CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Inclusive education has undergone a number of metamorphoses in
terms of acceptance by the larger society and the formal educational set-up.
It would be recalled that decades back, inclusion was called mainstreaming.
Today it is not only seen as a mere inclusion but also a strong tool of
education worthy of providing opportunities for the acceptance of human
diversities in many forms.
The inclusion and participation of physically challenged in education is
really a matter of concern for all. Many people all over the world have been
challenged physically due to one cause or the other. The number of people
affected cannot be over-emphasized.
‘Approximately half of the entire planet’s population which is an
estimated 3 billion people is in some way affected by disability (half the
Planet, 2001, p.2366, [as cited in Cavanaugh, 2003]). The paper further
stated that statistics concerning the special needs population of 750 million
people worldwide were challenged by disabilities but fewer than 15% of
people with disabilities were born with them’. On the basis of this large and
increasing number of special need learners, it is perceived and observed that
people who are physically challenged share in the million of people with
disabilities.
1
It is important to point to the fact that students who are physically
challenged need a psychological motivation and an assistive educational
technology to fit into the regular educational set-up. This will enable them
to match their non-physically challenged peers.
According to the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), (2007)
estimates that of the 75 million children of primary school age who are out
of school, one-third are children with disabilities and that over 90 per cent
of children with disabilities in developing countries do not attend school.
Several factors contribute to this exclusion. These are; a lack of proper
understanding of the concept of inclusion, social attitudes, poverty,
insufficient government leadership, non-availability and quality of human
and material resources, fragmented approaches, lack of appropriate role
models in the process, such as Disabled People’s Organizations (DPOs), and
lack of adequate confidence building programmes for children with
disabilities.
Furthermore, persons with disabilities may have a lower standard of
living than persons without disabilities with the same income, owing to their
special need for services such as transportation, eating, or medical services
and adaptive devices. While standard of living rises with income,
households with greater needs because of the disability of one of its
members tend to have a lower standard of living than that of other
households with similar income.
2
Physical deformity of the limb is widely prevalent in Ghana. Depending
on the degree of impairment, overall ability to interact with others as the
demands of everyday life may be seriously affected.
According to the outcome of the twenty-third (23rd) special session of
the General Assembly, (2000), it came out that physical disability results in
low self-esteem and psychological trauma, especially to the females in
society. Physically challenged persons often develop complexity syndrome
in society. The interpretation of disability in Ghanaian society is rather
discriminatory and as a result those who experience them become self
conscious of their condition. In Ghana where education has become the
norm, physical disability is an impediment to the future of the physically
challenged.
It is upon this that mainstreaming was institutionalized to
address the need of the physically challenged.
In the United States for example, mainstreaming came to replace
segregation of individuals with disabilities including the physically
challenged students or pupils into the regular classroom through Public Law
(PL) 94 – 142. Mainstreaming focused on the right to equal education for
both physically challenged and the non- physically challenged learners in a
regular classroom setting. Not long, inclusive education came to replace
mainstreaming to enforce Individual with Disabilities Education Act
(IDEA) Amendments of 1997. The inclusive education has come to provide
education for all children in the public education setting.
3
Inclusive education is a global agenda (Pijl, Meijer, & Hegarty, 1997 [as
cited in Agbenyega, 2007]), however, it is context specific in terms of
meaning and practice since it has not got any definite definition. Generally,
inclusion in education means, “full inclusion of children with diverse
abilities in all aspects of schooling that other children are able to access and
enjoy” (Loreman, Deppeler & Harvey, 2005, p. 2). All children can learn
when teaching is effective and meets individual strengths and learning needs
(Ainscow, 1999; Corbett, 2001; Gale, 2001; Lindsay, 2003).
The policy guiding the principle and practice of inclusion was first
adopted at the World Conference held in Salamanca, Spain in June 1994,
now regarded as the Salamanca Statement by United Nations Educational
Scientific Organization (UNESCO, 1994). The statement has drawn global
attention to access and quality in delivery of special needs education.
Considering the importance this could have, it was later emphasised at the
World Educational Forum at Dakar, Senegal in 2000 and supported by the
UN Standard Rules on the Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with
Disabilities proclaiming participation and equality for all. The Salamanca
Conference recommended the following to governments of various
countries in the world as a matter of urgency to;

Give the highest policy and budgetary priority to improve
education service so that the children could be included,
regardless of difficulties.
4

Adopt as a matter of law or policy the principle of inclusive
education and to enroll all children in ordinary schools
unless there are compelling reasons for doing otherwise.

Ensure that organizations of people with disabilities along
with parents and community bodies are involved in
planning and decision-making.

