Thesis for the Degree of Master The effect of Drama on students’ anxiety of speaking English By Lee, Seoyeon Department of TESOL The Graduate School of TESOL Sookmyung Women’s University 1 LIST OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS………………………………………………….i LIST OFCONTENTS.....................................................................................ii LIST OF TABLES............................................................................................v LIST OF FIGURES.........................................................................................vi LIST OF APPENDICES................................................................................vii ABSTRACT...................................................................................................viii Chapter 1.Introduction ................................................................................ Chapter 2. Literature Review ..................................................................... 2.1 Drama in Education ................................................................................. 2.1.1 Drama in a Historical Review……………………………………… 2.1.2 Drama in English Language Teaching…………………………… 2.1.2.1 Types of Drama in ELT………………………………………….. 2.1.2.1.1 Role play……………………………………………… 2.1.2.1.2 Mime…………………………………………………………… 2.1.2.1.3 Improvisation………………………………………………… 2.1.2.1.4 Simulation………………………………………………….. 2.1.2.1.5 Readers’ theatre……………………………………………… 2.1.2.1.6 Process drama………………………………………………….. 2.1.2.2 Effect of Drama in ELT………………………………………….. 2.1.2.2.1 Affective filter………………………………………………. 2.1.2.2.2 Motivation…………………………………………………… 2 2.1.2.2.3 Meaning in context………………………………………….. 2.1.2.2.4 Learning styles and multiple intelligences…………………… 2.1.2.2.5 Psychological benefits……………………………………….. 2.2 Anxiety and Language................................................................................ 2.2.1 Definition and types of Anxiety…………………………………….. 2.2.1.1Trait anxiety, state anxiety, and situation-specific anxiety…........ 2.2.1.2 Facilitating Anxiety and Debilitating Anxiety………………….. 2.2.1.3 Foreign Language Anxiety…………………………………......... 2.2.2 Impact of Foreign Language Anxiety……………………………….. 2.2.2.1 Impacts of foreign language anxiety on learning………………… 2.2.2.2 Impacts of Foreign Language anxiety on Speaking Performance…. 2.2.3 Possible Factors Contributing To Learners’ Anxiety…………… 2.3 Research into the Effects of Drama on Anxiety……………………… 2.4 Summary………………………………………………………………… Chapter 3.Methodology .................................................................................... 3.1 Overview……………………………………………………………… 3.2 Research question………………………………………………………… 3.3 Participants.................................................................................................... 3.4 Instruments…………………………………………………………… 3.4.1 Survey………………………………………………………………… 3.4.2 Reflective journals……………………………………………………. 3.4.3 Interviews……………………………………………….. 3.5 Procedure…………………………………………………………………… 3.5.1 General Procedure……………………………………………………… 3.5.2. The Procedure of the drama class……………………………………… 3 3.6 Data analysis…………………………………………………………… 3.7 Summary Chapter 4. Results ........................................................................................ 4.1 Results from the Survey……………………………………………… 4.2 Results from the Reflective journals…………………………………. 4.3 Results from the Interviews…………………………………………… Chapter 5. Discussion ..................................................................................... 5.1 Research question 1 ...................................................................................... 5.2 Research question 2 ...................................................................................... Chapter 6. Conclusions ...................................................................................... 6.1 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 6.2 Limitation ...................................................................................................... 6.3 Future Research ............................................................................................. References .......................................................................................................... Appendices...................................................................................................... 4 Chapter 1. Introduction Language anxiety has been frequently reported as a universal challenge in EFL contexts. Studies in EFL learning and teaching have addressed the necessity of reducing students’ anxiety in a foreign language class (Horwitz, 1988; Horwitz, 2001; Horwitz & Cope, 1986; Horwitz & Young, 1991; Huang, et al., 2010; Hussain, et al., 2011; Liu and Jackson, 2008; Liu & Zhang, 2010; Macintyre & Gardner, 1989; Macintyre & Gardner, 1991; Ohata, 2005). In particular, getting students to express their ideas or to respond orally to teachers is a common problem encountered by EFL teachers in Englishspeaking classes. Students were found to be very anxious when responding to teachers in English. Moreover, students tend to feel anxious when a situation is viewed as a threat which has effects on their performance. According to Liu (2006), “anxiety” is found as one of the major factors contributing to students’ reticence. However, a