Indigenous Language Learning
Considerations for Language Education of Aboriginal Children
Meaghan Salisbury
3/12/2013
Introduction
More than 60 different Aboriginal languages are spoken by First Nations people in
Canada. These are grouped into distinct language families. Some Algonquian languages, such as
Cree and Ojibwe, have a relatively larger base of speakers. However, even these seemingly more
viable languages have declined in their use as the primary home languages over the past two
decades (Bougie, 2010). The percentage of the Aboriginal population whose mother tongue is an
Aboriginal language is declining. In 2001, 21% of Aboriginal people in Canada had an
Aboriginal mother tongue, down from 26% in 1996 (Norris, 2007). Despite being under serious
threat by the extreme pressure of our dominant languages, Aboriginal languages are still central
to many First Nations people's identity and are considered vital to the health of First Nations
communities.
Indigenous Knowledge and Traditional Languages
Aboriginal languages demonstrate the interconnectedness of Indigenous knowledge to the
spirit of the land from which they grew. The way that many common place objects or actions are
described in First Nation languages can offer insight into how traditional spirituality contributes
to the world view of First Nations peoples. The use of language to categorize and conceptualize
knowledge is fundamentally different. Many Aboriginal languages do not describe the wind or
the moon as ‘things’, in general, there are many fewer nouns and instead something like ‘wind,’
is more often described as a verb, meaning ‘blow’ or ‘be windy.’ The wind is traditionally
viewed as an action (Ottmann, Abel and Flynn, 2007).
Aboriginal languages are sacred to Aboriginal people. They are a critical link to
knowledge that was given by the Creator and are considered to be a blessing. Traditional
languages are considered to be fundamental for the renewal and respect of Aboriginal knowledge
(Ball & Bernhardt, 2008). These differences in thinking and viewing the world around us need to
be considered when teaching Aboriginal children either English or their Nation’s language, as a
second language.
Schools that offer a strictly Eurocentric provincial curriculum provide a secular
experience and knowledge that has been imported from other societies. The historical policy of
assimilation has interrupted the inter- generational transmission of traditional knowledge in
Aboriginal communities (Ball & Bernhardt, 2008). Indigenous languages offer Aboriginal
children not just a communication tool for discovering traditional knowledge but also a way to
make meaningful connections to the stories of their people. What is required for Aboriginal
children is language education that considers the environmental context of the community, their
social and cultural frames of reference and that acknowledges their spiritual origins.
Aboriginal language and Aboriginal English dialects.
Dialects are used by Aboriginal people to communicate in their specific cultural
community. They frequently include special words or pronunciations and sometimes include
different ways of saying things than in the main stream form of the same language. Dialects are
not different languages but different forms of a language as it evolves in a particular community.
Dialects are generally found within a specific region or group of people (Northwest Territories
Education, Culture and Employment, 2010).
Aboriginal English dialects are common among both Aboriginal people who speak their
ancestral language and the younger generation of Aboriginal people who no longer speak their
mother tongue (Peltier, 2010). First Nations English dialects reflect the historical situation in
which English has always been a major colonizing language however, as having grown from the
communities themselves, the dialects are also important linguistic markers of Indigenous
identity. By preserving the unique features of First Nations English dialects, the dialect can play
an important role in the ongoing transmission of Indigenous knowledge, language revitalization
and the maintenance of Aboriginal identity (Ball & Bernhardt, 2008).
Phonological and phonetic characteristics of First Nations languages may affect First
Nations English dialects and produce what seem like ‘accents.’ This is often interpreted as
mispronunciation of standard English. First Nations English dialects should be viewed
positively by educators as an easier place to start second language learning for speakers who
want to learn or re-learn an ancestral language (Ball & Bernhardt, 2008). By acknowledging the
variants, educational practitioners can provide learning opportunities and build on the language
knowledge of students (Battiste, 2010).
Insisting on only one “right” form of English is demeaning to students (Battiste, 2010).
All users of language bring the context of community and culture to their communications. As
there continues to be more understanding of the importance and value of Aboriginal languages
and English dialects, linguists, educators, and speech-language pathologists are supporting the
maintenance of the home language or dialect as a means of developing a cognitively and
culturally enriching form of bilingualism (Peltier, 2010).
