The Kingdom of Tonga
In collaboration with the University of the South Pacific Pacific Centre for Environment and
Sustainable Development (USP PACE-SD), DAI facilitated C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping
Exercise in five Tongatapu Island Group villages—Ahau, Nukuleka, Popua, Sopu and
Tatakamotonga— through one-day sessions held between Thursday, January 10th and Friday,
January 18th. Through one day sessions in each community, DAI led an introduction to C-CAP,
and each village’s C-CAP Community Committee (CCC) participated in climate change risk
identification and infrastructure mapping exercises. Following the workshop, communities’
Town Officers and interested CCC members led the C-CAP team on a tour of the village’s
social, economic, coastal and water infrastructure. C-CAP geo-referenced and photographed
these community assets and uploaded data points mapping software.
Each CCC was initiated by the community’s Town Officer (Mayor), with guidance from the
USP PACE-SD In-Country Coordinator Lopeti Faka’osi and Co-Chair of their National Project
Advisory Committee Simi Silapelu. All CCCs are comprised of 15 village, youth, and women
leaders.
Background
Tongatapu Island is home to 75-percent of the Kingdom of Tonga’s population of 103,036.
Between 2006 and 2011, the number of Tongatapu households grew 3.4-percent, while all other
Tonga island groups experienced a declining number of households during the same period1.
This population trend is expected to increase as residents flock from the outer islands to reside
close to Nuku’alofa, the capital city and economic hub of the Kingdom. The population influx is
merging with the changing climate to compound stress on the island’s natural resource base.
Each of C-CAP’s five communities—situated at various ends of the northern coast of
Tongatapu—is increasingly at risk, as outlined in the sections below.
Across the communities, CCCs all reported that sea level rise and resulting coastal inundation
and erosion is impacting their communities. This is consistent with analysis conducted by the
Pacific Climate Change Science Program which reports a 6 mm rise of sea level near Tonga each
year since 19932. This exceeds the global average of 2.8 to 3.6 mm per year. Each village also
extolled the virtues of sea walls for protecting their coastal zone despite acknowledging the
maladaptive nature of this intervention; each CCC was aware that sea walls are expensive,
require frequent repair, and redirect and intensify ocean currents towards neighboring villages
without sea walls—causing extreme erosion and inundation.
Among other climate change risks and impacts experienced in Tongatapu, each CCC cited more
intense rains as the cause of village flooding, erosion and sedimentation of near shore marine
environments. While freshwater needs varied across the C-CAP communities, each CCC
believes that drought is more frequent in Tongatapu and rain falls less often, but in more intense
showers. This is corroborated by the Pacific Climate Change Science Program, that reports a
trend of decreasing rainfall in Nuku’alofa since 1950.
1
2
http://www.spc.int/prism/tonga/index.php/tonga-documents/doc_download/94-preliminary-count-2011
http://www.cawcr.gov.au/projects/PCCSP/Nov/Vol2_Ch14_Tonga.pdf
-2-
While there was no clear consensus among the communities on whether there has been a
significant change in the frequency and intensity of cyclones and other climate-related natural
disasters, each year high wind events do impact livelihoods through damage to food-bearing
trees that each village depends on as a food and income source. Breadfruit, mango, coconut and
banana trees are particularly vulnerable to high wind events. Coconut tree damage can have far
ranging impacts. Coconut cream is used in most Tongan dishes. Coconuts are also used as pig
feed. This is important, as most families own and care for pigs to be used primarily for
celebrations and family and cultural obligations. Livelihoods are also impacted by an increase in
illness and infection following floods and cyclones, both of which can cause freshwater tank
contamination. Villages also cited sea spray from cyclones and high-wind events increase
corrosion of household and community center roofs, which then contaminates the village’s
freshwater supply that is collected from gutter systems and rainwater tanks.
Tatakamotonga
Tatakamotonga, a community that sits on the coast of the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon in east
Tongatapu, has a population of 1,761. Beyond its historic significance as the landing site /
docking point of the first missionaries to arrive to Tonga—in 1799—Tatakamotonga is the social
and economic hub of the eastern end of Tongatapu Island. Tatakamotonga’s local police outpost
and health clinic provide social services to eastern villages, while a local bank branch, cash
transfer outpost, convenience stores and informal roadside markets provide an economic and
financial foundation for the area.
Tatakamotonga Town Officer Hone Felemi and the Tatakamotonga CCC took part in the C-CAP
Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise on Thursday, January 10, 2013 in the Tatakamotonga Town
Hall.
Risk Identification
Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps,
the Tatakamotonga CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village.
After leading a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC
analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and
natural disasters experienced in Tatakamotonga.
-3-
Image 18: A member of the Tatakamotonga CCC leads a presentation on climate change
impacts and risks in Tatakamotonga. Additional Tatakamotonga photos can be seen here:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632510501404/
Global Warming Impacts
The CCC reports that the primary impacts of global warming are being experienced in the
coastal zone of the village in the form of rising sea level and increases in average ocean
temperature. While average sea level rise encroaches on arable land—Town Officer Felemi and
Youth Group President Sifa Latunipulu note that this is compounded by sea swells and king tide
events that contribute to erosion, causing more accelerated land loss. A local home that stands
meters from the coastline and the Mu’a Government Primary School are the closest village
infrastructure to the coastline.
Global warming is also causing impacts on local livelihoods. The CCC advised that they are
experiencing decreases in near shore fisheries and marine animal products, such as shellfish,
which they attribute to rising average ocean temperature; the CCC also notes that overharvesting
of coastal mangroves impacts near-shore fisheries. While not suggested by the CCC, it is also
likely that overfishing has contributed to losses. Outside of the coastal zone, community
plantation sites have also experienced losses which may be attributed to rising air temperatures,
as well as increases in intensity/frequency of natural disasters, and drought. In this agrarian
society, any decrease in root crops, tuber and vegetable production has far-ranging implications
on household subsistence and income-generation capability.
Precipitation Pattern Changes
The CCC ascribes variations in seasonality and increasing numbers of drought and heavy rain
events to climate change-induced precipitation pattern changes. They report an increase in soil
erosion and coastal pollution related to flooding that typically occurs after periods of heavy rain.
Tatakamotonga is divided into halves by Taufa’ahau Road—the main road on Tongatapu; the
north side of the village beyond the road slopes to the lagoon at the southern end of the village.
Lacking a proper drainage system, rainwater runoff and floodwaters carry pollution and sediment
to the coastline. Points without mangrove forest cover are experiencing erosion. The village
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reports that runoff of sediment, pollution and chemicals used in agriculture contributes to the
death of mangrove forests and fisheries.
While precipitation intensity is projected to increase in the Pacific Islands region, the number of
rainy days per year is expected to decrease. Resulting periods of drought are also a major
concern of the Tatakamotonga CCC. The CCC notes that recent droughts have resulted in lost
production and stunted growth of villagers’ vegetable and root crops and tubers. In addition to
the impact on agriculture, the village reports that incidence of typhoid increases during periods
of drought.
Natural Disasters
The village did not note a discernible difference over the past decade in the number / frequency
of cyclones and other natural disasters but did describe serious impacts on village infrastructure,
livelihoods and environment that are caused by extreme weather events. Infrastructure damage
stems primarily from high wind events and cyclones, and related flooding. Destroyed roofs were
the most common impact according to the CCCs. The CCC also explained that coastal erosion is
exacerbated by storm surges and cyclone-related flooding.
Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping
Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn
community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may
be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).
Image 19: Tatakamotonga Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points,
photographs and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here:
https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d2d3fd958bb2d093f&msa=0&ll=-21.18013,175.117908&spn=0.027411,0.052314&iwloc=0004d3260c5ea6433f6de.
-5-
Economic Infrastructure
Table 31: Tatakamotonga Economic Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
Tatakamotonga
Community Hall
The Community Hall building rents space to a branch
of the Tonga Development Bank, a privately-owned
convenience store, and two money transfer centers at
which villagers collect remittances.