Put greater effort into pre-school strategies, as well as
vocational aspects of inclusive education. Most important,
paragraph 2 of the Salamanca statement, spelt out 5 major
clauses as key issues in inclusion.
i.
Every child has a fundamental right to education, and must be
given the opportunity to achieve and maintain an acceptable
level of learning
ii.
Every child has unique characteristics, interests and learning
needs
iii.
Education system should be designed and educational programs
implemented to take into account the wide diversity of these
characteristics and needs
iv.
Those with special educational needs must have access to regular
schools which should accommodate them within a child-centered
pedagogy capable of meeting these needs
5
v.
Regular schools with this inclusive orientation are the most
effective means of combating discriminatory attitudes, creating
welcoming communities, building an inclusive society and
achieving education for all. Moreover, they provide an effective
education to the majority of children and improve the efficiency
and ultimately the cost-effectiveness of the entire education
system. By this, all children including those with special
educational needs were to be educated in the regular school
where equal opportunities and access were to be guaranteed.
Ghana’s concept of inclusive education, however, is aligned with
her Free Compulsory Universal Basic Education (FCUBE) policy
increasing access, retention and participation of all students of
school going age in education and not the movement and provision
of education to children with disabilities in regular schools. The
emphasis is on changing school culture and organization to
providing resources and to building capacity on special and regular
schools to offer new opportunities to pupils who may have
previously or continue to experience learning difficulties (Ghana
Education Service {GES}, 2004; Hayford, Agbeko, Gadagbui,
Avoke, Boison, 2002 ).
6
The government of Ghana since independence regards education
as a fundamental human right for all citizens and it has enshrined
this right in the Legal Framework of Education. The 1961 Education
Act is the principal legislation concerning the right to education for
all children in Ghana, it states that;
Every child who has attained the school going age as determined by
the Minister shall attend a course of instruction as laid down by the
Minister in a school recognised for the purpose by the Minister
(GES, 2004, p.2).
In the Ghanaian educational sector, one wonders whether there are laws
backing inclusive education. Ghana’s disability bill was passed on 23rd June,
2006 after many years of agitation. It has 12 main objectives. The following
are excerpt from the bill:
i.
Create an enabling environment for the full participation of People
with Disabilities (PWDs) in national development
ii.
Facilitate the employment of PWDs in all sectors of the economy,
iii.
promote disability friendly roads, transport, and housing facilities
iv.
ensure access of PWDs to effective health care and adequate medical
rehabilitation services,
v.
Ensure that women with disability enjoy the same rights and
privileges as their male counterparts,
7
vi.
Ensure that law enforcement personnel in cases of arrest, detention,
trial, and confinement of PWDs take into account the nature of their
disabilities,
vii.
Ensure access of PWDs to the same opportunities in recreational
activities and sports as other citizens.
After its passage, its implementation has been a big issue. This hinders
the inclusive education in so many ways. The knowledge of so many
Ghanaian educationists on the inclusive education seems to be very low.
Based on this, the approach to teaching physical education and the wrong
perception about the subject conflicting with the coaching of sports has
relegated the participation of physically challenged students in the general
physical education. It is obvious to state that most teachers, even some
physical educationist do not see the teaching of physical education as a
process that uses carefully planned and selected movement activities to
attain an optimal physical, emotional, social health and mental fitness skills
in an individual or the learner.
Statement of the Problem
Physical education, an aspect of education which aims at helping
students to enjoy an optimal health in order to obtain educational success
8
cannot see the physically challenged denied their right of inclusive
education.
According to DePauw and Gavron, (1991), “there is a paucity of
empirical research on coaches of athletes with physical disabilities; in fact,
literature pertaining to their expertise is almost nonexistent”. They added
that, “the need for empirically based research on these coaches is undisputed
especially with the recent increase in sporting events and opportunities for
athletes with physical disability (DePauw & Gavron, 2005; Reid & Pupas,
1998). This therefore exposes the challenges this category of students face
while on the academic ladder. Efforts like governmental policies ensure that
these people enjoy equal right yet negative attitudes by teachers, parents,
students and the society towards inclusion jeopardize government effort.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the study was to find out the reasons that militate
against the participation of physically challenged students in physical
education in an inclusive school setting.
The study also aimed at finding out how the level of task difficulty
assigned to a physically challenged student affects his /her participation in
an inclusive class.
9
Research Questions
The research questions below guided the study;
1. How do teachers accept physically challenged students in physical
education class?
2. How do physically challenged students benefit from inclusive
education?
3. What are the barriers for physically challenged students in the
inclusive setting?
4. What changes would assistive approach bring to the inclusive
education?
Significance of the Study
The study was to enhance the understanding of the concept of physical
education to all citizens.
It would prepare all citizens to adapt to individual differences in
different situations, respect the human right law.
This study would go a long way to equip teachers with the modern
trend of pedagogy to handle an inclusive education class with respect to the
teaching of P. E
It would also be a wake-up call to the government to provide facilities
and equipment that will meet the needs of the physically challenged.
10
It was also to echo the fact that the disability law should be enforced to
protect and promote the physically challenged. This would eventually make
education and life for every citizen easy, enjoyable and effective
Delimitation
This study was delimited to only nine public Senior High Schools in Ho
Municipality and South Dayi District in the Volta Region of Ghana. The
delimited schools are; Mawuli Senior High, Mawuko Girls Senior High, Ola
Senior High, Tsito Awudome Senior High, Taviefe Senior High, Dzolo
Senior High, Kpeve Senior Technical, Peki Senior High and Peki Senior
Technical School.
Limitations of the Study
A major limitation of this study was that the participants were only
physically challenged students. This limits this study as plausibly ‘able
students’ may have given different descriptions of their roles and
responsibilities, or any concerns they may have had. Another limitation was
that only physical education teachers from the same selected school districts
were used in the study. This limits the study in that conditions may differ
with respect to the school districts as well as other school settings with
regard to rural and suburban school districts.
11
Operational Definition of Terms
1.
Inclusive Education: refers to maximizing the potential of all
students regardless of their strengths or weaknesses in any area, and
seeks full participation by students with disabilities and upon respect
for their social, civil, and educational rights.
2.
Physically challenged students: refers to students with physical
disabilities
3.
Disable: refers to students with physical deformities
4.
Non-disable: refers to students without physical deformities
5.
Physical deformity: refers to undesirable deformation on the limbs
12
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
This chapter presents a thematic review of related literature as it
pertains to the problem statement. In the last decade there has been an
increase in empirical research on the marginalization of the physically
deformed persons. According to Edgington, K., and Roberts, J. (2005),
‘Physical deformity has a number of serious effects on an individual’s
physiological and social functioning’. There are vast number of physical
deformities that affect children and adults alike.
Disabled World, (2010), defined disability as a condition or function
judged to be significantly impaired relative to the usual standard of an
individual or group. The term is used to refer to individual functioning,
including physical impairment, sensory impairment, cognitive impairment,
intellectual impairment mental illness, and various types of chronic disease.
They further explained disability is conceptualized as being a
multidimensional experience for the person involved. There may be effects
on organs or body parts and there may be effects on a person's participation
in areas of life. Correspondingly, three dimensions of disability are
recognized in ICF: body structure and function (and impairment thereof),
13
activity (and activity restrictions) and participation (and participation
restrictions). The classification also recognizes the role of physical and
social environmental factors in affecting disability outcomes.
The Concept of Inclusion
According to Giangreco, (1994), inclusive education provides
opportunities for teachers to model acceptance of human diversity in its
many forms (e.g., culture, race, gender and disability) if we want to
encourage the next generation to accept and value diversity, what better
opportunity than welcoming students with disabilities into the classroom as
full, participating members? The expanding diversity of the student
population reflects the corresponding expansion of diversity in our
communities, which highlights the need for students to learn how to live,
work, and play harmoniously with people who have an ever widening range
of personal characteristics.
Inclusion is a philosophy in which ‘all individuals can participate in
physical activities that enable them to be motorically, cognitively, and
affectively successful within a community that embraces diversity.
Inclusive education is based on the right of all learners to a quality
education that meets basic learning needs and enriches lives. Focusing
particularly on vulnerable and marginalized groups, it seeks to develop the
14
full potential of every individual. The ultimate goal of inclusive quality
education is to end all forms of discrimination and foster social cohesion.
Studies have also shown that age can play a role determining the degree
of effect on an individual. Adolescence has been identified as the most
difficult period for individuals living with physical deformity, particularly,
because at that age they place “more importance on appearance than any
other age group” (Liskey-Fitzwater et al., 1993). Evidence suggests that
every young child are relatively unaffected and older adolescents tend to
manage more successfully through focusing on their abilities and positive
peer relationships (Hill-Beuf & porter, 1984).
Research involving deformities that occur later life suggests that those
individuals with high self-esteem, who place value on their personal
strengths and talents, were able to cope more effectively with the change to
their appearance than those with a previously low valued appearance
(Anderson, 1982). Literature also indicates that those individuals who tend
self-concept, who highly attribute the negative words or actions of others to
them will have much higher social anxiety than those with more positive
attribution tendencies. Social skills have also been shown to be a strong
positive factor enabling individuals to adjust to and cope with as they allow
for positive social experiences inspite of the individual’s difference,
(Thompson & Kent, 2001).
15
Benefits of Inclusive Education
The benefits of inclusive education are numerous for both students with
and without disabilities.
Benefits of Inclusion for Students with Disabilities include;
Friendships, Increased social initiations, relationships and networks, Peer
role models for academic, social and behaviour skills, Increased
achievement of IEP goals, Greater access to general curriculum, Enhanced
skill acquisition and generalization, Increased inclusion in future
environments, Greater opportunities for interactions, Higher expectations,
Increased school staff collaboration, Increased parent participation, Families
are more integrated into community.
Benefits of Inclusion for Students without Disabilities are; Meaningful
friendships, Increased appreciation and acceptance of individual differences,
Increased understanding and acceptance of diversity, Respect for all people,
Prepares all students for adult life in an inclusive society, Opportunities to
master activities by practicing and teaching others, Greater academic
outcomes and all students needs are better met, greater resources for
everyone.
According to a 1998 study by Emory University and the University of
Georgia and published on the Web site of the American Association of
16
Adapted Sports Programs, children who participate in sports improve in
strength, coordination, and flexibility. In addition, parents and teachers
report the children are less likely to be depressed and often show
improvement in behaviour, academics, and social interaction. The study also
indicated that many parents noted a decrease in secondary health
complications when their children became less sedentary.
An analysis by Baker, Wang and Walberg in 1994 concluded that
"special-needs students educated in regular classes do better academically
and socially than comparable students in non-inclusive settings."
Research by Hollowood et-al. 1995 as cited in Edgington,(2005) found
inclusion was not detrimental to students without disabilities. The study also
concluded that students within each of IDEA's 13 categories of disability, at
