoff and steam discharge as removal of trees reduces the rate of
evapotranspiration. The floodplains experience a reduction in the abundance and diversity of highly
productive plant communities as a result of deforestation, and the impacts of deforestation on
riparian zones of small rivers and streams include decreased water quality, increased water
temperature, and an alteration in the biotic assemblage composition and production.
1.2 Dams and Waterways
Brazil is one of the world’s leading dam–building nations, and is already highly dependent on
hydropower for its electricity, with about 80% of its electrical energy coming from large dams. The
proliferation of dams has been largely driven by an increased energy demand as well as agricultural
and cattle farming activities. In Brazil alone there are currently 74 operational dams, 31 dams under
construction, and a further 91 dams planned for construction in the future4.
4
http://damsinfo.org/en#dam_name=&countries[]=Add+Filter&countries[]=2&operational_states[]=Add+Filter&operational_states[]=1
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Fresh Water Quality in the Brazilian Amazon: August 2015
Image
Monte
4: Bele
Dam in
the Brazilian Amazon. Source: New York Times
Many dams alter river water temperature through the release of thermally stratified waters from the
reservoirs, dramatically altering the species composition of communities downstream. The amount of
oxygen that can be dissolved in water is partly governed by temperature. Temperature also influences
the rate of photosynthesis by algae and aquatic plants. As water temperature rises, the rate of
photosynthesis increases providing there are adequate amounts of nutrients. This can lead to a
dieback in certain riverine species with low upper temperature limits, and a proliferation of organisms
with high upper temperature limits such as blue-green algae and bacteria. For this reason an increase
in water temperature can have a direct impact on the quality of the water.
1.3 Pollution
Water pollution is one of the most obvious ways in which the water quality is affected in the Brazilian
Amazon. Agricultural practises are commonly carried out next to rivers and streams, and agricultural
runoff from toxic chemicals and fertilizers rich in nitrogen and phosphorus flows straight into fresh
water ecosystems. This can result in extensive eutrophication, hypoxic conditions, and an altered food
web structure. In addition to the harmful effects for humans drinking the water that has been affected
by this runoff, pesticides bio-accumulate in food webs so ingesting animals that are part of this food
web can also prove very harmful to human health.
Mercury is another serious pollutant in the Amazon River, being released into the water from soils as
a result of deforestation or directly when used to extract gold. In the presence of anoxic conditions,
mercury is transformed from its inorganic form to methylmercury, its organic form, which is
exceedingly harmful and can bio-accumulate in living tissue.
&basins[]=Add+Filter&capacities[]=Add+Filter&flood_area_range[]=Add+Filter&companies_involved[]=Add+Filter&funders
_involved[]=Add+Filter&investment_plans[]=Add+Filter
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Fresh Water Quality in the Brazilian Amazon: August 2015
A third source of river pollution is linked to oil exploration, where toxic wastes and crude oils are
discharged into the surrounding freshwater. In a study by Sebastián & Hurtig (2004) it was discovered
that the concentration of hydrocarbon-related toxins were over 100 times greater in water near oil
fields than those permitted by North American or European regulations. This high concentration of
toxins has been linked to human health problems.
These factors (deforestation, dams and pollution) contribute largely to the reduction of water quality
in the Amazon. Many of these factors are found within the project area it is vital that water quality
tests be carried out to ensure safe drinking water can be made available for all residents of the project
area.
2. Water Quality Analysis – São Joaquim
In August 2014 a trip was made to a number of communities within the Trocano Araretama REDD+
Project with the direct objective of carrying out an ‘in situ’ analysis of the water quality available in
the communities. Of particular interest was São Joaquim, a large community on the Upper Madeira
River. São Joaquim is home to 22 families and the Maria Borges de Almeida School which comprises
approximately 71 students and 3 teachers.
The water quality tests were carried out by Celestial Green Ventures (CGV) in collaboration with the
National Institute for Amazonian Research (INPA) and were obtained using a Dip Slides Combi
chemical kit5. The Dip Slides method helps determine bacterial growth, as well as the density of fungal
and yeast micro-organisms. High counts of microorganism growth usually imply that a water sample
is very contaminated. There are different types of bacteria and only some of them (such as faecal
bacteria, e.g. E. Coli) can cause risks to the health of the human population. Combi’s dip slides
determine the likelihood of this occurrence.