satisfactory exploration on how to reduce EFL students’ anxiety has yet to be conducted. This problem, therefore, has been obviously considered for foreign language teaching and learning which requires a lowanxiety environment. In the last decades, encouraging research in foreign language teaching and learning has shown that drama can help this problem, providing a non threatening and safe environment for learners, generating desire to communicate in the target language, and enhancing fluency, engagement and motivation (Kao and O’Neill, 1998; Stinson and Freebody, 2006; Radin, 1985, 5 Stern, 1981; Stinson 2008). The students feel more comfortable speaking the target language without inhibitions when they are “in role” within some imaginative situation that is removed from the immediate, real world (Smith, 1984). Dodson (2000) and Phillips (1999) suggests that drama activities such as role play and improvisation could be useful for practicing and acquiring vocabulary, lowering the affective filter, and providing a genuine need for students. Likewise, several studies confirm that drama use in language classes provides strong motivation to the learners and builds their confidence, and ultimately reduces the anxiety of students. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the effect of drama on students’ anxiety in speaking in English. Considering the fact that language anxiety is a problem of remarkable proportions in teaching English as a foreign language, the study aims to explore its application possibility in the context of Korea, particularly in speaking classes. Accordingly, the study aims to identify the anxiety levels of students and represent the classroom situation throughout the teaching drama activities at a university in Korea. Following that, drama activities, which are assumed to be instrumental in reducing students’ speaking anxiety, were carried out in a-sixteen-week study. The impact of the drama activities to anxiety levels of students in speaking in English are investigated. Furthermore, the possible factors that affect students' anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities have been elaborated on. In many studies, qualitative analysis was used to measure the effectiveness of drama. However, using both quantitative and qualitative methods, this study seeks an answer to the following questions: 1. How do the drama activities affect students’ anxiety level in speaking in English? 6 2. What are the factors that affect students' anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities? Chapter 2. Literature review This section intends to define some of the concepts important for the research in order to give a clear direction of this study. At the same time it provides a brief outlook, giving possible perspectives in study of language teaching and learning in an instructional environment. In this chapter, related literature on drama and language anxiety, especially speaking English as a part of the focus of this research, is reviewed. First, literature that discusses a brief historical review of drama teachingin psychology and the relationship between drama and foreign language teaching are reviewed. Next, the research discussing the nature and concept of anxiety and foreign language anxiety follows. Then, the impact of foreign language anxiety on foreign language achievement, including speaking performance, as well as the research studies discussing possible sources and factors that provoke the foreign language anxiety of EFL students is presented. Finally, the studies into the effects of drama on anxiety are investigated. 2.1 Drama in Education Drama in education is the use of drama as a means of teaching across the curriculum. It is used to expand learners’ awareness, to enable them to look at reality through fantasy and to look below the surface of actions for meanings. According to McCaslin (1990, p.10) the objective is understanding rather than playmaking, although aplay may be made in the process. Attitudes rather than characters are the chief concernas the focus is on process rather than product. 7 Since drama becomes a natural means of learning in the developmental history ofhuman beings, it is evident that this technique could be used effectively in teaching andlearning. According to Landy (1982, p.5) its elements – imitation, imagination, role-playing and interpretation account for much of a child’s learning of language, movement and social behaviour. By acting out the roles of the father/mother the child learns what aparent is and what is expected of him/her in his relationship with the parent. Drama in education, also known as creative drama, is an improvisational, nonexhibitional, process-centred form of drama in which participants are guided by a leader to imagine, enact and reflect upon human experiences. According to Landy (1982, p.5) it requires both logical and intuitive thinking, personalizes knowledge and yields aesthetic pleasure. 