all levels of severity, have been effectively integrated into general education
classrooms. NCERI also reported positive outcomes and high levels of
professional fulfillment for teachers.
In May 2000, the Indiana Inclusion Study concluded that students
without disabilities who were educated in inclusive settings made
significantly greater progress in math than their peers. Although their
progress in reading was not significantly greater than their peers, there was a
17
"consistent pattern" in their scores that favored educating students without
disabilities in inclusive settings.
Some Challenges Facing Inclusive Education
"Special education placement for students with disabilities has failed to
demonstrate substantive advantages over regular classes despite lower
teacher-pupil ratio and specialized teaching. Special Education has not
proven to be academically and socially stronger than would regular class
placement." Bunch & Valeo, 1997 as cited in Laktionov (2010) .
Disability Right for Inclusion
According to estimates of international agencies, UNESCO, the lead
agency for the Flagship, more than 90 percent of children with disabilities in
developing countries do not attend schools. For every child killed in armed
conflict, three are injured and permanently disabled. Of the 26,000 people
killed and injured by landmines every year, 40 percent are children. Over 10
million children are psychologically traumatized by armed conflicts. Child
labour and maltreatment such as corporal punishment, amputation and
blinding of detainees, lead to children becoming disabled and succumbing to
mental illness, physical and psychological disabilities, and difficulties in
schools or at work. Moreover, the vast majority of individuals with hearing
or visual impairments in developing nations lack basic literacy and those
18
with intellectual and mental disabilities are often treated with cruel neglect.
Education and lifelong learning opportunities can and must overcome
inequalities in economic and social development that effectively
marginalize with disabilities.
Ethical Dilemmas involving students with physical deformity
The ethical principles outline above, along with the guideline for ethical
decision making presented the Canadian Code of Ethics for Psychologist
(CPA, 2001), can be highly useful tools for professionals educational setting
encountering ethical dilemmas involving with and for researchers such
situations there are countless dilemmas that may present themselves schools
however, only a few will discussed under this study.
The first principle, Respect for the Dignity of persons, suggests that due
to the increased vulnerability of these particular, professionals have a
responsibility to safeguard their right; this may involve unique treatment
(CAP, 2001). The discomfort that some will face in school change rooms
presents an example of the type of dilemma that may require to this
principle.
Many individuals live with deformities that can be camouflaged with
clothing. These youth are able to avoid unwanted attention from others,
regarding their difference, through wearing clothing that masks them. For
19
these individuals, being required to change their clothing for education
classes or being required to wear a certain type of clothing as a school
uniform can cause great distress and often forces them to expose them.
Professionals who choose to respect the dignity and privacy of these might
offer alternative arrangements that would allow them to fully participate
without having to expose them. It is important to note that not all would be
interested in alternative uniform or changing arrangements, thus, this is a
decision that addresses the unique interests of individual student.
The ethical principle of Responsible Caring suggests that professional
need to address both the long –term and short-term welfare of their (CPA,
2001). The previous example addresses an immediate situation for the
student, but does little to impact long-term well-being. Professionals and
researchers are also able to demonstrate competence through an active
understanding of the many variables that contribute to positive adjustment
among individuals with deformity. These include the severity and visibility
of the, age, self-concept, personal values, competency, social skills and
social support. Although there is little that professionals and researchers
educational settings can do to change the severity and visibility of the age of
the student affected, they can also demonstrate values that focus on `abilities
and talents. Finally, school professionals and educational researchers can
work to foster a rich social environment that provides strong social support
networks for all of them. This requires a keen awareness of the social
20
activity and relations that exist within the school, and an effort on the part of
all staff to foster a positive and nurturing environment while they are
working the school setting. Exposing youth to these types of positive social
support may encourage them to seek out similar support networks when
they leave the school environment. This is an important area of work for
professionals, as social support is known to be the strongest influence
towards a positive adjustment to Forestenzer and Kent, 2001as cited in
Edgington (2005) .
Disability and the Millennium Development Goals
The World Programme of Action concerning Disabled Persons, the
Standard Rules on Equalization of Opportunities for Persons with
Disabilities and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
recognize persons with disabilities as both development agents and
beneficiaries in all aspects of development.
The periodic review of the MDGs provides an entry-point to assess how
persons with disabilities fare in comparison to the population at large in
relation to achieving the MDGs, particularly poverty eradication, universal
primary education, reducing child mortality, improving maternal health, and
combating HIV/AIDS.
While persons with disabilities make up an estimated ten per cent of the
world’s population, it has been suggested that disability could be associated
21
with twenty per cent of the global population living in poverty.
Notwithstanding the commitment of the United Nations to the rights of
persons with disabilities and the recognition by the 2005 World Summit
World Bank. 2005. Development outreach: Disability and inclusive
development, July 2005 (Washington, DC).
“2005 World Summit Outcome”, A/RES/60/1, 12 September 2005,
Paragragh129. accompanying guidelines, policies, programmes and
conferences that are part of on-going MDG efforts. As a consequence,
periodic reviews of the MDGs underway within the United Nations do
not include reference to disability issues or persons with disabilities.
The situation of persons with disabilities in the context of the
Millennium Development Goals
An analysis of the references to persons with disabilities in MDG
country reports may provide valuable information about the extent and ways
in which disability and persons with disabilities are included in programmes
and policies. With this in mind, the Secretariat conducted a desk review of
80 MDG country reports from all regions from 2003 to 2009.4 A list of the
reports is included in Annex 1. The following are the preliminary findings
based on data available to the Secretariat.
Forty-two reports (52 per cent) made some reference to disability or persons
with disabilities. These references included causes of disability, issues of
22
concerns or challenges, and initiatives. Of these 42 reports, 16 included a
reference to one or more initiatives specifically directed toward persons
with disabilities. Twenty-eight reports mentioned disability in reference to
“vulnerable” or “marginalized” groups or population “in need of special
attention”. It may be noted that references to persons with disabilities in the
context of population groups could be understood as an effort to mainstream
disability. Other references were more specific to disability and persons
with disabilities. None of the references provides detailed information or
elaborates on the issues or programmes concerned.
Selected MDG Country reports available in English, French and
Spanish in the UNDG and UNDP MDG websites, and that were searchable
electronically. Some reports noted that persons with disabilities are among
the poorest of the poor, the most deprived, and vulnerable; and that they
tend to fall outside the reach of social services provided by the government.
They also recognized that special measures or attention might be required
for persons with disabilities.
Most references to disability were related to social protection and safety
nets (MDG 1), and education (MDG 2). Two reports contained data which
show that the participation of persons with disabilities in gainful
employment is very low. When they work, remuneration for persons with
disabilities is significantly lower than that of non-disabled workers and in
very few instances work conditions are adapted to the needs of persons with
23
disabilities. According to the country report of Thailand (2008), for
instance, “less than half the number of people with disabilities was
employed and they received on average only two thirds of the income
earned by other workers”. In Serbia, it was reported that “only 13 per cent
of persons with disabilities have an opportunity to work, one third of them
have working conditions adapted to their need” in 2005. Although the
problems of unemployment and unequal pay are prevalent throughout the
world, the lack of reference to these issues in other country reports could
reflect the generally low priority given to employment of persons with
disabilities. In the area of education, issues and challenges include access to
adequate education for persons with sensory, physical and developmental
disabilities; weak identification and assessment mechanisms of children
with disabilities to ensure adequate education; and difficulty and high cost
of providing primary education to those with disabilities in geographically
disperse areas. The country report from Thailand provides an illustrative
case in point: “approximately three quarters of people with disabilities either
had no or less than a primary education”.
One reference to gender perspectives (MDG3) was made in relation to
women as caregivers of persons with disabilities while another report
stressed the need to understand how gender equality was affected by
different factors such as disability. The only initiative mentioned specific to
24
women with disabilities was a one-time financial assistance for women with
disabilities.
Initiatives mentioned in the reports are related to inclusive education,
health care and rehabilitation, pensions and cash benefits. Example of
initiatives specific to persons with disabilities include: a disability survey in
2002 Maldives, 2007 as cited in General Assembly (2009); registry of
persons with disabilities Chile, 2005 as cited in General Assembly (2009);
Prevention Programme for Disabled Persons Croatia, 2005 as cited in
General Assembly (2009); Service of Personal Assistants to Persons with
Disabilities programme (to support persons with disabilities to become
active and to work) Serbia, 2005 as cited in General Assembly (2009 ;
policy for persons with disabilities; incorporating disability reduction targets
in the National Health Care Policy Liberia, 2004 as cited in General
Assembly (2009); taking steps towards inclusive education (Bahrain, 2007;
Chile, 2005; Fiji, 2003; Kazakhstan, 2005; Kenya, 2005; Serbia, 2005;
Tanzania, 2006; Thailand, 2008[as cited in General Assembly , 2009]); and
a conference on the rights of persons with disabilities Brazil, 2007 as cited
in General Assembly (2009). One report mentioned that the Poverty
Reduction Strategy emphasizes an urgent need to devote special attention to
vulnerable populations, including to persons with disabilities Serbia, 2005
as cited in General Assembly (2009).
25
Preparing teacher for inclusive understanding of assistive technology
There exist a current need for teachers to have additional skills and
abilities in technology, specifically concerning the special needs student and
assistive technology. This need extends to all teachers, not just special
education teachers, as all teachers are now likely to have students with
disabilities. The current educational systems encourage an inclusionary
setting for all special needs students, and this setting is supported by federal
laws. This paper provides information concerning laws, definitions,
services, levels of assistive technology, and the application of assistive
technology in the educational process. An overview is included in current
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education and International
Society for Technology Education guidelines as they relate to assistive
technology. The current components of education degrees that include or
require educational technology and assistive technology are outlined.
Federal legislation exists concerning the application of assistive technology
in an educational setting. This federal legislation requires that schools
consider using assistive technology for all special needs students and this
legislation has implications for teacher preparation, individual education
plans, school budget, staffing, and more. This proposes a model for
addressing and improving the integration of assistive technology and
universal design to better prepare teacher candidates and education
graduates to meet the needs of students in the inclusion setting. The goal of
26
this model is to enhance teacher performance with assistive technology and
students with disabilities, enabling equal access to educational situations
and materials in the least restrictive environment.
Preparing Teachers For The Inclusion Classroom Understanding
Assistive Technology And Its Role In Education
The number of people affected by disabilities is larger than many may
imagine. Currently in the United States about 150 million people are
impacted by disabilities to some extent either themselves or through
association. This number amounts to approximately half the entire planets
population, which is an estimated 3 billion people, is in some way affected
by disabilities.
Consider these statistics concerning the special needs population (IBM
2000; New York State Council on the Arts, 2001).

