Assignment: “Select two primary sources from Janz. Briefly summarize the sources; then analyze them
in comparative fashion (e.g., compare their content, tone, purpose, authorial perspective, historical
impact, intended audience, etc). Explain why these sources are (or are not) important to the history of the
Reformation, and if they are (or are not) unique or special in comparison to other sources that we have
read in class. This paper should be approximately 5 pages (1300 words) in length. The primary sources
should be quoted occasionally, and documented with a footnote.
Evaluation of Paper: This essay is a pleasure to read. It taught me to look for elements that I had not
previously considered in these two Anabaptist letters of condemned women. The structure is clear, the
syntax is great, the examples are clear, and the quotations are useful. I’ve made a few minor suggestions
to streamline the writing, and I’ve posed a couple of questions to which you probably do not know the
answer, given that you are totally reliant upon Janz; if this were more of research paper, then you might
go identify additional information. My only real criticism is that too often your paragraphs are too long—
better to sub-divide them as indicated, so that each new topic gets its own paragraph.
98
A Comparative Analysis of Jenneken Munstdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" and "The Trial and
Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks"
Throughout the Reformation that spread across Europe during the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, Anabaptism was a minority religion. Although Anabaptists amounted to
only one percent of the European population, they were intensely persecuted by both Protestants
and Roman Catholics, who viewed the tenets of the religion to be radical and heretical.
Anabaptists' actual experiences of this severe persecution are illuminated in two primary sources:
Jenneken Muntsdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" and "The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth
Dirks," which was written by an unnamed author. Since both accounts were written shortly
before their subjects were executed for their religious beliefs, both offer profound insight into
how both women experienced oppression and persecution, and coped with it in the days leading
up to their deaths. Moreover, both works are extremely important to the history of the
Reformation, and are different from other primary sources that have been covered in class,
because they focus specifically on the experiences of ordinary female Anabaptists. However,
despite their several commonalities, Muntsdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" and the account of
"The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks" are quite different in their content, format, tone,
purpose, authorial perspective, and intended audience.
Janneken Munstdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" was written in 1573, while she was
imprisoned in Antwerp for her controversial Anabaptist beliefs. Knowing that she was soon
going to be executed because of her unwavering devotion to her religious convictions,
Munstdorp wrote a letter to her one-month-old daughter as a means of offering her the guidance
and advice about life that she would be unable to personally impart in later years. Throughout the
letter, Munstdorp is preoccupied with the subject of religion. She explains to her daughter that
religion was of the utmost importance to both herself and her late husband. She states that they
both had a strong and unshakable faith in God and in the tenets of the Anabaptist religion, and
that they were willing to sacrifice their lives for those beliefs. She explains to her daughter that
"for His sake all must be forsaken, father, mother, sister, brother, husband, child, yea, one's own
life."1 As a result, one of the reasons why she decided to write the letter was because it could
serve as "a remembrance" by which her daughter could "remember [her] dear father and [her]
dear mother."2 In essence, the letter was the only means by which Munstdorp's child would be
able to connect with her deceased parents.
However, Munstdorp's main purpose in writing the letter was to encourage her daughter
to believe in God, ignore the largely negative popular opinion about the Anabaptist religion, and
shun the earthly pleasures of the world in order to seek true salvation, just as her parents had
done. She voices this belief repeatedly throughout the text. For example, she states that her
daughter should "always endeavor to fear God [...for] he that fears the Lord will do good, and it
1
Jenneken Munstdorp, "Letter to Her Daughter," in A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts with Introductions, 2nd
ed., ed. Denis R. Janz (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008), 232.
2
Ibid., 231.
will be well with him in this world and in that which is to come."3 She also tells her daughter to
"always join those that seek to fear the Lord from the heart, and be not conformed to the world."4
Muntsdorp strongly believes that most people place too much importance on material items;
therefore, although she is sorry that she and her husband cannot offer their daughter much of an
inheritance, she is confident that they "leave [her with] a good example to fear God, which is
better than much of the temporal goods of this world."5 Moreover, Muntsdorp directly entreats
her child to follow the Anabaptist religion. She states: "Follow me and your father [...and] be not
ashamed to confess our faith, since it is the true evangelical faith."6 Although Muntsdorp
promises her child that remaining within the Anabaptist faith will grant her eternal salvation, she
also warns her daughter about the risks of professing the Anabaptist faith. Since the Anabaptist
religion was extremely controversial to many Europeans during the sixteenth century, many
Anabaptists were persecuted; therefore, professing the faith "sometimes [had] much danger in it
according to the flesh."7 In other words, Munstdorp suggests that while belief in the tenets of the
Anabaptist religion assured the salvation of the immortal soul, it often led to the loss of the
mortal life and body, as in the cases of herself and her husband. In this way, the content and
purpose of Munstdorp's letter was strongly influenced by religion.