Tatakamotonga
Youth-Run Coconut
Oil Manufacturing
Coconut oil is manufactured by youth and sold to
restaurants located in Nuku’alofa. This is an important
source of income and business education for
Tatakamotonga youth.

Private-Owned
Seedling Nursery
Though privately owned, this business supplies
villagers with essential inputs for vegetables, cash
crops and traditional plants/flowers.

4.
Village Plantations
Subsistence and semi-subsistence agriculture is the
primary livelihood source for Tatakamotonga.
5.
Roadside Informal
Market
Semi-subsistence farmers sell crops to residents of the
Hahake District at this roadside market. This is an
important source of income for families in the
community and a food source for residents of the
Hahake District.
1.
2.
3.
6.
Mangrove Forests
Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish
and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life.
Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of nearshore fisheries.



Flooding (located on northern slope of the
village)
Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
Flooding (located on northern slope of the
village)
Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof
damage
Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof
damage
Drought



Drought
Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—damage to cassava,
tree crops (root crops and tubers often survive)

The informal market is housed in a local gas
station. The primary vulnerability is to damage
incurred to crops prior to harvest.
Mature Mangroves

Pollution

Deforestation
Young Mangroves

Storm Surge

Extreme Weather

Flooding—sedimentation, pollution
Social Infrastructure
Table 32: Tatakamotonga Social Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability


Sea Level Rise
Extreme Weather Event—roof damage


Flooding (located on northern slope of the
village)
Extreme Weather Event—roof damage

Flooding


Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof
damage
1.
Mu’a Government
Primary School
School for village youth in grades 1-6.
2.
Tatakamotonga
Town Hall
The Community Hall is the center for regularly held
village meetings, development program meetings and
all discussion of village policy. It is also used for
community events and informal social gatherings.
3.
Hahake District
Health Clinic
The Hahake District Health Clinic was recently
constructed with funding from China Aid. It serves the
health needs of residents of the Hahake District.
4.
Hahake District
Police Outpost
The Hahake District Police Outpost provides security
and police services to residents of the Hahake District.
5.
Men’s Hall
Men’s halls are centers for nightly gatherings and kava
drinking-fundraisers for community social issues.


Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof
damage
6.
Women’s Hall
The Women’s hall is a center for regular gatherings
and community events.


Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
-6-
Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Table 33: Tatakamotonga Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
1.
Sea Wall 1 /
Missionary Landing
Site
Sea Wall 1 was constructed in front of a memorial to
the landing site of the first missionary to arrive in
Tonga (1799), and was designed to stem erosion and to
provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm
surges and average sea level rise.




Erosion
Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—storm surge
Sea Level Rise
2.
Sea Wall 2 / Nahafu
Point
Sea Wall 2 was designed to stem erosion and to
provide a coastal barrier against king tides, storm
surges and average sea level rise; it was built to stem
coastal flooding of Nahafu Point.