750 million people worldwide are challenged by disabilities.

Over 8 million Americans have visual impairments.

500,000 visually impaired Americans use assistive Technology
Devices.

13.5 million Americans consider themselves visually impaired to
some degree.

Nearly 3 million Americans are color-blind.

2.7million Americans have speech impairments.
27

4.6million Americans use Assistive Technology Devices for hearing
impairments.

5% of school children are reported as having learning disability, but
an estimated 15% of students are believed to have some form of
learning disability.

Dyslexia affects over 40 million Americans.

54 million Americans report some level of disability 15% of the
population.

Fewer than 15%ofm people with disability were both with them\

Americans with hearing impairments equal the population of
California.
Because of the large and increasing number of special needs students
with disabilities, assistive educational technology is growing in importance.
Special needs students are also having a greater impact on the general
education teacher as, during the past 10 years, the percentage of students
with disabilities served in schools and classes with their non disabled peers
has gradually increased. In the 1997-98 school years, US states reported that
97.8 percent of students’ ages 6 through 11with disabilities were served in
schools with their nondisabled peers, with 94.7 percent of students’ ages 12
through 17 with disabilities and 87.2 percent of students ages 18 through 21
with disabilities. These figures represent a large increase when compared to
28
just four years before when in 1993-94 the states were serving 43.4 percent
of students with disabilities ages 6-21 in regular classrooms. As the
percentage of special needs students served in an inclusive setting along
with non-disabled students rises, the number of special education and
regular education teachers prepared to provide an inclusive environment
must also increase (US Dept. of Education 2000, US Dept. of Education
1996).
Disabilities rights leaders have said that the application of technology
will be the equalizer of the 21st century (Flippo, Inge and Barcus, 1995).
Through the use of assistive technology devices, many students decrease
their isolation from a special class and become an important part of a regular
classroom, which is considered the least restrictive environment.
Technology access solutions do exist for students who need assistance with
content material. Screen readers that read aloud the text on the screen or
web page can overcome barriers to accessing electronic information
encountered by student who have vision disabilities. Caption built into
multimedia programs can overcome barriers for students who have hearing
disabilities (RESNA, 2001). Assistive technology then may be a basic tool
in the educational process for any individual who experiences a disability.
29
The Bases of Advocacy
According to the declaration of independence of July 4th 1776, “We
hold these truths to be self-evident that all men (human beings) are created
equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights
that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness”.
The project's philosophy and mission are founded on the tenets of
disability rights advocacy which have historically promoted the involvement
of people with disabilities in all facets of society.
Over the last 25 years, disability rights advocacy has played a crucial
role in broadening the concept of disability and of what people with
disabilities can accomplish. This advocacy has been instrumental in shaping
new images of people with disabilities. In emphasizing individual
independence and empowerment since the beginning of the disability rights
movement in the early 1970s, advocates have tried to show that people with
disabilities are a vital part of society and have the right to participate fully in
it. In fighting exclusion, segregation and discrimination in various social
institutions-educations, employment, housing and community-people with
disabilities have defined a broader arena for their struggle to achieve full
participation in society. Disability rights advocacy now defines its primary
goal as independence and empowerment at a systemic level as well as at an
30
individual level, and frames the issues as civil rights for all people with
disabilities.
The issues of individual concern, such as improving services,
independent living and self empowerment, which inspired people with
disabilities to organize themselves in the 1970s, remain central to the
disability rights movement today. State councils, community-based
organizations, and advocacy groups address the wide range of injustices
which people with disabilities face in everyday life, from accessibility in the
physical environment to exclusion from schools and communities, Scotch, R
(1988).
Heuman (1994), one of the most outspoken and articulates of inclusion
for individuals with disabilities at all levels paraphrased the famous words
of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jn. “Let us never succumb to the temptation of
believing that legislation and judicial decree play only a minor role in
solving problems. Morality cannot be legislated... but behaviour can be
regulated. Judicial decrees may not change the heart... but they can restrain
the heartless. The law cannot make an employer love an employee or a
teacher love a student ... but it can prevent him /her from refusing to hire me
or teach me because of the colour my skin or my disabilities.”
31
Impact on Educators
With the growing focus to address the needs of all students, including
those with disabilities, inclusion is a component of school restructuring
agendas (McGregor & Vogelsbert, 1998). The inclusion model has become
the current education classroom standard. Consequently all teachers have a
need be trained and be prepared for the inclusion of special needs students
in the general education population. Lipsky and Gartner (1996) define
inclusion as “the provision of services to students with disabilities, including
those with severe impairments, in the neighbourhood school, in ageappropriate general education classes, with the necessary support services
and supplementary aids (for the child or the teacher) both to assure the
child’s success-academic, behavioral, and social-and to prepare the child to
participate as a full and contributing member of the society.’’ Teachers must
be prepared in the instructional setting to adapt instruction for an individual
by changing one or more aspects of the material being taught.
Legal Aspects
The concept of an inclusion classroom or school is based upon teaching
students with disabilities in regular classrooms, rather than in special
schools, classrooms or pull – out locations. Supported by court decisions,
inclusion has been increasingly defined through lawsuits brought by parents
of disabled children around the country. In an exemplifying case, Oberti vs.
Board of education of the Borough of Clementon school District, the federal
32
judge who decided the outcome of the case endorsed full inclusion. The
judge stated, “Inclusion is a right, not a special privilege for a select few.
This judgment, he said, was based his interpretation of the federal
individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and its 1997
amendments make it a requirement that school educate children who have
disabilities, in general education classrooms whenever possible. With this
charge is also a requirement that all students classified as having any form
of disability have an individual education plan (IEP) developed specifically
for that student. The IEP will be developed by a team of people including
teachers, administrators, councillors, parents, outside experts (as needed),
and even the student for whom the plan is being developed. As part of the
federal IDEA amendments, there are statements that now require assistive
technology devices and services to be considered on an individualized basis
and become a part of the individual education plan if the child needs the
assistive technology or services to benefit from his educational program.
The IDEA statements that focus on assistive technology devices and / or
services require that the IEP team ask:

Will AT enable the student to meet the goals set for the education
program that cannot be met because of his/her disability?

Does the student need assistive technology to be involved in the
general curriculum, including participation in state and district
wide assessments?
33

Does the student need assistive technology for augmentative
communication?