Second Language acquisition
Many Aboriginal people have learned an Aboriginal language as a second language. In
2001, more people could speak an Aboriginal language than had an Aboriginal mother tongue.
This is especially the case for young people. Learning an Aboriginal language as a second
language is not a substitute for learning it as a first language. Actively increasing the number of
second language speakers is an important part of the language revitalization process, and may
slow the rapid erosion and possible extinction of endangered languages. For many children,
learning their Aboriginal language as a second language is the only option available as
transmission from parent to child is no longer viable (Norris, 2007).
In 2001, approximately 33% of Aboriginal communities could be classified as being in
transition from a mother tongue to a second language population. Over 90% of Aboriginal
children aged 5 to 14 can converse in their parents' First Nations language but many of them
learned it as a second language. Families impact the transmission of an Aboriginal language
from parent to child, either as a mother tongue or as a second language. Children most likely to
learn an Aboriginal language as a second language are from linguistically mixed families, live in
urban areas, or speak an endangered language (Norris, 2007).
Assessment of English language skills
Aboriginal English dialect-speakers and Aboriginal language users have been stigmatized
in the education system. Standard English pronunciation and grammar rules of the dominant
society are the accepted norms for child development. When Aboriginal students struggle
academically teachers may interpret it as a learning or intellectual delay. Aboriginal students are
at a disadvantage in the language development assessment process and Aboriginal children have
often been identified with language, speech, and learning exceptionalities because educators lack
insight about the students' cultural context and linguistic background (Peltier, 2010).
The majority of screening, assessment, and intervention programs are based onstandard
English and are biased when applied to Aboriginal children who speak another language or
another dialect of English at home (Peltier, 2010). Standardized tools assess expressive language
and receptive language skills but other indicators may be more relevant for Aboriginal children.
Interactions in which the children are engaged demonstrate mutual understanding and storytelling skills which may be important for early development of Aboriginal children’s language
abilities (Findlay, 2013)
Many culturally influenced linguistic practices like maintaining eye contact and turn
taking in conversation is misinterpreted by non – Aboriginal teachers. First Nations children
may be slower to respond or look away from elders that they are talking to out of community
traditions of respect and thoughtfulness. The use of silence by First Nations children may be
interpreted by mainstream teachers as shyness or even lack of knowledge but speaking out loud
in a group or talking to an adult may be felt as culturally inappropriate for a First Nations child
(Ball, 2009).
First Nations children may have very different expectations underlying who can
acceptably say something, when, and about what. Ball & Bernhardt, describe an assessment
situation where a child gave minimal detail when describing objects. The specialist then created
an imaginary context in which the child had to provide detail to a less knowledgeable listener,
his younger brother. The child was then able to give detailed descriptions of many objects. The
child may have found it unnatural to describe objects to an adult who he knew was familiar with
them (2008).
It is important that teachers of young children with a first language other than standard
English be sensitive to this issue of Aboriginal English dialects when attempting to determine
whether students have a learning or communication deficit (Peltier, 2010). Several national
associations of speech language professionals (SLP) have developed position statements and
policies to promote sensitivity to cultural differences. The lack of valid methods for assessment
of speakers using non- standard dialects and First Nations languages pose a challenge for the
SLP and can result in both over- and under-identification of developmental impairments (Ball &
Bernhardt, 2008).
Speech-language services are not a benefit provided by the federal government and so are
extremely limited for children living on reserve because many communities cannot afford to
allocate funds from other programs to contract for this service. There are often no follow-up
programs available to children who have been identified by ECEs, teachers, or community health
nurses as needing specialized services. The lack of availability of follow-up services is due to a
number of barriers (Ball, 2009).
Language abilities directly affect other developmental domains and the persisting equity
gaps in Indigenous children's academic attainment indicates how important it is to find ways to
provide effective diagnostic assessment and early intervention strategies to children who need
them (Ball, 2009). There is a lack of information about First Nations children’s vocabulary
development and the connections to the different cultural focus of Native languages. Indigenous
languages offer different perspectives on animate and inanimate objects, actions, of spatial
referencing, time passage and event sequencing that may influence children’s vocabulary
acqiusition (Ball & Bernhardt, 2008).