Erosion
Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—storm surge
Sea Level Rise
3.
Tatakamotonga
Reservoir / Water
Pumps 1, 2
The reservoir / water pump—run by the
Tatakamotonga Water Committee—provides piped
water, used for cooking, cleaning and hygiene—to
homes.


Drought
Extreme Weather Event—structural damage

Tatakamotonga
Rainwater Tanks 1, 2,
3 (Concrete)
Freshwater reserve tanks were formerly used by
community members without a household rainwater
catchment tank. All have fallen into disuse and need to
be rehabilitated.
Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small
to collect all available water during intense rain.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
4.

Nukuleka
Nukuleka, a small village with a population of 265 individuals in the Lapaha District, is situated
along the mouth of the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon in northeast Tongatapu. It is significant as
the site of “the cradle of Polynesia,” where 2,900 year-old pieces of “Lapita” pottery were
discovered by Canadian archaeologist Professor David V. Burley in 2007. Lapita pottery is the
primary source of the archaeological-defined path and timeline of the peopling of the Pacific
Islands from coastal Melanesia, Micronesia, and northeast through Polynesia to Samoa.
Professor Burley’s findings indicate that Nukuleka was the launching point of the inhabitation
and culture of Polynesia, extending from New Zealand in the south to Hawaii in the north and
finally to Easter Island in the east3.
This site of historical significance is also one of six eastern Tongatapu villages being targeted by
the Ministry of Land, Environment, Climate Change and Natural Resources (MoLECN) —
through approximately $576,000 in funding by the Secretariat of the Pacific Community—for
coastal zone management support. MoLECN has expressed interest in leveraging these
resources with support from C-CAP for a coastal infrastructure rehabilitation / development.
Currents moving water from the open ocean into the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon around the
peninsular Nukuleka, has formed an inlet of brackish water that is cutting inland behind the
village. Vulnerable to sea level rise, flooding/inundation and accelerated coastal erosion, these
climate change impacts are combining to consume greater amounts of Nukuleka’s arable land
each year.
Town Officer Sitiveni Fe’au and the Nukuleka CCC took part in the C-CAP Participatory Risk
Mapping Exercise on Monday, January 14, 2013 in the Nukuleka Catholic Church Hall.
3
"Canadian rewrites Oceania history", Randy Boswell, Calgary Herald, 21 January 2008
-7-
Risk Identification
Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps,
the Nukuleka CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village. After
leading a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC
analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and
natural disasters experienced in Nukuleka.
Global Warming Impacts
Rising sea levels and resulting more extreme tidal movements and sea surges are the most
significant risk to Nukuleka from the impact of global warming, according to the Nukuleka CCC.
Sea level rise has accelerated coastal erosion in Nukuleka, damaging the village sea wall, and
inundating unprotected land on the western end of the village. The Nukuleka CCC postulates
that the Nuku’alofa (capital city) sea wall has altered the effects of ocean waves and currents,
causing down coast erosion problems in their community. The village representatives expressed
concern over the coastal road which serves as the only entry and exit point to the village. The
CCC’s initial preferences are to protect the coast—and road—from sea level rise and to develop
an alternative entry/exit road from the community that would connect to Tongatapu’s main
Taufa’ahau Road.
Image 20: Erosion plagues Nukuleka, a peninsula in northeast Tongatapu Island. Additional
Tatakamotonga photos can be seen here:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632520198858/
Precipitation Pattern Changes
Precipitation patterns no longer follow the typical Tongan wet and dry season, according to the
village. The village notes a decrease in frequency, yet increase in intensity, of rainy days—
which impacts livelihoods in terms of food and water security. Resulting periods of drought
have impacted subsistence and semi-subsistence farming in the community—reducing harvests
of root crops and tubers. The village also depends upon regular rainfall to replenish their
freshwater supply which is collected in rainwater catchment tanks.
-8-
Like the other C-CAP priority communities in Tonga, Nukuleka’s roads lack proper drainage;
the CCC notes that roads, which are elevated, can cause flooding in the land they dissect during
periods of heavy rain. The CCC report an increase in soil erosion related to flooding that
typically occurs after periods of heavy rain. Lacking a proper drainage system, rainwater runoff
and floodwaters carry sediment to the coastline, causing erosion of roads, land, and the village
sea wall while also harming the offshore reef and near shore marine life.
Natural Disasters
Like its peer CCCs in other Tongatapu villages, the Nukuleka CCC shared the impacts of
cyclones and gale-force wind events on food-bearing trees and roofs, and noted that storm surges
inundate coastal infrastructure, increase erosion, and damage near-shore fisheries. The CCC’s
main concern, however, was that the village lacks a proper disaster warning system. While
disaster risk management plans have been drafted for the village, Nukuleka only has one exit
road out of their village. This road, as previously noted, runs along the coast and can be flooded
by sea surges. While the CCC’s preference is to construct an alternative exit road that cuts
through inland mangrove swamp behind the village to Taufa’ahau Road, a warning system that
provides ample evacuation notice can also help villages to escape disaster.
Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping
Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn
community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may
be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).
Image 21: Nukuleka Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs
and risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here:
https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d33be568fba98a5f2&msa=0
-9-
Economic Infrastructure
Table 34: Nukuleka Economic Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
1.
Lapita Pottery
Excavation Site
In 2007, the oldest pieces of Lapita Pottery found to
date in Polynesia were excavated from a site in
Nukuleka. The village views this as a potential tourism
site.