Does the student need to be able to use the device at home or in
the community to achieve the goals of the IEP?
If the team finds that any of the answers to the questions is yes, then the
IEP team must ensure that the needed AT devices and /or services are made
available to the student
Assistive Technology
The Technology-Related Assistance for individual with Disabilities Act
of 1998 (PL 100-407) gave the U.S the first legal definition of assistive
technology devices and services. An assistive technology device was
defined as any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether
acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to
increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with
disabilities. An assistive technology service was described as any service
that directly assists an individual with a disability in selection, acquisition or
use of an assistive technology service.
Assistive Educational Technology (AET) is the theory and practice of
design, development, utilization, management, and evaluation of processes
and resources that are used to increase, maintain, or improve functional
34
capabilities of individuals, with or without disabilities, for learning
(Cavanaugh, 2000). The distinction between assistive and educational
technologies is becoming less clear as the concept of universal design is
incorporated into conventional technology.
Assistive Technology Levels and Categories
Assistive technology has the capacity for increasing student
independence, increasing participation in classroom activities and
simultaneously advancing academic standing for students with special
needs, providing them the ability to have equal access to their school
environment. Rehabilitation Engineering and Assistive Technology society
of North America (RESNA, 2000) has identified twelve different areas
where assistive technology can be used; all twelve apply in some way to the
educational setting. Of the twelve, four are areas that would have a major
impact in any school situation, including: work site Modification Material
Aids, seating and positioning Aids, and sensory Aids. The other assistive
technology application areas are Aids for Daily living, communication and
Augmentative communication Tools, Environmental control systems,
Leisure Time or Recreational Adaptations, mobility Aids, prosthetics and
Orthotics, and vehicle modifications.
In considering assistive technology in the classroom, the environment,
the individual, and the characteristics and levels of the technology must be
35
included (Gitlow, 2000). Assistive technology may be classified by
technology being high-middle-or low-tech. a low-tech assistive technology
option is usually easy to use, has low cost and typically does not require a
power source. Mid-tech assistive devices are also easy to operate but
typically require a power source. The high-tech device is usually complex
and programmable, and includes items that require computers, electronics or
microchips to perform a function. An example of the application of
technology could range from having a voice input word processor (high
tech) to a student using and adapted pencil grip (low tech) to assist during
writing (ATEN, 2002).
Along with considering the level of the technology, consider the levels
of how the assistive technology devices or services could be applied into the
classroom environment. Judd-wall (1999) proposes that levels in applying
the assistive technology that are concerned with whether the item is
personally, developmentally, or instructionally necessary. Developmentally
necessary devices and/or services may be shared among individuals. These
devices and services help meet an educational need which may be based on
some developmental delay, which in the future would be overcome,
eliminating the need for the assistive device or service in an individual’s
future. Lastly, instructionally necessary devices and services are those used
with a modification of the instructional process in a subject area course or
grade level. Such a modification would not need to accompany user as her
36
or she progresses to the next academic level, and would instead remain at
the course or grade level. As you compare these necessary levels, you will
find that the materials used are much more likely to be shared among
various students at the developmentally necessary and instructionally
necessary levels.
At the personally necessary level, a student must have the technology to
be able to function, and the technology is only for them. An augmentative
communication device such as a speaking keyboard would be a good
example of a personally necessary item. At the instructionally necessary
level, the technologies are needed in order to fulfil the requirements put
forth by the class or grade level. A student may be in a science course and
needs to manipulate equipment, such as a microscope, but an injury may
cause trouble with accommodations, much as any other student in the class
interested in using them. This application to all students better access or
basic component to inclusion education, by allowing any student better
access or access in a more appropriate alternative format to the information
being taught.
Inclusion and Assistive Technology in the Teacher preparation program
Teacher education programs are being encouraged to change to include the
concepts of inclusion through their accreditation agencies, such as interstate
New Teacher Assessment and support consortium (INTASC) and National
council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE). In NCATEs
37
(2002) latest set of unit (college) standards, as part of the vision for
professional teachers for the 21st Century qualified teachers should teach
every child. The standards also state that new teacher graduates should be
able to apply effective methods of teaching students, who are art different
developmental stages, have different learning styles, and come from diverse
backgrounds. A commitment to technology is also needed to ensure that all
teacher candidates are able to use educational technologies to help all
students learn. INTASC state, in its Model standards for Beginning Teacher
licensing, that teachers should know about areas of exceptionality in
learning – including learning disabilities, visual and perceptual difficulties,
and special physical or mental challenges (1992). NCATE and INTASC
both expect teacher candidates to understand language acquisition; cultural
influences on learning; exceptionalities; diversity of student populations,
families, and communities; and inclusion and equity in classrooms and
schools. With exceptionalities defined as a physical, mental, or emotional
condition, including gifted/talented abilities, that requires individualized
instruction and/or other educational support or services are necessary
(NCATE 2002).
Content area professional organizations, including the international
society for Technology in Education (ISTE), have standards for all teachers
and administrators regarding assistive technology (ISTE, 2001). The
international society for Technology in Education (ISTE) in essence
38
requires that assistive technology be addressed within teacher education
programs via the ISTE teacher technology standards which include (11)
planning and Designing learning Environments and Experience and (V1)
social, Ethical, legal, and Human issues. To meet these standards teachers
should have the ability to plan and design effective learning environments
and experience supported by technology. Additionally teachers must be able
to design developmentally appropriate learning opportunities that apply
technology-enhanced instructional strategies to support the diverse needs of
learners. Teachers must also understand the social, ethical, legal, and human
issues surrounding the use of technology in preK-12 schools and apply those
principles in practice. For this standard, teachers should apply technology
resources to enable and empower learners with diverse backgrounds,
characteristics, and abilities in order to facilitate equitable access to
technology resources for all students (ISTE, 2000).
The guidelines and standards for educational computing and technology
leadership programs are even more specific, stating that a graduate of such a
program should demonstrate awareness of resources for adaptive devices for
students with special needs.
A review was conducted of instructional technology programs within
the colleges of education across a large state university system. The analysis
of the published programs of study showed that none of the state colleges of
education offered a course specifying assistive technology in its title or
39
available description. A similar limited review was conducted of
universities nationwide that offered graduate programs in educational or
instructional technology. This survey found that fewer than 20% of the
colleges provide courses focusing on assistive technology as part of their
educational technology degree.
In an analysis of general education teachers who have been found to be
successful with inclusion, resource, time and training were found to be
determining factors (McGregor &Vogelsbert, 1998). Based upon this
knowledge general teacher education programs should be designed to
include content related to inclusion concepts, including assistive technology.
General inclusion concepts and strategies could be taught throughout the
core required and content method classes. Due to the technology
requirements it would be difficult to integrate assistive technology concepts
and methodologies into general education courses. Currently, assistive
technology is, for the most part, only discussed as a small component of
other technology integration classes, on is thought of an only needing to be
part of the special education section. There exists the need for the addition
of the application of assistive technologies and awareness to a course that is
a required part of general teacher education programs. Many colleges of
education now require or encourage their students to take an introductory or
survey course in educational technology or computer applications to which
40
the addition of assistive and adaptive devices and assistive technology
education concepts would be an excellent match.
The future of Education
As the education of all students occurs more frequently within the
standard classroom in the inclusion environment, the concepts of teaching
and learning that incorporate assistive technology approaches and
accommodation become more important. This change in population will
have the impact of changing the learning goals, the teaching methods and
the means of assessment for all students. Assistive technology is a wideranging educational tool that is growing in its use and importance, and is
required for consideration for all students classified with any form of
disability and must be included on that students individual education plan
(IEP). Current and future teachers then” need to be focused on classroomwide and building wide contexts, reflecting an alignment within special
education as well as between special and general education” (McGregor
&Vogelbert, 1998). General teacher education programs must restructure
themselves to include content for those teachers concerning special
education methodology and pedagogy along with student modifications,
accommodations, and assistive technology.
Assistive technology tools can make a significant difference for students
with disabilities (Rose & Meyer, 2000). The exceptional education teachers
41
are not the only ones who need awareness of assistive technology. All
regular education teachers are likely to encounter mainstreamed special
needs students, and the purpose for using the technology ideally is to allow
and support the student in the general student population. From discussions
with professionals in the assistive technology community, I found that
integrating the concepts into a pre-service education course is needed, as it
would better prepare the future teachers for the reality of today’s classroom.
Computer Technology and the Physical Educator
There are a number of ways physical educators can use the computer
and the internet to enhance the performance of learners with or without
disabilities in their classes;

Promote physical education classes and activities via a Web page,
{Lytle, Lavay, Robinson & Huettig (2003)}

Assign students to gain information via the web rather than using
more traditional learning strategies. For example, they can gain
information regarding the history of sports (Negro Baseball Leagues
http://www.black
baseball.
com),
rules,
equipment,
sports
organizations, techniques etc.

Use computer software to facilitate inclusion. Dawns P.