Aside from its religious purpose, Muntsdorp's letter was also written in order to teach her
daughter lessons about how to become a good person. Muntsdorp urges her child to "conduct
[herself] well and honestly, so that no one need complain of [her]."8 Moreover, she encourages
her daughter to be industrious, hard-working, obedient, modest, well-mannered, and humble, and
3
Ibid., 234.
Ibid.
5
Ibid.
6
Ibid., 235
7
Ibid., 231.
8
Ibid., 233.
4
quotes passages of scripture that support the cultivation of these traits. Muntsdorp also asks her
to learn how to read and write when she is of age, so that she can understand the letters that were
left to her by her father and mother.9 Ultimately, Muntsdorp realizes that she will not live long
enough to raise her child, so this letter will be the only communication that she can have with her
daughter. Therefore, she writes it with the intention of teaching her daughter all of the most
important lessons that she would have imparted to her over the course of their years together if
she had been allowed to live.
Muntsdorp's perspective on her religion, the persecution and tragedy experienced by her
family, and the society in which she lives is conveyed through the changing tone of the letter.
Throughout the letter, when Muntsdorp writes about religion, her tone is one of reverence,
adoration, and deference to God. There is no aspect of Muntsdorp's life that is more important to
her than God and religion, which is evidenced by the fact that she would rather die than renounce
her Anabaptist beliefs. She conveys this idea at many points during the text. For example, she
states that she is "imprisoned and bound [...] for the Lord's sake."10 This statement demonstrates
that Munstdorp reveres God so highly that she would sacrifice her freedom and her life in
defense of Him. She tries to pass this intense love and appreciation for God down to her
daughter, as exemplified by her claim that her child should "on no account cease to love God
above all."11 In this way, Munstdorp's tone when writing about God and religion is one of
worship and reverence. She writes about the persecution of her family in a tone marked by
solemnity and sadness. She states that she has endured all of the suffering in her life- the
imprisonment of herself and her husband after only six months of marriage, the death of her
9
Ibid., 234.
Ibid., 231.
11
Ibid., 235.
10
husband, and her own impending death sentence- only because she believes that it is God's will.
She believes that, since Christ was persecuted and killed, all of his true followers have to "help
bear His cross"12 and be persecuted as well. However, she struggles to reconcile God's plans with
her desire to raise her child. She laments to her daughter: "Oh, that it had pleased the Lord, that I
might have brought you up. I should so gladly have done my best with respect to it, but it seems
that it is not the Lord's will."13 Although Munstdorp is completely devoted to God, she cannot
help but feel sad and disappointed that her premature death, and her separation from her infant
daughter, is part of His plans. Therefore, her tone shifts to one of sadness and despair when
discussing the necessity of leaving her daughter. Lastly, Munstdorp's tone shifts distinctly when
she describes her opinion of the society in which she lives. She states that most Europeans are
too focused on the superficial and material aspects of life, and do not believe deeply in God or
religion. She explains that before the Anabaptist religion was formed, people "were one with the
world and practiced idolatry, and loved all manner of unrighteousness, [...and so] could live at
peace with the world"14 because their religious beliefs were not a threat to the dominant
ideologies or power structures of the time. However, once some people embraced the Anabaptist
religion, "[their] blood was sought [...and they] had to be a prey to everyone and become a
spectacle to all the world. [Others sought] to murder and to burn [them...] and [their] flesh [was]
given as food to the worms."15 This description of violence inflicted on Anabaptists by other
people, specifically Roman Catholics and Protestants, is written in a disparaging tone that frames
those who are not Anabaptists as aggressive, predatory, and ungodly, while depicting the
Anabaptists as vulnerable victims or "prey." Throughout the text, Munstdorp uses a tone of
12
Ibid., 232.
Ibid., 233.
14
Ibid., 232.
15
Ibid., 233.
13
defiance to address the actions of the detractors of the Anabaptist religion. For instance, in her
opening line, she tells her daughter that she "was (unworthily) confined [...] in prison."16 This
parenthetical aside conveys in a defiant tone her conviction that her captors had no justification
for keeping her in prison simply because of her religious beliefs. In this way, Muntsdorp presents
her perspective on a variety of important issues through the changing tone of her writing.