Flooding
2.
Nukuleka Village
Road
This road is the only entry and exit point to the
community and thus is an important transportation
route for villagers traveling to Nuku’alofa for work and
for those who sell crops and fish to market.



Flooding
Erosion
Storm Surge
3.
Nukuleka Plantation
Road
This road leads to most villagers’ plantation plots, and
is thus essential for food security and the village
economy. Heavy rains make this unpaved road
impassable.


Flooding
Erosion
4.
5.
Mangroves
Mangrove forests serve as nurseries for coral reef fish
and feeding grounds for fish and other marine life.
Mangroves are essential for the sustainability of nearshore fisheries.
Coral Reef
Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for a variety
of fish, and thus important for local fisher people.
Overfishing and sedimentation of reefs have reduced
fish catches, pushing fisher people further out to sea to
maintain catch levels.
Mature Mangroves

Pollution

Deforestation
Young Mangroves

Storm Surge

Extreme Weather

Flooding—sedimentation, pollution




Sedimentation
Overfishing
Rising Sea Temperature
Storm Surge
Social Infrastructure
Table 35: Nukuleka Social Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
1.
Government Primary
School
School for village youth in grades 1-6.

Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
2.
Town Hall
The Community Hall is the center for regularly held
village meetings, development program meetings and
all discussion of village policy. It is also used for
community events and informal social gatherings.


Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
3.
Sports Field
Center for village play and sporting events.

Flooding
Cemetery 1, 2
Both village cemeteries are situated on the coastline.
While one is protected by a sea wall, the coastline is
rapidly eroding towards the second cemetery grounds.




Flooding
Storm Surge
Erosion
Sea Level Rise
4.
Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Table 36: Nukuleka Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability

1.
Town Hall Rainwater
Tanks (2) (Concrete)
Water supply for community events and gatherings.
Supply for community members without personal
rainwater tank.

Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun;
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
- 10 Catholic Church Hall
Rainwater Tank
(Concrete)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for church members without
personal rainwater tank.

(see above)
3.
GPS Rainwater Tank
(Concrete)
Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for
community members without personal rainwater tank.

(see above)

4.
LDS Church
Rainwater Tank
(Fiberglass)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for church members without
personal rainwater tank.

Drought—reservoir dries; too small to collect all
available water during intense rain.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
5.
Nukuleka Reservoir /
Water Pumps 1, 2
The reservoir / water pump—run by the Nukuleka
Water Committee—provides piped water, used for
cooking, cleaning and hygiene—to homes. Nukuleka
has two 5,000 liter fiberglass reservoir tanks and two
water pumps; however, one reservoir tank is cracked,
and one machine is no longer working.


Drought
Extreme Weather Event—structural damage
6.
Drainage
Drainage channel accommodates sea water flow during
tidal changes, and serves as a channel for rainwater
runoff.

Erosion
Sea Wall
Sea Wall was designed to stem erosion and to provide
a coastal barrier against king tides, storm surges and
average sea level rise; it was built to protect the road
and to stop coastal erosion.




Erosion
Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—storm surge
Sea Level Rise
2.
7.
Sopu (Kolomotu’a)
Sopu (Kolomotu’a) is Tonga’s second largest village, with a population of 7,870. It is located to
the west of capital city Nuku’alofa, serving as a ‘suburb’ for workers. The Nuku’alofa sea wall
ends at the far western edge of Sopu, where ocean currents continue to erode the coastline,
creating a channel into a swamp that extends into the center of the village. During the rainy
season (November – April) and extreme rainy periods during the dry season, homes and other
community infrastructure experience near constant flooding.
Town Officer (Mayor) Sio Tu’iano, Town Committee Chairperson Drew Havea and the Sopu
CCC took part in the C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise on Tuesday, January 15, 2013
in the Kolomotu’a Town Hall.
Risk Identification
Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps,
the Sopu CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village. After leading
a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC analyzed and
presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural
disasters experienced in Sopu.
Global Warming Impacts
Similarly to Nukuleka, rising sea levels and resulting more extreme tidal movements and storm
surges are the most significant risk to Sopu from the impact of global warming, according to the
Sopu CCC. These issues have increased erosion and flooding in the village center, rather than
along the coast, however; impacts are primarily felt on the outskirts of the inland mangrove
swamps that extend from the end of the Nuku’alofa / Sopu sea wall through to the center of
Sopu.
- 11 -
Image 22: Inland flooding impacts households / infrastructure on the outskirts of the inland mangrove swamps.
Inland flooding is most severe during the rainy season from November through April, but also
occurs throughout the year during periods of heavy rain. Also like Nukuleka and Ahau CCCs,
the Sopu CCC attributes much of the accelerated coastal erosion and flooding to impacts of the
Nuku’alofa sea wall.
Rising sea temperatures and sedimentation caused by increased erosion also have impacts on
near shore fisheries that are a staple of Sopu community livelihoods. Shellfish gathering is an
important semi-subsistence activity for many households in this coastal village. Each day at low
tide, Sopu villagers can be seen from the coastal road gathering shellfish, and collecting their
catch from fish traps. The CCC expressed concern that rising ocean temperature can impact coral
reef health and the health of coral reef fish, shellfish and other near shore marine animals.
The CCC also cited the increased risks of vector-borne diseases—such as malaria and dengue
fever—carried by mosquitoes which breed in the stagnant flood and swamp waters that envelop
Sopu during the rainy/hot season. While malaria is not endemic to Tonga, stagnant water pools
increase risks of dengue fever outbreaks. The CCC expressed concern, however, that rising air
temperatures could eventually draw Tonga into the malaria zone.
Precipitation Pattern Changes
The Sopu CCC notes a decrease in frequency, yet increase in intensity, of rainy days—which
combines with the impacts of sea level rise to intensify flooding in the village. Flood waters that
drain into the Pacific Ocean and the inland mangrove swamps also exacerbate erosion from tidal
flows and sea surges.
- 12 -
Image 23: Homes and infrastructure throughout Sopu experience frequent flooding.
Additional Sopu photos can be seen here:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632524253609/
Land use plans and building codes that were referred to during road and home construction are
outdated, according to the CCC. Road, homes, and other community infrastructure—particularly
those in the center of the village close to the inland mangrove swamp—are left vulnerable to
flooding throughout the year. It is worth noting that the number of Kolomotu’a households has
increased 11-percent between 2006 and 2011. If urbanization rates continue to rise, poorly
planned roads and buildings that are vulnerable to the impacts of climate change can be expected
to have an even greater impact on the community.
Natural Disasters
The CCC explained that while “cyclone season” in Tonga runs from November to April, in the
past cyclones fell primarily in February and March. In the past decade, however, the CCC
advised that cyclones have been more frequent and no longer predictably occur only in February
and March.
Like the CCC’s analysis of risks stemming from global warming and precipitation pattern
changes, they also linked the primary impacts of natural disasters to flooding and inundation.
The intensity of storm surges during cyclones and gale force wind events also increase erosion in
coastal areas and the inland mangrove swamps.
Natural disasters also levy significant impacts on semi-subsistence shellfish gathering and coral
reef fishing in coastal Sopu. Storm surges and waves often damage reefs and the areas inside
the coral reefs inhabited by shellfish.
Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping
Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn
community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may
be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).
- 13 -
Image 24: Sopu Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and
risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here:
https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d3502669190cd0353&msa=0
Economic Infrastructure
Table 37: Sopu Economic Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
1.
Village Park
Planned recreation area for future local tourism
development.