Encourage learners and their parents to use interactive CD-ROM
computer technology to participate in games that encourage the
42
learning of rules, strategies, and technique. These computer gamesgolf, tennis, football, baseball and so on, allows even a child with
limited movement potential to play with a peer. Programs such as
Maniac Sports allow a student who is confined to bed the
opportunity to experience hang gliding, mountain climbing, and
downhill skiing vicariously. For example, a learner in the last stage
of Duchenne muscular dystrophy may have only limited control of
one hand. With the hand, the learner can manipulate the joystick.
43
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the study was to find out the reasons that militate
against the participation of physically challenged students in physical
education in an inclusive school setting.
The study also aimed at finding out how the level of task difficulty
assigned to a physically challenged student affects his /her participation in
an inclusive class.
This chapter presents the methods and procedures used to address the
purpose and research questions. Items discussed include research design,
population, sample and sampling technique, instrument, pilot study, data
collection and data analysis plan.
Research Design
This study adopts an exploratory survey design. Blurtit (2012) defines
exploratory study as a study that is undertaken when little is known about a
subject or no information is available on how a similar problem or similar
research issues have been solved in the past. Generally it is the heavy
preliminary work in investigating practically anything. It is there to acquire
primary research and actually compile any and all pre-existing knowledge,
albeit limited in most cases. It then seeks to establish and portray this in a
44
coherent manner for interpretation. Cherry (2009) defines survey as a data
collection tool used to gather information about individuals. Surveys are
commonly used in psychology research to collect self-report data from
study participants. A survey may focus on factual information about
individuals, or it may aim to collect the opinions of the survey takers’
(Cherry, 2009).
The researcher explored the reasons that militate against the
participation of physically challenged students in general physical education
class in order to gain information for a better understanding of the inclusive
education.
Population
The term population is the sum aggregate of phenomena of interest to
the researcher. It refer s to the complete set of individuals, objects or events
having common observable characteristics in which the researcher is
interested in studying (Agyedu, Donkor, & Obeng, 2007). The population
for this study was 48 from the ten senior high schools sampled from south
Dayi District and Ho Municipal in the Volta Region. The target population
consisted of all male and female students who are physically challenged
from the public senior high schools. As part of the respondents, all the 13
Physical Education (P.E) teachers were sampled from the targeted schools.
45
Sample and Sampling Techniques
Sample is a smaller version of the entire population that your
dissertation research is about and sampling simple means the process of
selecting units (e.g., people, organizations) from a population of interest so
that by studying the sample we may fairly generalize our results back to the
population from which they were chosen (William, 2006). There are two
methods of sampling, namely probability and non-probability sampling.
Probability sampling means that everyone in a given population has an
equal chance of being surveyed for a particular piece of research and Nonprobability sampling comes in various shapes and sizes, but the essence of it
is that a bias exists in the group of people you are surveying (Ryan, 2011).
Based on the problem under study, the researcher used the purposive
sampling which is a non- probability sampling technique to select the nine
public senior high schools. The same technique was used to select the
respondents from the public schools for the study. The researcher used this
technique because it enabled him to arrive at the very respondents the
researcher used for the study.
Research Instrumentation
The major instrument for data collection was questionnaire. There were
sixteen-items (16) on the questionnaire for students and twelve-items (12)
on the questionnaire for teachers. Both were open and closed ended
46
questions. The items were intended to collect general data based on
statements and questions that were in quest of facts but dispirit guess work.
Respondents were asked to tick yes or no in brackets to the questions.
Pilot Study
Before the main study was carried out, the researcher conducted a pilot
study to examine and pre-test the questionnaires. The pilot study was carried
out in Winneba Senior High School in the Central Region of Ghana. The
researcher carried this study on similar respondents with similar
characteristics as the targeted respondents used in the main study.
Data Collection Procedure
Administration of the questionnaires was done in four days for both
schools. The researcher sought permission from the headmasters of the
targeted schools. The questionnaires were distributed to the sampled
respondents.
The researcher administered the instrument personally. The respondents
were educated and assured privacy and security after their consent. The
respondents were adequately informed on the significance of the exercise.
Within the five days, respondents chosen were invited to respond to the
sixteen-item
questionnaire.
All
persons
with
physical
deformity
(challenged) were made to respond to the questionnaire independently.
47
Data Analysis
According to Osuala (1993), analysis is the ordering and breaking down
of data into constituent parts and the performing of the statistical calculation
with the raw data to provide answers to questions initiating the research. All
completed questionnaires were returned representing 100% returns. In the
analysis, responses to the questionnaire were categorised and edited to
determine their accuracy, uniformity, consistency and appropriateness.
Again the data was coded for tabulation on a computer to ascertain the
number of respondents scoring in each category of a variable as a frequency
or percentage or both.
Frequencies and percentages of the responses were determined,
presented and discussed. These statistical methods were chosen because the
research aimed at finding reasons that militate against the participation of
physically challenged students in physical education in an inclusive school
setting.
48
CHAPTER FOUR
RESULTS, FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The purpose of the study was to find out the reasons that militate
against the participation of physically challenged students in physical
education in an inclusive school setting.
The study also aimed at finding out how the level of task difficulty
assigned to a physically challenged student affects his /her participation in
an inclusive class.
Table 1: Response to teacher’s engagement of students with disability in
practical P. E lessons
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
23
96
No
1
4
No answer
-
-
Total
24
100
According to table one, an absolute number of 21 representing (96%) of
the respondents indicated that they were engaged in practical P.E lessons in
the inclusive setting. An absolute number 1 representing 4% indicated
students with deformity on the limbs were not engaged in practical P.E
lesson.
49
Table 2: Response to teachers’ encouragement of students with disability to
take part in P. E
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
24
100
No
-
-
No. answer
-
-
Total
24
100
Figure 1
100
90
80
70
60
50
percentage
40
30
20
10
0
yes
No
No
Response
From figure one and its corresponding graph above, all the respondents
showed that teachers encourage them to take part in P. E.
50
Table 3: Response to how teachers treat students with disability as
compared with non-disable students
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
15
63
No
8
33
No answer
1
4
24
100
Total
Figure 2
HOW TEACHERS TREAT STUDENTS
WITH DISABILITY AS COMPARED TO
THE NON-DISABLE
Yes
No
No Response
From figure two and its graph above, sixty three percent (63%) of the
respondents showed that teachers gave equal treat to students with disability
as in relation to the non-disabled students.
Contrary to the above, thirty three percent (33%) of respondent showed
that students with physical deformity were not given good attention that was
51
demanded or were not taking care off very well. Four percent (4%) of
respondents indicated that they had no idea to share when it comes to
teacher-learner relationship with respect to physically challenged students.
Table 4:
Response to students’ involvement in P. E practical lessons
Response
Yes
Frequency
Percentage %
22
92
No
1
4
No. answer
1
4
Total
24
100
From table four, ninety-two percent (92%) showed that all students
were involved in practical P.E lesson. Students with physical deformities
were all engaged or involved in practical P. E lesson.
On the other hand, four percent (4%) said that students with physical
deformities were not involved during practical P. E lessons.
The first four percent who have no answer to whether students with
physical deformities were involved in practical P. E lessons
52
Table 5: Teachers’ response to whether P. E contributes to students’ health
and well being
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
23
96%
No
1
4
No answer
-
-
Total
24
100
Table five indicated that ninety six percent (96%) of the respondents
believed that students’ engagement with physical education affects
positively their health and well being. The engagement with the subjects
physical education improves or enhances the health and well being of the
students irrespective of his physical stature (nature). Four percent (4%) of
the respondents were of the view that physical education does not influence
the health and wellbeing of students.
There was no absolute number who did not have any idea whether P.E
contributes to the health and well being of the student.
53
Table 6: Physical education as a tool for development of knowledge on the
rules and laws of various games, attitudes, and motor skills/fitness
Response
Frequency
Laws
Percentage (%)
Attitude Skills
Laws
Attitude Skills
Yes
23
23
23
96
96
96
No
1
1
1
4
4
4
No response
-
-
-
-
-
-
100
100
Total
24
24
24
100
Figure 3
25
20
Knowledge on the rules
and laws
15
Attitude
10
Mottor Skills
5
0
Yes
No
No
Response
From figure three and its corresponding table, an absolute number of
twenty three (23) out of twenty four (24) represents the view that physical
54
education is a tool for developing students’ knowledge on rules and laws of
the games, attitudes and motor skills or fitness.
Contrary, out of an absolute number of twenty four (24), one (1) was of the
view that physical education was not a tool for developing knowledge on
the rules, and laws of the games, attitudes and motor skill/fitness.
Table 7: Teacher’s response on how P. E helps students with deformities to
interact with peers and the society at large
Response
Frequency
Yes
18
No
5
No. answer
1
Total
24
Figure 4
20
15
10
frequency
5
0
Yes
No
No
Response Response
55
From table 7, eighteen (18) out of twenty four (24) respondents were of
the view that physical education help students with deformities to interact
with their peers and the society at large. It created a conducive ground for
them to interact with their peers and others better.
Five (5) out of the twenty four (24) responses indicated that physical
education does not help students with deformity compared to their ‘able’
peers.
One (1) responses out of the twenty (24) had no response.
Table 8:
Teacher’s responses to the awareness of the disability act of
Ghana.
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
2
8
No
22
92
No. answer
-
-
Total
24
100
56
Figure 5
TEACHER’S AWARENESS ON THE
DISABILITY ACT OF GHANA
Yes
No
No Response
Figure five above indicated that, eight percent (8%) of the respondents said
that they were aware of the disability act of Ghana while ninety two percent
(92%) were of the view that they were not aware of the disability act of
Ghana. At least each respondent knows that he or she is either aware or not
aware of the disability act of Ghana.