"The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks" shares several similarities and differences
with Munstdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter." The two works are similar in that they focus on the
experiences of Anabaptist women who were imprisoned and sentenced to death for their
religious beliefs. However, whereas Munstdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" is written in the form
of a personal letter, "The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks" is written as a general
overview of her trial which includes a dialogue of her interrogation and torture by the lords on
the city council. Moreover, the authors of the two pieces are entirely different: while Munstdorp
personally wrote about her own beliefs and experiences in her letter to her daughter, an unnamed
author wrote the account of Dirks's trial. In this way, "The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth
Dirks" is not written from the personal perspective of a participant engaged in the trial, such as
Dirks or one of the lords of the city council, but instead presents a description of the events
written by a knowledgeable onlooker or observer.
The work begins with a description of how and why Dirks was brought before the city
council for interrogation. It states that she was arrested on January 15, 1549 under the suspicion
of being a Mennonite teacher. This was a crime because Mennonites were a sect of Anabaptists,
whose religion was considered radical and heretical by many Europeans during the sixteenth
century. After being arrested, she was brought to prison and then presented to the lords of the
16
Ibid., 231.
city council for a trial. The lords asked her a series of questions in order to ascertain her religious
beliefs, and see if she would renounce them. Throughout her trial, Dirks remained steadfast in
her dedication to the tenets of her religion. As a result, she was subjected to torture, and when
that failed to make her question her beliefs, the council sentenced her to death.
One of the most important differences between Munstdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" and
"The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks" is that the latter work provides a deeper insight
into the religious beliefs of Anabaptists. Throughout her letter, Munstdorp emphasizes how
completely she believes in God and her Anabaptist religion, but she does not describe exactly
what the tenets of the religion are. In contrast, "The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks"
includes a detailed transcription of the interrogation of Dirks by the city council lords, which
focuses primarily on determining whether she firmly adheres to the tenets of Anabaptism.
Therefore, "The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks" provides the reader with more insight
into specific Anabaptist beliefs. For example, the lords of the city council ask Dirks if she
believes that the "church [is] the house of God."17 She responds that she does not because the
Bible states that people, not buildings, "are the temple of the living God."18 This answer shows
that Dirks believes in the tenet of Anabaptism that states that the Bible is the sole source of
religious faith and practice. At several other points throughout the text, Dirks's responses to the
questions of her interrogators prove that she adheres to other common Anabaptist beliefs such as
the baptism of believers rather than children, the repudiation of oaths, the priesthood of all
believers, and the symbolism, rather than transubstantiation, of the Eucharist. "The Trial and
Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks" is also very different from Munstdorp's letter because it contains
17
"The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks, in A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts with Introductions, 2nd
ed., ed. Denis R. Janz (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2008), 229.
18
Ibid.
graphic descriptions of the torture that Dirks endured. While Munstdorp went through great
emotional pain as a result of her imprisonment, the death of her husband, and her own impending
death sentence, she does not describe any acts of bodily harm committed against her. "The Trial
and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks," on the other hand, describes the brutal physical abuse
inflicted on Elizabeth by an executioner. For example, it states that the executioner "applied the
thumbscrews to her thumbs and forefingers, so that the blood squirted out at the nails."19 In this
way, although both works describe the suffering of female Anabaptists, their content differs
markedly.
Although the purpose behind the creation of "The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth
Dirks" was presumably to introduce an objective account of the trial into public record, its
authorial perspective and tone is quite subjective. The unnamed author of the piece praises Dirks
for her strength and steadfast devotion to her faith throughout her trial and torture, while he or
she vilifies the lords of the city council who lead the interrogation. For instance, in a description
of Elizabeth's reaction to her torture, the author states that "she steadfastly adhered to God her
Lord," so that the city council "obtained not one word from her, detrimental to her brethren in the
Lord or to any other person." This depiction of Dirks celebrates her dedication to her religious
belief and her ability to withstand extreme physical pain; it further admires her ability to refrain
from speaking ill even of her enemies.