Flooding
Erosion
Storm Surge
Sea Level Rise—inundation
2.
Village Roads
Village roads are essential for villagers traveling to
Nuku’alofa for work and for those who sell crops and
fish to market.


Flooding
Erosion
Mangroves
Mangrove forests provide important ecosystem
services for coastal environments. Mangroves serve as
nurseries for coral reef fish and feeding grounds for
fish and other marine life. Mangroves are essential for
the sustainability of near-shore fisheries. Mangroves
also absorb sea swells and help to prevent erosion.
Mature Mangroves

Pollution

Deforestation
Coral Reef
Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for a variety
of fish, and thus important for local fisher people.
Overfishing and sedimentation of reefs have reduced
fish catches, pushing fisher people further out to sea to
maintain catch levels.




Sedimentation
Overfishing
Rising Sea Temperature
Storm Surge
5.
Sopu Fishing
Association
This cooperative is mainly staffed by village youth,
and led by an official from the Tonga Fisheries
Department. The group mainly collects shell fish from
near-shore fisheries. They also use fish nets and
traditional fish traps. The Association also owns
multiple boats, but has not acquired a working motor.
The Association enters the coastal area, and transports
boats over a ‘boat slick’ that connects the coast to a
coastal road.




Flooding—sedimentation
Overfishing
Rising Sea Temperature
Extreme Weather—storm surge
6.
Boat Ramp
Ramp for transporting boats to the coast.



Erosion
Sea Level Rise
Extreme Weather—storm surge
3.
4.
Young Mangroves

Extreme Weather—Storm Surge

Flooding—sedimentation, pollution
- 14 -
Social Infrastructure
Table 38: Sopu Social Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
Hala o Vave
Government Primary
School (GPS)
School for village youth in grades 1-6.

Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
Kolomotu’a GPS
School for village youth in grades 1-6 is located on the
coast, but is protected by the Nuku’alofa Sea Wall.



Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
Flooding
Sea Level Rise
3.
Town Hall
The Community Hall is the center for regularly held
village meetings, development program meetings and
all discussion of village policy. It is also used for
community events and informal social gatherings.


Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
4.
Sports Field
Center for village play and sporting events.

Flooding (semi-permanent)
5.
Cemetery 1
Village cemetery is adjacent to inland swamp.




Flooding
Storm Surge
Erosion
Sea Level Rise
6.
Wesleyan Church
Kindergarten
Kindergarten program.


Flooding.
Extreme weather event—roof damage
7.
Salvation Army
Kindergarten
Kindergarten grounds flood during normal rainy
periods.


Flooding.
Extreme weather event—roof damage
Health Clinic
Situated on the coast, but protected by the Nuku’alofa
Sea Wall, village health clinic, staffed by a nurse,
provides health and outreach services to GPS students
and the community.



Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
Flooding
Sea Level Rise
1.
2.
8.
Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Table 39: Sopu Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability

1.
Town Hall Rainwater
Tanks (Concrete)
Water supply for community events and gatherings.
Supply for community members without personal
rainwater tank.
2.
Catholic Church Hall
Rainwater Tank
(Concrete)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for church members without
personal rainwater tank.
Hala o Vave GPS
Rainwater Tank (2)
(Concrete)
Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for
community members without personal rainwater tank.




3.


4.
The Lord’s Church of
Tonga Rainwater
Tank (Concrete)
Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for
community members without personal rainwater tank.

Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small
to collect all available water during intense rain.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small
to collect all available water during intense rain.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun;
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small
to collect all available water during intense rain.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
- 15 
5.
Free Church of
Tonga Rainwater
Tank (Concrete)
Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for
community members without personal rainwater tank.
6.
Salvation Army
Church 1 Rainwater
Tank (Concrete)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for church members without
personal rainwater tank.
Wesleyan Church 1,
2, 3 Rainwater Tank
(Concrete)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for church members without
personal rainwater tank.
Wesleyan Church
Kindergarten
Rainwater Tank (2)
(Concrete)
Water supply for students, employees and volunteers.
Supply for church members without personal rainwater
tank.
LDS Church
Rainwater Tank
(Fiberglass)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for church members without
personal rainwater tank.




7.
8.
9.



Drought—reservoir dries; too small to collect all
available water during intense rain.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small
to collect all available water during intense rain.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small
to collect all available water during intense rain.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)


Drought
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system
10. Drainage
Drainage channel accommodates sea water flow during
tidal changes, and serves as a channel for rainwater
runoff.

Erosion
11. Sea Wall
Sea Wall was designed to stem erosion and to provide
a coastal barrier against king tides, storm surges and
average sea level rise; it was built to protect the road
and to stop coastal erosion. Sea Wall has redirected
wave energy/tidal flows to the western end of the
village that is not protected by sea wall; this has caused
extreme erosion.



Erosion
Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—storm surge
Popua
According to Town Officer (Mayor) Sione Uta, 90-percent of Popua’s 1,894 residents have
relocated there from outer islands and villages to be closer to Nuku’alofa, Tonga’s capital city
and economic center. While there is no data to substantiate this, evidence of the community’s
unplanned housing and road construction on reclaimed land in the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon
abound.
- 16 -
Image 25: Unplanned Roads trap seawater, creating permanent
brackish pools.
Image 26: Housing developments on reclaimed land extend into the
Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon.
Additional Popua photos can be seen here: http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632540496576/
Popua is located to the east of Nuku’alofa, and is surrounded by water on three sides: the Pacific
Ocean to the north and the Fana’utu/Fangakakau Lagoon to the east and south. Areas that extend
more than one community block to the east, west and south of Popua’s main road are
consistently flooded throughout the year. While not approved by the Tonga Ministry of
Infrastructure, the community continues road and housing construction further into swampy
coastal areas along the west and south coast of the Lagoon. The CCC noted that their greatest
concern regarding flooding and inundation was the impact on household septic systems. They
note that septic tanks overflow during flooding events, creating extreme health concerns for the
community.
Adding to the community’s vulnerability, a high percentage of households do not have plantation
plots; moreover, remaining land within Popua is not sufficient for farming. In addition to
flooding, the land to the north of the village, a mangrove swamp, was the site of the former
Tongatapu Island dump. Until the 2007 opening of the Tapuhia Landfill, this section of Popua
served as a poorly-tended dumping ground for Tongatapu’s expanding population. While the
area has been cleaned, remnants of the dump remain clearly visible on the main road into Popua.
Town Committee Chairperson Sione Uta and the Popua CCC took part in the C-CAP
Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise on Wednesday, January 15, 2013 in the Popua Free Church
of Tonga Hall.
Risk Identification
Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps,
the Popua CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village. After
leading a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC
analyzed and presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and
natural disasters experienced in Popua.
Global Warming Impacts
According to the Popua CCC, the greatest impacts from increasing air and sea temperature are
rising sea levels and resulting more extreme tidal movements and storm surges. In addition to
the impacts of flooded homes and infrastructure, inundation and flooding also cause household
septic systems to overflow, raising health concerns in the village. Many homes on the coast
- 17 -
experience flooding and inundation monthly during high tides, making septic system overflows a
regular community concern.
Precipitation Pattern Changes
The CCC explains that precipitation falls less frequently, more intensely, and occurs less
predictably during periods of the year. The participants again cited flooding and resulting
coastal erosion as the most serious risk facing the community. While septic tank flooding is
contained in coastal areas during high tides, heavy rain often causes septic tank overflows
throughout the village.
The primary risks of drought on this community is on their drinking water supply, as many
homes do not own a rainwater tank, and must rely on rainwater collected in church rainwater
tanks.
Natural Disasters
The CCC again noted that flooding, coastal inundation and erosion were the primary risks
associated with natural disasters such as cyclones and gale force wind events, adding that
impacts are exacerbated by a lack of road drainage in the community. The community notes that
a 1985 cyclone caused severe erosion, permanently inundating coastal Popua with sea water.
Inundation has been exacerbated, according to the CCC, by mangrove deforestation carried out
by community members.
Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping
Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn
community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may
be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).
Image 27: Popua Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and
risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here:
https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d3652d91c1d0640ca&msa=0
- 18 -
Economic Infrastructure
Table 40: Popua Economic Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
1.
Village Roads
Village roads are essential for villagers traveling to
Nuku’alofa for work and for those who sell fish to
market. Village expansion and privately-funded road
construction has not adhered to engineering principals,
however. Roads also lack adjacent drainage systems.
This has led to frequent flooding of land adjacent to
roads, and in some cases, has caused permanent
inundation.




Mangroves
Mangrove forests provide important ecosystem
services for coastal environments. Mangroves serve as
nurseries for coral reef fish and feeding grounds for
fish and other marine life. Mangroves are essential for
the sustainability of near-shore fisheries. Mangroves
also absorb sea swells and help to prevent erosion.
Mature Mangroves

Pollution

Deforestation
Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for a variety
of fish, and thus important for local fisher people.
Overfishing and sedimentation of reefs have reduced
fish catches, pushing fisher people further out to sea to
maintain catch levels.