2.1.1 Drama in a Historical Review Traditionally theatre has been taken to refer to performance whereas drama has referred to the work designed for stage representation, the body of written plays (Elam, 1980). In the context of drama teaching however the terms have been used differently. Theatre was thought to be largely concerned with communication between actors and an audience; whereas drama was largely concerned with experience by the participants, irrespective of anyfunction of communication to an audience (Way, 1967). In the 1980s and 1990s in England and many other countries there was a fairly pronounced division between writers and practitioners who advocated different approaches to teaching drama. Teachers who took a theatre approach talked about acting, rehearsal and performance whereas teachers with a drama focus referred more to experience or living through improvisations (Hornbrook, 1989). In practice these tended to be more orientations in the work rather than 8 rigid distinctions but the differences are crucial in understanding the way drama teaching developed; legacies of these approaches are found in contemporary practice (Fleming, 2003). The method of drama teaching which developed from the 1950s onwards and embraced more free forms of dramatic play and improvisation can be seen as a reaction to the stifling and uncreative approaches at the time which involved children acting out in a rather formal way the words of others rather than developing ideas of their own (Slade, 1954). It was suggested that when participants are engaged in more spontaneous, improvised work (traditionally called drama) their level of engagement and feeling will be more intense and genuine than when they are performing on stage (traditionally called theatre). The theoretical perspectives on drama education were at that time drawn from writings on child play and the Humanistic School of psychology (Erikson 1963, 1968; Rogers, 1969) rather than on the theatre. The emphasis was on the personal growth of the individual through creative self expression and the search for personal meaning. The influence of progressive psychology theorists as George Kelly in the 1950s and his personal construct theory that urges people to uncover their own constructs with minimal intervention by the 'therapist' were also apparent in the advocates of drama in education. The recent history of drama teaching being described here is represented in the following diagram by Fleming (2003). At the time when the separation of drama and theatre was happening what was being rejected was the negative aspects of theatre practice (depicted in the upper right side of the diagram) when imposed prematurely onyoung people. A more contemporary view of theatre practice is represented in the lower right quadrant (Theatre 2). Here the approach is less authoritarian, there is a more fluid concept of what acting and rehearsal involve and there is greater acceptance ofnon -naturalistic 9 approaches. Similarly there has been a change in the way drama has been conceptualised. The changed conception at Drama 2 in the diagram means that all drama in the classroom can draw on insights provided by the nature of drama as art and writings from theatre practitioners (Bolton, 1992; Heathcote, 1980; Shewe and Shaw, 1993). Figure 2.1 History of drama teaching (Source: Fleming (2003), p.11) 2.1.2 Drama in English Language Teaching The relationship between drama and English language teaching naturally flourishes by virtue of all its benefits we can observe in English language instruction. Hamilton and McLeod (1993) describe this relationship as follows: “It is hard to imagine anything else that offers to language teachers such as wide variety 10 of types of talks, for example monologues, paired speaking, role-plays, group discussions, reporting, talking in response to other stimuli, problem-solving, developing scenarios, acting out, etc. from explaining, complaining, praising, disagreeing to exhorting, apologising and requesting – there is no language function that drama is not capable of easily encompassing” (Hamilton and McLeod, 1993, p.5). And drama does not have to be used just in order to practice language functions, grammatical structures or particular vocabulary. It can be easily, and most of all effectively, exploited in cross-curricular teaching when studying and exploring topics related to the foreign culture or other school subjects. As Phillips(1999) suggests the teacher using drama can use topics from other subjects: the children can act out the scene from history, or the life cycle of a frog; or he or she can work on the ideas and issues that run through the curriculum, such as sexism, respect for the environment and road safety” (Philips, 1999, p. 8). As already mentioned before, drama used in education provides many beneficial factors, encouraging teachers to take advantage of its methods and techniques. In the next sub-sections, types of drama which aim various functions and the effects of drama in English language teaching are introduced with their benefits. 2.1.2.1 Types of Drama in ELT The following are six types of drama activities in ELT provided with their benefits. 2.1.2.1.1 Role play Budden (2007) defines role-play as “any speaking activity when you either put 11 yourself into somebody else's shoes, or when you stay in your own shoes but put yourself into an imaginary situation (p. 2). According to Kodotchigova (2001) role play prepares L2 learners for L2 communication in a different social and cultural context. Role play is really a worthwhile learning experience for both the students and the teacher. Not only can students have more opportunities to “act” and “interact” with their peers trying to use the English language, but also students’ English speaking, listening, and understanding will improve (Huang, 2008). 