Table 9: Teacher’s response to whether students with deformities need any
assistive material to enhance their participation in the inclusive setting
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
16
No
7
29
No Response
1
4
Total
67%
24
100
57
Table 9 indicated that, sixty-seven percent (67%) of the teachers who
responded to the questionnaire demanded that assistive materials are to be
provided to students with physical deformities so that this participation
would be enhanced.
Twenty-nine percent 29% said that students with deformities could survive
and fit in the inclusive setting even without the assistive materials.
Four percent (4%) of the respondents could not tell whether the physically
challenge need any assistive material to enhance their participation in the
inclusive setting.
Table 10: Teacher’s response on whether students with deformities are
being called all kinds of names based on their disability.
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
11
46
No
11
46
2
8
24
100
No. answer
Total
From table 10 above, forty-six percent of respondents express the view
that students with deformities were called all sort of names based on their
deformities. The same percentages of respondents oppose the view that
students who were physically challenged were not called names of all kind.
58
Eight percent of the respondents decline by not expressing their views on
this issue.
Table 11: Teacher’s response on whether students’ with disability likes the
nicknames giving to them by their colleagues in the inclusive setting
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
9
15.2
No.
2
81.8
No answer
-
-
Total
11
100
From table 11 above, based on the statistics in table 10, eighteen point
two percent (18.2%) of the respondents welcomed the names given to them
by their peers but eighty one point eight percent (81.8%) frown on the
names given to them by their colleagues.
59
PUPILS RESPONSES
Table 12:
Pupil’s response to whether teachers teach practical lessons
Response
Frequency Percentage (%)
Yes
14
No
-
Total
14
100
100
Table 12 above indicated that, all the fourteen respondents who were
physically challenged with one kind of physical deformity on their body
agree to the fact that their physical education teachers teach practical
lessons. It is therefore obvious that hundred percent (100%) of the teachers)
teach practical P.E.
Table 13:
Involvement of students with deformities in practical physical
education lesson
Response
Frequency
Percentage %
Yes
12
86
No
2
14
14
100
Total
Table 13 above showed that, eighty six percent (86%) of the
respondents said, they were involved in practical P. E lessons but fourteen
percent said that they were not involved in practical P. E lesson.
60
Table 14: Whether teachers assign task to students with disability based on
their disability and ability level
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
12
86
No
2
14
Total
14
100
From table 14, eighty six percent (86%) said that, task given to them to
perform was based on their ability and disability level while fourteen
percent (14%) said, task assign to them to do in P. E class was not
considered on the fact that they were physically challenged.
Table 15: Whether teachers encourages students with disability who dislike
practical P. E lessons
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
12
86
No
2
14
14
100
Total
Table twelve, above showed that, two (2) respondents out of fourteen
(14) believed that teachers do not encourage them to engage in practical
P.E. They do not whip up their interest. However twelve (12) of the
61
respondent representing eighty six percent (86%) said they were encouraged
to create likeness for the practical P. E.
Table 16: Responses to whether students with disability wish to be in a
segregated school
Response
Frequency
Percentage (%)
Yes
2
14
No
12
86
Total
14
100
From table 16, fourteen percent (14%) of the respondents who were
actually physically challenged wish to school in the segregated settings but
eights six percent (86%) of the respondents wanted to continue in the
inclusive setting.
Table 17: Response to whether teachers use assistive approach to help teach
in the inclusive setting
Response
Frequency
Percentage %
Yes
9
65
No
3
21
No. answer
2
14
Total
14
100
62
Table 17 indicated that, sixty-five percent (65%) of the respondents
used assistive approach and materials to help teach physical education to
suit their conditions. Twenty one percent (21%) do not see teachers use
assistive approach in handing P. E for the physically challenged students.
Fourteen percent (14%) of the respondents do not see whether or not
teachers use assistive approach to teaching the physically challenged
students.
Table 18
Response to whether teachers recommend inclusive setting
Response
Frequency
Yes
9
65
No
2
14
No Response
3
21
14
100
Total
Percentage
Table 18 above indicated that, sixty five percent of the respondents said
that P. E teachers recommended the inclusive education while fourteen
percent were convinced that the teachers did not recommended it.
63
Findings and Discussions
Teachers’ Response
Table one revealed that teachers do engage students with physical
deformity in practical P. E lesson. Every child has a legal right to P. E class.
Federal law of Disability Act, 2006 Act 715 – Ghana states that, all children
regardless of their handicap and condition are entitled to free and
compulsory education.
A student may only used minimal assistance with physical activities
and access or may require a role in his Education Program (IEP) comes into
play. This is therefore supported by McGregor and Vogelbert (1998) that
general teacher education programmes should be designed to include
content related to inclusion concepts, including assistive technology. It is
therefore observed that not all teachers engaged students with disability in
practical physical education lessons based on one reason or the other. It is
significance to introduce Adapted P.E in the colleges of education so that
teachers
will
be
equipped
to
handle
all
level
of
abilities.
www.hlst.itrn.a.c.uk/resources/link304.html supported the issue that in
many cases, regular P.E teachers are not equipped with the knowledge and
skills to effectively include children with disability into their classes (North
Carolina Physical Education 4 me 2007).
64
Table two illustrates teachers’ encouragement of students in taking part
in physical education lessons. It was observed that all teachers encouraged
students to take part in physical education lessons. This is supported with
the declaration of independence of July 4th 1776, ‘we hold these taught to be
self evident all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their creator
with certain unalienable rights, that among these one life, liberty and the
pursuit of happiness’. The philosophy is founded on the tenets of disability
right advocacy which have historically promoted the involvement of people
with disabilities in all facets of society.
It is obvious to say that all physical education teachers understood the
importance of engaging a child in P. E lessons that is how come there was a
hundred per cent assertion that all students are encouraged to take part in
practical physical education lesson irrespective of the individuals challenge.
Table three provided evidence on how teachers treat students with
disability as compared to other students. The chart clearly indicated that
sixty – three percent (63%) of the P. E teachers who responded to the
questionnaire proved that majority handled disability with care. Even
though at most thirty-seven percent (37%) of the teachers showed that they
do not treat physically challenged students well, most did better if not best.
Statistics revealed that a few teachers do not see the need to observe the law
that promotes the right of the physically challenged.
65
Table four showed detailed teacher’s involving students in practical
physical education lessons. It was evident that only four percent of physical
education teachers whose response did not consider involving physically
challenged students in practical physical education lessons. Apart from that
four percent of respondents kept their reservations on whether they involved
students in practical P. E lessons or not. Ninety- two percent (92%) really
involved students in lessons.
Forestenzer and Kent (2001) supported that school professionals and
educational researchers work to foster a rich social environment that
provides strong social support network. This requires a keen awareness of
the social activity and relations that exist within the school, and an effort on
the part of all staff to foster a positive and nurturing environment while they
are working the school setting. Exposing the youth to these types of positive
social support may encourage them seek out similar support networks when
they leave area of work for professional as social support is known to be the
strongest influence towards a positive adjustment.
Basically, the ninety-two percent (92%) who involved every student
irrespective of the challenges displayed high sense of professionalism while
the other eight percent showed how unprofessional they were.
Table five and six describe how physical education teachers view the effect
of the subject on the health knowledge, attitude and skills of the physically
66
challenged. Ninety-six percent (96%) of the respondents believed that P. E
positively affects the health and well being of student. It is only four percent
of the respondents who felt physical education has no significances change
in the health and well being of the student.
According to the study of Emory University and the University of
Georgia, 1998, in support of the issue above, participation in sports improve
in strength, coordination, flexibility, endurance. In addition parents and
teachers reported that children are less likely to be depressed and often
shows improvement in behaviour, academic and interaction. The study also
indicated that many parents noted a decrease in secondary health
complication as when their children became less sedentary.
Table seven revealed that seventy-five percent (75%) of the respondents
were of the opinion that physical education is an interactive subject area that
helps students to interact better with their peers and the society at large.
Even though at least twenty-one percent (21%) opposes to this assertion,
majority was with the conviction that physical education creates the
conducive ground for a perfect inclusive education.
Schiller (2006), agreed that inclusion is important as P. E serves as an
interactive device for both the physically challenged and the nonchallenged.
67
Schools often keep handicapped children and able bodied apart setting aside
a special time for every child, disable or not is going to be on the starting
football team but to the content that you don’t make a greater opportunity to
be seen like they are unusual. TipRoao.com. added, students gain
confidence and the needed exposure when they learn together. It also helps
them to understand each others challenged. Giangreco, (1994), continued to
support that inclusive education provides opportunities for teachers to model
acceptance of human diversity in its many forms (e.g., culture, race, gender
and disability) if we want to encourage the next generation to accept and
value diversity, what better opportunity than welcoming students with
disabilities into the classroom as full, participating members? The
expanding diversity of the students population reflects the corresponding
expansion of diversity in our communities, which highlights the need for
students to learn how to live, work, and play harmoniously with people who
have widening range of personal characteristics.
Inclusion is a philosophy in which ‘all individuals can participate in
physical activities that enable them to be motorically, cognitively, and
affectively successful within a community that embraces diversity.
Table eight displayed the level of awareness of the disability Act of
Ghana. Teacher’s response showed that only eight percent understand the
right of the disabled in Ghana. Ninety-two per cent proved that they were
not aware of the disability Act of Ghana for that matter the right of the
68
physically challenged in the inclusive school setting. After the 1992
constitution of Ghana, the disability Bill was passed in 2006 after so many