2.
3.
Coral Reef
Flooding
Erosion
Sea Level Rise
Extreme Weather—Storm Surge
Young Mangroves

Extreme Weather—Storm Surge

Flooding—sedimentation, pollution
Sedimentation
Overfishing
Rising Sea Temperature
Storm Surge
Social Infrastructure
Table 41: Popua Social Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
Popua Government
Primary School
(GPS)
School for village youth in grades 1-6.


Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
Flooding
Sports Field
Center for village play and sporting events.



Flooding
Sea Level Rise
Storm Surge
3.
Cemetery 1
Village cemetery sits to the south of a semipermanently flooded area. Village has deposited
topsoil to raise the cemetery elevation.




Flooding
Storm Surge
Erosion
Sea Level Rise
4.
Cemetery 2
Village cemetery.


Flooding
Erosion




Flooding
Sea Level Rise
Storm Surge
Extreme Weather Event—structural and roof
damage
1.
2.
5.
Men’s Hall
Men’s halls are centers for nightly gatherings and kava
drinking-fundraisers for community social issues.
Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Table 42: Popua Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
1.
Popua GPS
Rainwater Tank (2)
(Concrete)
Significance to Community
Water supply for students and teachers. Supply for
community members without personal rainwater tank.
Vulnerability


Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun;
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
- 19 from rusty roof (sea spray)

Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun; too small
to collect all available water during intense rain.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
Catholic Church Hall
Rainwater Tank
(Concrete)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for church members without
personal rainwater tank.
3.
Wesleyan Church
Rainwater Tank
(Concrete)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for community members without
personal rainwater tank.
4.
LDS Church
Rainwater Tank
(Fiberglass)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for church members without
personal rainwater tank.


Drought
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system
Drainage
Drainage channel installed after road construction
caused flooding; insufficient to accommodate sea water
flow during tidal changes, serve as a channel for
rainwater runoff.



Erosion
Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—storm surge
2.


5.

Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
Ahau
Ahau is a coastal community with a population of 395 in the Kolovai District. Ahau is
precariously placed in a coastal zone that sits between sea walls and dense coastal mangrove
forest from Nuku’alofa / Sopu extending to Kolovai in the southeast and the Kanokupolu sea
wall to the north. The impact of these sea walls on ocean currents in Ahau, according to the
Ahau CCC, has intensified erosion in its coastal zone. In 2005, the Ahau Village Committee
built a sea wall from its coastal boundary to the south—at the point of a dense mangrove forest in
the neighboring village of Kolovai; extending the length of the village to its northern border of
Kanokupolu, which has built a sea wall that extends to the northern tip of Tongatapu.
Between construction and the current day, the sea wall has eroded in three points, creating everexpanding channels through which tidal flows enter and exit the formerly protected coastal zone.
This has left a village sports field—that once served as an international rugby field that hosted
Tonga’s first match against Fiji in the 1930s and served as the site of weekly horse racing
competitions between Tongatapu villages—permanently inundated with sea water.
Ahau village’s current groundwater supply—used for cooking, cleaning and hygienic needs—is
from the Hihifo (western) District, which provides piped water to Fo’ui in the south to Ha’atafu
to the north. The water supply is insufficient to meet community demand, however. The Ahau
CCC indicates that piped water is only available in the early morning and again in the late
evening. While a current Australian Agency for International Development / Global
Environment Facility-funded project began rehabilitating the current water supply system—
repairing water pumps, installing new water pipes, and outfitting homes with water meters—in
August 2012, through private financing, the Ahau Village Committee drilled a borehole in the
village plantation zone, to the west of all community housing, intended for an Ahau-dedicated
piped water system. The village did not have sufficient funding for piping, water pumps, a
reservoir tank, or the construction to implement the water delivery system. At this point, the
borehole remains covered while the Ahau CCC contemplates financing solutions.
The C-CAP Community Committee (CCC) was initiated by Kamoto, the Town Officer (Mayor)
and Mātāpule (Talking Chief) of the King of Tonga (Tupou IV, V and VI). Kamoto and the
- 20 -
Ahau CCC took part in the C-CAP Participatory Risk Mapping Exercise on Friday, January 18,
2013 in the Ahau Wesleyan Church Hall.
Risk Identification
Before more rigorously assessing impacts against climate projections/GIS-based contour maps,
the Ahau CCC identified observed climate change risks and impacts in the village. After leading
a brief overview on climate change and global impacts of climate change, the CCC analyzed and
presented the local impacts of global warming, precipitation pattern changes, and natural
disasters experienced in Ahau.
Global Warming Impacts
Given Ahau’s proximity to the coast and their eroded sea wall, sea level rise was the CCC’s
greatest climate change concern related to global warming. The CCC noted that sea level rise
was inundating the coastal zone and contributing to erosion of their sea wall and coastline.
During king tides, the water line has reached the village houses that stand closest to the coast.
Image 28: A local resident points out that the high tide mark reaches her home. Additional
Ahau photos can be seen here:
http://www.flickr.com/photos/90755241@N08/sets/72157632520198858/
Regarding increasing sea surface temperature, near shore marine life that the village depends
upon for food security is increasingly at risk, according to the CCC. While the CCC has not
noted coral bleaching events, they were concerned that if sea surface temperatures continue to
increase, the local reef could experience bleaching, further impacting coastal fisheries.
Precipitation Pattern Changes
The CCC cited changes in the flowering schedule of local flora and food-bearing trees in Ahau.
The group noted that flora comes into bloom early in recent years, as compared to past decades.
The CCC also explained that over the past decade, rain typically falls in short intense
downpours, rather than in previous decades which were marked with frequent steady rain during
the November to April rainy season. These heavy rain events result in village flooding that
- 21 -
typically flows along the village road system to the coast, flooding adjacent homes. In addition
to flood damage, this also exacerbates erosion of the coastline and village roads, and increases
sedimentation of coastal waters.
Reflective of the current rain patterns experience by the village, the CCC explained that droughts
are more frequent in Ahau compared to past decades. Drought impacts the village groundwater
supply and risks tropical crops that depend upon heavy rainfall.
Natural Disasters
Many impacts of natural disasters are extreme versions of the risks associated with sea level rise,
including storm surges that inundate coastal infrastructure and homes. The Ahau CCC noted that
cyclones and gale force wind events can destroy village pig pens, with storm surges sweeping
some animals out to sea. In the aftermath of cyclone and gale force wind events, the Ahau CCC
also notes that sedimentation from coastal erosion—caused by inland flooding run-off—and
storm surges that disrupt near shore marine habitats impact the village’s food security. It often
takes time for near shore fisheries to recover following a storm, during which time village
members must rely on frozen and processed foods for protein.
Economic, Social and Water Infrastructure Mapping
Following identification of local climate change impacts, the CCC completed hand-drawn
community infrastructure maps, highlighting economic, social and water infrastructure that may
be vulnerable to the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events (see Annex 2.3).
Image 29: Ahau Climate Change Risk Map, with geo-referenced economic, social and water and coastal infrastructure points, photographs and
risk profiles. Interactive map can be found here:
https://maps.google.com/maps/ms?msid=210276136318794746510.0004d38c1a484e3af933c&msa=0
Economic Infrastructure
Table 43: Ahau Economic Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
1.
This road leads to villagers’ plantation plots, and is