2.1.2.1.2 Mine Dougill (1987) defines mime as “a non-verbal representation of an idea or story through gesture, bodily movement and expression” (p.13). Mime emphasizes the paralinguistic features of communication. From the point of the teacher, miming may as well be a good method how to integrate even those students whose language abilities are not the best and in most of the activities want to keep back (Hillova, 2008). Savignon (1983) says that the mime helps learners become comfortable with the idea of performing in front of peers without concern for language and that although no language is used during a mime it can be a spur to use language. 2.1.2.1.3 Improvisation Landy (1982) defines improvisation as an unscripted, unrehearsed, spontaneous set of actions in response to minimal directions from a teacher, usually including statements of which one is, where one is and what one is doing there. In improvisation, students must create a scene, speak, act, react, and move without preparing (Davis, n.d.). Maples (2002) emphasizes that improvisation provides learners with opportunities to not only improve their 12 language communication skills, but also to improve their confidence, which will ultimately lead to the development of positive self-concepts. Improvisational exercises provide three main goals: student pronunciation improves, proper use of a grammatical structure is reinforced, and vocabulary practice is enhanced. It may be important to share with students these functions in order to engage them in speaking and to build trust so they will not lose face and will not fear making mistakes (Florea, 2011). 2.1.2.1.4 Simulation Jones (1980) calls a simulation as case study where learners become participants in an event and shape the course of the event. The learners have roles, functions, duties, and responsibilities within a structured situation involving problem solving. Simulations are generally held to be a structured set of circumstances' that mirror real life and in which participants act as instructed. A simulation activity provides a specific situation within which students can practice various communication skills like asserting oneself, expressing opinions, convincing others, arguing eliciting opinions, group problems solving, analyzing situations and so on (Smith, et al., 1984). 2.1.2.1.5 Reader’s Theatre According to Sloyer (1982) readers’ theatre is an oral presentation of drama, prose or poetry by two or more readers. Readers first read a story and then transform the story into script involving several characters. The script is then performed for an intended audience. To portray a character, readers strives theatre has been adopted in Western educational settings to improve the reading fluency and to enhance the reading comprehension of students (Henry, 2011). Because readers' theater focuses on vocal expression, and students have 13 the opportunity to practice repeatedly, pronunciation is a key component (Davis, et al., n.d.). In creating RT scripts, students increase their knowledge of language structure (vocabulary, syntax and meaning), and language use (forms and functions of language use) and the meta-linguistic awareness such as the ability to talk about the language (Hill, 1990). 2.1.2.1.6 Process Drama Process drama is ‘a whole-group drama process, improvised in nature’, in which the teacher and the students work together to create an imaginary dramatic world and work within that world to explore a particular problem, situation, theme, or series of related themes, not for a separate audience, but for the benefit of the participants themselves (Bowell and Heap, 2001: 7). In a process drama, students play a range of roles and engage in a variety of reflective out-of-role activities, requiring them to think beyond their own points of view and consider the topic from multiple perspectives. They emerge with an expanded self-awareness, and a greater sense of the challenges and the possibilities facing the society in which they live. Process drama also carries the potential for rigorous, standards-based learning to occur. Students not only explore the dynamics, relationships, and conflicts that shape a given situation, but also to acquire factual knowledge related to the topic of the drama. 2.1.2.2 Effect of Drama in ELT This section focuses on the benefits of drama in ELT, in terms of affective filter, motivation, meaning in context, learning styles and multiple intelligences, and psychological benefits. 