It is not the child's first language (Aboriginal mother tongue and/or Aboriginal English
dialect) that causes academic difficulties. Other key issues affecting school performance are
under development of the first language on school entry, cessation of first-language
development, and cultural conflict from pressure to assimilate and use the dominant language
(Peltier, 2010). Without a solid foundation of understanding built within the child’s first
language it is difficult for them to succeed at all subsequent linguistic learning.
The role of the teacher.
For young Aboriginal students, teachers' beliefs can create a negative and self-fulfilling
learning environment. In order to develop culturally sensitive practice, teachers must recognize
their own role in creating meaningful curricula and consider the cultural context of their students
use of language (Ball & Bernhardt, 2008). Teachers need to be mindful of lowering academic
expectations for students who are considered unskilled in English. Low teacher expectations put
Aboriginal children at risk of having poor academic progress be judged by the educator as
adequate (Peltier, 2010).
When teachers connect with culturally and linguistically diverse students and where
Aboriginal culture and language are included in education, a two-way educational experience is
achieved. Teacher training in First Nation languages and dialects promotes cross-cultural
understanding and a supportive learning environment. Researchers suggest a shift in attitude
among teachers to create a place for Aboriginal English in the education process. Teacher
programs must convey that Aboriginal children's languages and dialects should be viewed as
cultural assets to learning rather than academic obstacles (Peltier, 2010).
Although some provincial ministries of education policies are now in place to recognize
Aboriginal English dialects, the focus is still on acquisition of standard English. Teachers are
not provided with the insight that Aboriginal English dialects are varieties of English of equal
value. Language arts curriculum does not describe appropriate teaching strategies to address
Aboriginal students' unique language learning needs. ESL programs are recommended for
Aboriginal students who speak a first language other than English, or who speak an Aboriginal
English dialect (Peltier, 2010).
Teachers must take initiative to learn about First Nations communities and cultures by
talking to community members like Elders, cultural and family support workers and by attending
community events. Events celebrating First Nations languages promote stronger language
connections (Northwest Territories Education, Culture and Employment, 2010). Teachers and
educational specialists should talk to First Nations families in their communities to find out their
opinions of language and culture. There will be considerable diversity in these opinions. While
some families may be concerned that education in standard English will contribute to the loss of
the community dialect, language, and culture, others may wish to have their children learn
standard English dialects.
University training programs and speech-language associations need to continue to
contribute to academic resources by developing research, curriculum and professional
development opportunities concerning practice with First Nations people and their language
learning (Ball & Bernhardt, 2008). Teacher education programs need to draw on all aspects of
Indigenous cultures to be more effective at preparing new teachers to work in Aboriginal
contexts. Unfortunately, educators who are receptive to new teaching strategies cannot find
adequate opportunities for professional development that encourages alternative and more
relevant curriculum and pedagogy (Kitchen, Cherubini, Trudeau & Hodson, 2009).
More work needs to be done in the area of developing language teaching standards and
credentials for instructors of Indigenous languages (Northwest Territories Education, Culture and
Employment, 2010). Aboriginal language teachers are difficult to find, there are very few people
who could be considered qualified in both language skills and teaching abilities. New instructors
have had the challenging task of developing their own curriculum and materials, without many
resources or other examples to use as reference (Graham, 2005).
Programs
Heritage language programs for Aboriginal languages have been implemented by school
boards and they can have a positive influence on the local Aboriginal community as a whole. By
including community members in all elements of developing such programs, strong learning
community connections can be made between educational professionals and Aboriginal families.
These programs must balance the academic qualifications for quality with the less instructional
and more fluid connections between language learning and cultural understanding. The
curriculum for programs must not be based solely on grammar and vocabulary lists. It is
important to use the languages in context, to maintain the cultural and spiritual connections of
the languages and to learn the heritage language in a holistic manner that involves experiential
learning, storytelling and participation in cultural events (Graham, 2005).