Ahau Plantation
Flooding
- 22 Road
2.
3.
4.
Plantations
Mangroves
Coral Reef
thus essential for food security and the village
economy. This is also an important road for village
women’s cooperative weaving / tapa-making activities;
many private plantation lots include mulberry tree
orchards used as inputs into tapa.
Private plantations are important for food and financial
security. Semi-subsistence farmers also sell crops in
local markets. Women’s cooperatives use Mulberry
Tree bark as primary input into tapa-making.


Erosion
Extreme Weather—Storm Surge, Fallen Trees
(on road)


Flooding
Extreme Weather—Storm Surge, Uprooted
Trees/Bushes (Mulberry, Banana, Plantain,
Breadfruit, Mango)
Rising Air Temperature
Drought


Mangrove forests provide important ecosystem
services for coastal environments. Mangroves serve as
nurseries for coral reef fish and feeding grounds for
fish and other marine life. Mangroves are essential for
the sustainability of near-shore fisheries. Mangroves
also absorb sea swells and help to prevent erosion.
Mature Mangroves

Pollution

Deforestation
Coral reefs are important feeding grounds for a variety
of fish, and thus important for local fisher people.
Overfishing and sedimentation of reefs have reduced
fish catches, pushing fisher people further out to sea to
maintain catch levels.




Young Mangroves

Extreme Weather—Storm Surge

Flooding—sedimentation, pollution
Sedimentation
Overfishing
Rising Sea Temperature
Storm Surge
Social Infrastructure
Table 44: Ahau Social Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
1.
Sports Field
Forming sports field used for international rugby
competition between Pacific Island countries (19241961), as well as local sports and inter-village horseracing. Has since experienced erosion and is
submerged in coastal water.



Flooding
Sea Level Rise
Storm Surge
2.
Cemetery 1
Village cemetery.


Flooding
Erosion
Town Hall
The Community Hall is the center for regularly held
village meetings, development program meetings and
all discussion of village policy. It is also used for
community events and informal social gatherings.


Flooding
Extreme Weather Event—roof damage
3.
Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Table 45: Ahau Water and Coastal Infrastructure
Infrastructure Point
Significance to Community
Vulnerability
1.
Wesleyan Church
Rainwater Tank
(Concrete)
Water supply for church services, employees and
volunteers. Supply for community members without
personal rainwater tank.
2.
Town Hall Rainwater
Tank (Concrete)
Water supply for community meetings and events.
Supply for community members without personal
rainwater tank.

Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
3.
Ahau Sea Wall
The Ahau Sea Wall was privately financed by the
village and completed in 2005. It has since eroded at
three points, creating gaps through which the sea enters


Erosion
Flooding



Drought—reservoir dries; if empty, concrete can
be damaged from excessive heat/sun.
Extreme Weather Event—contamination;
damage to piping, gutter system; contamination
from rusty roof (sea spray)
- 23 the coastal zone. These gaps have eroded from regular
tidal flows and storm surges. This is exacerbated due
to Ahau’s location between the Nukua’lofa/Kolomotua
sea wall and a sea wall to the north of the village; this
results in faster-moving, more extreme tides and
regular wave energy.
4.
Borehole
Ahau village privately financed the drilling of a
borehole. The village currently relies on an Eastern
District-run water pump that only provides running
water in the morning and evening hours. The village
does not have financing for a reservoir tank, pipes, or a
pump.

Extreme Weather Event—storm surge

Drought