years of agitation. Besides, estimates of international agencies, UNESCO,
the lead agency for the Flagship, more than 90 percent of children with
disabilities in developing countries do not attend schools. This is a good
testimony as Ghana is a typical developing country, hence, majority of the
inhabitants have little or no idea about the Disability Act 715 of Ghana.
Table nine showed how teachers see the need for the use of assistive
materials to enhance the full participation of the physically challenged.
Sixty–seven percent (67%) agreed that they use assistive materials and
twenty nine percent (29%) feel they do not use any material to assist them to
adapt and fully participation in Physical Education lesson. Four teachers do
not know whether they need the assistive materials or not. Technology tools
can make a significant different for students with disabilities. According to
the MDG report, (Serbia, 2005) policy for persons with disabilities is made
to provide Personal Assistants to Persons with Disabilities programme to
support persons with disabilities to become active and to work. This is to
ensure assistive material to enforce full participation of the physically
challenged.
69
STUDENTS’ RESPONSE
Table ten showed how students who are physically challenged were
involved in practical physical education. Eighty – Six percent of the
students who responded to the questionnaire showed that they were
involved in full participation in practical P.E lessons. Though, fourteen
percent (14%) said they were not involved in practical P.E lessons. It was
obvious that a good number of the physically challenged involved
themselves in practical P.E lessons. It is clear to say that the fourteen
percent were denied or are denying themselves the health and skill benefits
of engaging in P. E lessons. Besides, their social life may also be affected as
a result of not taking part in practical physical education.
Table 13,14 and 15 explained involvement of students with deformities
in practical P. E lesson, teachers assigning task to students with disability
based on their disability and ability level and whether teachers encourages
students with disability who dislike practical P. E lessons. Interestingly, the
three tables exhibit the same level of percentage as to how the physically
challenged were involved, assigned task and encouraged in the mist of
dislike and fear associated with the course. An absolute number of twelve
(12) out of fourteen (14) representing eighty six percent said that teachers
involved them, gave them task to perform and motivated them to
increasingly love the practice of physical education. Two percent
respectively disagreed to their involvement, task engagement and
70
motivation. It was observed that majority of the physically challenged are
in one way or the other benefiting from physical education while a few seem
to be left out. This may be attributed to the fact that the state of the disability
scares the teacher to engage the student or even motivate him or her to
engage in practical P.E.
Lytle, Lavay, Robinson & Huettig (2003), said teachers should promote
physical education classes and activities via a Web page. Assign students to
gain information via the web rather than using more traditional learning
strategies. For example, they can gain information regarding the history of
sports (Negro Baseball Leagues http://www.black baseball. com), rules,
equipment, sports organizations, and techniques.
In table 16, fourteen percent (14%) of the respondents who were actually
physically challenged wish to school in the segregated settings but eights six
percent (86%) of the respondents wanted to continue in the inclusive setting.
It was deduced that 86 percent of the respondents experienced a high sense
of security from both teachers and the non disabled students. Fourteen
percent who wanted the segregated school system could be viewed as
students who did not enjoy good company of their peers and sometimes the
teachers.
Table seventeen showed how sixty-five percent (65%) of the
respondents used assistive approach and materials to help teach physical
education to suit their conditions. Twenty one percent (21%) of the
71
respondents said teachers do not use assistive approach in teaching P. E for
the physically challenged students to fully benefit. Fourteen percent (14%)
of the respondents could not tell whether or not teachers use assistive
approach to teach the physically challenged students. Disabilities rights
leaders have said that the application of assistive approach will be the
equalizer of the 21st century (Flippo, Inge & Barcus, 1995). Through the use
of assistive technology devices, many students decrease their isolation from
a special class and become an important part of a regular classroom, which
is considered the least restrictive environment. Technology access solutions
do exist for students who need assistance with content material. Caption
built into multimedia programmes can overcome barriers for students who
have disabilities (RESNA, 2001). Assistive technology then may be a basic
tool in the educational process for any individual who experiences a
disability.
72
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Introduction
The purpose of the study was to find out the reasons that militate
against the participation of physically challenged students in physical
education in an inclusive school setting.
The study also aimed at finding out how the level of task difficulty
assigned to a physically challenged student affects his /her participation in
an inclusive class.
The study was conducted among Nine (9) Senior High Schools in the
Ho Municipality and South Dayi District in the Volta Region. It also
presents conclusions drawn from the findings of the study as well as
recommendations based on the findings of the study.
Summary
Ghana’s attempt to develop the potentialities of all children in the
educational system including those with special educational needs dates
back to the early 1960s soon after the attainment of independence. The
Education Act of 1961 provided for free and compulsory education for all
73
children. The country was among the first countries to ratify the United
Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. It has an objective to fully
implement inclusive education by 2015, by providing “equitable educational
opportunities by integrating all children with non-severe special educational
needs (SEN) in mainstream school and full enrollments of hard-to-reach and
out of school children by 2015”. The government has through the
promulgation of Act 2006, Act 715, made provision for the education of the
child with SEN. For instance Article 20 (1) stresses that ‘A person
responsible for admission into a school or other institution of learning shall
not refuse to give admission to a person with disability on account of the
disability unless the person with disability has been assessed by the Ministry
responsible for Education in collaboration with the Ministries responsible
for Health and Social Welfare to be a person who clearly requires to be in a
special school for children or persons with disability’. By this all schools are
mandated to enroll children with disabilities unless otherwise specified,
(Gyimah, 1997).
Despite all these concepts and effort towards inclusive education, many
in the developing world seems to lack the basic knowledge on the inclusive
74
education as demonstrated by literature reviewed and the data collected. In
Ghana a lot of people do not even know about the Disability Act 715 let
alone practice the law.
Inclusion is about the presence, participation and achievement of all
students, and it involves a particular emphasis on those groups of learners
who may be at risk of marginalization, exclusion or underachievement.
Mitchell’s (2005), opined that principal features are Entitlement to full
membership in regular, age-appropriate classes in their neighbourhood
schools, access to appropriate aids and support services, individualized
programmes, with appropriately differentiated curriculum and assessment
practices. These would mean that inclusive education is developmental in
nature and seeks for ways to make children with special educational needs
(SEN) participate actively in regular education. It is about valuing diversity
and individual differences, and assuring equality and access. It was in the
light of this argument that Deiner (2005: 24) pointed out successful
inclusion involves ‘placing children in an education setting that provides the
support that meets children’s emotional, social, and educational needs’.
Inclusion may therefore be regarded as the process whereby all children
including those with special educational needs (SEN) receive their
education in the mainstream with structures in place to ensure participation
and progress.
75
To sum up, if we are to enhance the quality of inclusive education
programmes, then we need a shift in attitudes, government commitment and
action to coordinate all aspects of inclusive education, strong linkages and
good preparation. Formal and informal stakeholders need to be involved at
every stage to ensure successful inclusive education.
Conclusions
In the current study many of the discussion focused on reasons that
militate against the participation of the physically challenged students in an
inclusive setting.
Within the delimitations and limitations of this study, based on the data
analysis, the following conclusions were made;
Special Education Services in Ghana are largely provided in urban
areas and district capitals whereas the greater number of persons who need
these services are found in the rural areas. Service providers are mainly
professionals who teach in the special segregated schools with only a few in
mainstream regular classrooms. There is the need for public education in
order to foster general acceptance of persons with disabilities in public
schools with requisite specialized support. In order to strengthen the practice
of advocacy on disability issues, there is the need to empower organizations
of disabled people to lead the way by using legal procedures to force
government to extend services to all areas of the country. The lack of
76
effective organizations of persons with disabilities coupled with inadequate
provision of information and policies impede the effective practice of
inclusive education in many parts of the country. In order to expand the
scope for an effective implementation of disability policy ideas must be
tailored towards the social model of disability.
Recommendations
Based on the results of present study, the following recommendations
were made that focus should be on the following:
• Forging stronger co-operation between Special Education and Regular
education.
• Providing funding for logistics and support services for the physically
challenged.
• Training of teachers on principles and methodology for the physically
challenged.
• Appropriateness of school curriculum/flexible school curriculum to
facilitate adaptation in School and Colleges’ Curriculum. When students are
well informed, they can know the measures to adopt to accommodate
persons with disabilities
• Involving agencies such as those in the fields of health, social services,
psychology and counseling. Each of these should be assigned specific roles
in meeting the needs of children with disabilities;
77
• Having a programme to bring improvement in social attitudes. This could
be achieved through the active involvement of parents who have children
with disabilities;
• Improving physical architecture to facilitate access.
From the fore-going, it can be concluded that the practice of inclusive
education is not simple. It demands lots of preparation including a strong
political will and community participation. Inclusion draws so much on
sharing of experiences for it is developmental in scope.
Recommendations for Further Study
The following recommendations were made as suggestions for further
study:
 The sample size of further study should be larger so that the study
can be more representative.
 In this study, the researcher only research in the reasons militating
against the participation of the physically challenged students in the
Senior High School. In order to provide more useful information in
improving the inclusive education, the researcher may further
investigate the basic schools.
78
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