5
http://www.metalchem.com/mce-testing-kits.html
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Image 5: Results of water analysis on samples taken from the drinking fountain in the Maria Borga School,
São Joaquim. Source: CGV
On August 15th a sample of water from the drinking water fountain in the Maria Borges School in São
Joaquim was obtained and the quality of the water was analysed. It was found that there was a
concentration of 10,000 colony-forming units (cfu)/ml, indicating a low to moderate level of
contamination, despite being previously chlorinated. This water is directly consumed by the children
and teachers in the school, and this low to moderate level of contamination can pose a risk to their
health.
Furthermore, on August 16th a water quality analysis was carried out using a sample of water taken
directly from the Madeira River in São Joaquim. The results obtained showed that there was a
concentration of 1,000,000 cfu/ml, indicative of a high level of contamination. It was noted that this
water was not potable and could only be consumed by local people with prior treatment –
consumption of this water directly from the source would pose a severe risk to human health.
Image 6: Results of water analysis on samples taken from the Upper Madeira River, São Joaquim. Source:
CGV
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3. Acquabox- São Joaquim
On receiving the results of the water quality analysis it was clear that measures had to be taken to
dramatically improve the quality of the water within São Joaquim. After a lengthy research process, a
method of water purification was chosen which could be implemented within the project area.
Image 4: Acquabox water purification system. Source: CGV
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Manufactured by German company Purion, the ‘Ecolágua’, or ‘Acquabox’ as it is referred to in English,
is a compact system for water purification. Water is pumped directly from the river into a 1000L
storage tank. From there the water passes into the Acquabox which utilises UV light to filter 99% of
the bacteria contained in the water. The addition of solar panels means that the process of pumping
the water to the tank and to the Acquabox is done using clean energy, another priority of implemented
processes within the Trocano Araretama REDD+ Project. The installation of the first Acquabox was
done at the Maria Borges School in São Joaquim and the final stage of the process involves the water
being pumped from the Acquabox to a water cooler within the school.
Image 5: Schematic of the water purification system- 1: Water pumped from river 2: Solar panels used to
pump the water 3: 1000L storage tank 4: Cartridge filter 5: Acquabox, joined to the water cooler within the
Maria Borges School via pump. Source: CGV
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With the capacity to purify 1000L of water per day, the Acquabox has the potential to provide clean,
safe drinking water for not only the teachers and students of the school, but also the residents of São
Joaquim. Families from nearby Vila Isabel and even further afield can travel by boat to transport safe
water back to their homes.
Image 6: Solar panels being installed in São Joaquim. Source: CGV
Conclusion
Fresh water is a precious resource, and one that many people take for granted. The reality of the
situation is that almost 10% of the global population have no access to clean drinking water, and
regions that do have access are putting their water supply in jeopardy through a series of
anthropogenic processes resulting in the reduction of water quality.
Rural areas in developing countries are often among those most in need of help to establish a system
of water purification, and the Trocano Araretama REDD+ project is no exception. High bacterial
contamination in drinking water, despite harsh hypochlorite treatments prior to consumption,
indicates an urgent need to improve the water quality for the residents of the communities which are
affected. São Joaquim served as the community in which our pilot water purification system could be
implemented, and the Acquabox proved to be a very successful addition to the community.
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Fresh Water Quality in the Brazilian Amazon: August 2015
Through continued water analysis within other communities of the Trocano Araretama REDD+ Project
it is hoped that Iakira and CGV can identify and remedy further sources of unpotable water, providing
clean and safe drinking water for all community members.
Image 7: Members of Iakira with residents of São Joaquim. Source: CGV
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References
Castello, L., Mcgrath, D. G., Hess, L. L., Coe, M. T., Lefebvre, P. a., Petry, P., … Arantes, C. C. (2013).
The vulnerability of Amazon freshwater ecosystems. Conservation Letters, 6(4), 217–229.
doi:10.1111/conl.12008
Döll, P., Fiedler, K. (2008): Global-scale modeling of groundwater recharge. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.,
12, 863-885.
Sebasti´an, S.M. & Hurtig, A.K. (2004). Oil exploitation in the Amazon basin of Ecuador: a public
health emergency. Pan Am. J. Public Health, 3, 205-211.
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