Some Aboriginal communities in Canada that want to revitalize and preserve their
language have implemented language immersion programs where Aboriginal language is the
principal language of instruction (Ball, 2009; Northwest Territories Education, Culture and
Employment, 2010). Even in communities where the Aboriginal language is not used as the
primary means of communication, there are benefits to creating a strong immersion program.
Studies have found that learning their First Nations language, even in an immersive environment,
does not negatively affect children’s’ English language learning (Usborne, 2011).
The threat of losing language and the traditional knowledge that is connected to it has
created greater interest among Indigenous communities to create full immersion preschools and
primary schools, as well as in 'language nest' immersion programs for infants and toddlers.
Family-centred programs support Indigenous children's optimal language acquisition by
involving primary caregivers in a variety of activities that encourage the use of their home
language. By modeling and reinforcing the language in a social context these programs promote
the children's communication abilities and their confidence in their cultural identities. Programs
that involve the community in a meaningful way are also more likely to be well used, sustainable
and effective (Ball, 2009).
One of the six program components of the Canadian adaptation of Head Start for
Aboriginal children emphasizes community-specific culture and language. Research shows that
the most positive findings came from parent and community ratings of the culture and
Indigenous language components of the program (Ball, 2009)
There is a need for school-based bridging programs for Indigenous children whose home
language is either a nonstandard variant of English or French or an Indigenous language, to
support the ongoing acquisition of the languages or dialects one they have entered school, in
order to prepare children to succeed in the dominant language of instruction.
Work has been done in Australia on school-based programs in English as a second
dialect (ESD), to help Indigenous children learn to switch from their Indigenous English dialect
to the variety of English used in school. Several Canadian provinces have recently introduced
policies and funding to support school-based ESD. The concept of ESD and the provision of
funding to develop a culturally appropriate pedagogy for supporting Indigenous children's
language and literacy is a topic of considerable interest among educators and speech-language
pathologists. Educators, researchers and language specialists must work collaboratively with
schools to design, test, and document programs for Aboriginal children who need to acquire
'school English' as a second dialect (Ball, 2009).
Increased, long-term, stable funding is needed to finance Aboriginal language programs
(Northwest Territories Education, Culture and Employment, 2010). Regardless of the type of
program being delivered, an overall increase of financial resources for developing appropriate
educational tools and opportunities for teaching First nation’s languages is required to ensure
that high quality language instruction reaches all Aboriginal children.
Conclusion
Aboriginal ways of knowing and teaching should be central to all Aboriginal educational
programs. Aboriginal children’s language learning must be based on Indigenous knowledge and
pedagogy. It is not appropriate to indigenize Eurocentric content or to teach Aboriginal
languages in a conventional language lesson manner using rote vocabulary lists (Kitchen et al.,
2009). Aboriginal language learning experiences for children should be rich in cultural content
and delivered to children in the context of language being a shared treasure of their community.
“Given the importance of early language development for cognitive, social, and cultural
learning and for school readiness, a funded program of research is needed to create and
mobilize new knowledge about Indigenous children's early language learning trajectories
and developmental needs,” (Ball,2009).
More research needs to be done to further our understanding and our abilities as
educators of First Nation’s children. There is not enough known about how to assess
Indigenous children’s language abilities or how to implement language interventions in First
Nations communities. Assessments and specialized services need to be delivered in ways that
respect both community communication and cultural patterns (Ball & Bernhardt, 2008). These
respectful considerations need to be extended to Aboriginal English dialect speakers as well as
First Nation language speakers whose second language is English.
Heritage language programs that promote Indigenous culture, identity and knowledge
through language need to be made available for all Aboriginal students. It is crucial to
encourage Indigenous languages as a second language acquisition for Aboriginal languages to
once again flourish. These types of programs can bridge the intergenerational gaps in language
knowledge that have resulted from the assimilation based educational policies of the past.
Teacher education programs need to consider reflective practices that centre around
traditional teachings and ceremonies so that the connections between Aboriginal languages,
culture and spirituality can be recognized and embraced by all educators. In this good way,
finally, the educational profession will be able to provide Indigenous language instruction that
respects the deep roots of language in traditional Aboriginal knowledge and the traditional
homeland of First Nations people.
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