In contrast, the author of the piece portrays the lords of the council, who conduct the
interrogation and authorize the torture, as villains. The author describes the kind of torture that
they used, and wrote that Elizabeth fainted from the pain, in order to emphasize their cruelty and
injustice. Moreover, he states that the executioner himself did not want to torture Dirks, because
19
Ibid., 230.
he wanted to give her another chance to voluntarily renounce her beliefs. The fact that the
executioner had more mercy on Dirks than the men who presided over her trial also highlights
the depravity and barbarity of the city council officials. Even the title itself, with its use of the
word "martyrdom" to describe Dirks's death, frames Dirks as a hero whose death was unjust and
unnecessary. Therefore, the author's perspective and tone throughout the piece emphasize
Elizabeth's positive qualities, such as her strength and devotion, while they liken the lords of the
city council to villains.
Ultimately, both Jenneken Munstdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" and "The Trial and
Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks" were chosen to be included in The Martyr's Mirror, a collection
of works about Anabaptist martyrs that was edited by Thieleman J. van Braght and published
during the seventeenth century.20 Intended to uplift and inspire its readers, The Martyr's Mirror
featured selections that portrayed Anabaptists in a positive light: the Anabaptists profiled were
presented as paragons of strength, courage, and religious devotion, as evidenced in Munstdorp's
and Dirks's accounts. However, while both pieces gained a wide audience as a result of the
publication of the book, their intended audiences were quite different. Munstdorp's letter was
intended to be read only by her daughter, whereas "The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks"
was a transcription of a trial, which was likely intended to be read by a larger audience.
Both Jenneken Munstdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" and "The Trial and Martyrdom of
Elizabeth Dirks" are extremely important to the history of the Reformation. Although neither
document garnered much fame at the time of their publication during the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, and still remain relatively shrouded in obscurity today, they are valuable
primary sources because they describe how common people, particularly those who were
20
Ibid., 228.
Anabaptists, experienced the Reformation that took place in Europe. Many of the other primary
sources that we have read in class, such as the theological writings of Martin Luther, Thomas
Muntzer, and John Calvin, and the royal decrees issued by monarchs during the English
Reformation, such as Henry VIII's "Act of Supremacy," Queen Mary's "Marian Injunctions," and
Queen Elizabeth I's "Act of Supremacy," "Act of Uniformity," and "Elizabethan Injunctions,"
were created by powerful people who played pivotal roles in the Reformation. These people
were the theologians who shaped the religious tenets and beliefs of the new "radical" religions
and Protestant sects, and the monarchs and leaders who determined state religious policy. In
contrast, Munstdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" and "The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth
Dirks" expound the ideas and describe the actual experiences of the common people whose lives
were influenced by these abstract theological ideas and state policies. They demonstrate the
intensity of the religious devotion that many ordinary people developed during the Reformation,
and give a sense of the widespread persecution of religious minorities that took place throughout
Europe. Moreover, they provide the reader with an understanding of how people coped with this
persecution, and the types of severe punishments that they often received for their religious
beliefs. These primary sources are also different from those that have been discussed in class,
and are important to the study of the history of the Reformation, because they detail the
experiences of Anabaptist women in particular. Although Anabaptists made up a very small
percentage of the European population, their history is extremely important to understanding the
experiences of religious minorities during the Reformation. Moreover, since many of the primary
sources included in Janz's Reformation Reader are written by men, these two sources are
significant because they explored the ways in which women's lives were affected by the
turbulence of the Reformation. In this way, these two accounts are important to the history of the
Reformation, and are different from the primary sources covered in class, because they provide
insight into the experiences of ordinary Anabaptist women during this period of religious
upheaval.
Overall, Jenneken Munstdorp's "Letter to Her Daughter" and the account of "The Trial
and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks" share several commonalities and differences. They both
describe their subjects' experiences of oppression, and the ways in which they coped with it, in
the days before their executions. Furthermore, both works share a similar sense of importance to
the history of the Reformation: they focus solely on the marginalized experiences of ordinary
female Anabaptists. This is also how they can be distinguished from the other primary sources
that have been discussed in class. However, despite their similarities, both pieces are quite
different in their content, format, tone, purpose, authorial perspective, and intended audience.
Bibliography
Munstdorp, Janneken. "Letter to Her Daughter." In A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts with
Introductions, 2nd ed., edited by Denis R. Janz, 231-236. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Fortress
Press, 2008.
"The Trial and Martyrdom of Elizabeth Dirks." In A Reformation Reader: Primary Texts with
Introductions, 2nd ed., edited by Denis R. Janz, 228-231. Minneapolis, Minnesota: Fortress
Press, 2008.