2.1.2.2.1 Affective filter 14 Krashen’s theory of second language acquisition has been very influential in the field of second language learning. His theory consists of five hypotheses: (1) the acquisition-learning hypothesis, (2) the natural order hypothesis, (3) the monitor hypothesis, (4) the input hypothesis, and (5) the affective filter hypothesis (Krashen & Terrell, 1983), which teachers should take into account when teaching a foreign language. The hypothesis that could encourage teachers most to use drama in their classes is the hypothesis of Affective filter that embodies Krashen (1988)'s view that a number of ‘affective variables’ play a facilitative role in second language acquisition. These variables include: motivation, self-confidence and anxiety. Krashen (1988) claims that learners with high motivation, self-confidence, a good self-image, and a low level of anxiety are better equipped for success in second language acquisition. Low motivation, low self-esteem, and debilitating anxiety can combine to ‘raise’ the affective filter and form a ‘mental block’ that prevents comprehensible input from being used for acquisition (Krashen, 1988). Drama helps students to overcome resistance to the foreign language and the fear of making mistakes. It creates a natural need for speaking because it does not concentrate on language itself, but on creating drama. Focusing on the creative process more than on final linguistic output enables students to learn almost unconsciously. As Maley and Duff (1982) opine “every student needs periods in which he or she has a chance to practice what he or she knows without restraint, without fear of being wrong. Students need the occasional chance to take risks in the language, to try out new ways of combining words, and of course, to find out where the gaps are in their knowledge”(Maley and Duff, 1982, p. 14). To provide learners with such opportunities for free practice, teachers using drama in their classes should create a safe and comfortable atmosphere where 15 students would not be afraid of speaking in the target language. “This kind of stress-free, fun teaching encourages pupils to participate without embarrassment” (Hamilton and McLeod, 1993, p. 4) and it helps them to overcome the psychological barrier from speaking in a foreign language. Maley and Duff (1982) give a list of categories of language that learners use naturally and without further thinking during drama activities: “Transactional language - the language needed for getting things done in a groupsituation. Discussion language - used to come to agreement about something, to describe, comment on, or recall the activity in questions. Performance language - it is the end product of some of the activities, but it is inmany senses the least important precisely because it involves the most preparation. Clearly, almost any language function can come into play here, depending on the nature of the activity.” (Maley and Duff, 1982, p. 17) 2.1.2.2.2 Motivation Good motivation is one of the factors necessary for efficient learning. Harmer (2001) defines motivation as “some kind of internal drive which pushes someone to do things in order to achieve something” (p. 51). Drama gives students the chance to learn by doing “where students are involved in experimentation in order to arrive at knowledge” (Harmer, 2007, p.20), which is much more engaging than just learning by rote. When concerning the student’s motivation, it is often referred to two types: extrinsic, which “may be influenced by a number of external factors such as attitude of society, family and peers to the subject in question (...), and intrinsic motivation that is generated by what happens inside the classroom; 16 this could be teacher’s methods or activities that students take part in” (Harmer, 2007, p. 20). Harmer also proposes that if we “involve the students or excite their curiosity and provoke participation, we will help them to stay interested in the subject” (Harmer, 2007, p. 20). The use of drama undoubtedly represents one of the methods of work used by teachers to provoke intrinsic motivation. Not only does it help to build a good teacher student relationship, but it also actively engages all the students and all the time, so “in a sense, motivation is not needed when working through drama, because the enjoyment comes from imaginative personal involvement” (Maley and Duff, 1982, p.13). As Maley and Duff further (1982) explain “drama activities also help to get rid of the diffidence and boredom that come from being forced to stay passive most of the time” (p. 13). 2.1.2.2.3 Meaning in context Appropriate understanding of the context of the discourse is one of the mostimportant elements for understanding the meaning. As Harmer (2007) claims “meaning of language depends on where it occurs within a larger stretch of discourse, and thus the relationship that the different language elements have with what comes before and after them. In other words, speakers and writers have to be able to operate with more than just words and grammar; they have to be able to string utterances together” (p. 59). Drama represents an ideal method of work if teachers want to put the meaning for students into a sizeable context. Unlike in guided practice, students are involved in real communication while they “activate language to communicate real meaning, rather than just practicing language” (Harmer, 2007, p. 270) and thus develop their communicative competence in a natural way, using body language, making pauses and interruptions, showing emotions, and creating 17 relationships. Phillips encourages using drama in second language teaching because “it encourages children to speak and gives them the chance to communicate, even with limited language, using non-verbal communication, such as body movements and facial expressions.” (Phillips, 1999, p.6) Moreover, making students focused on the process of the creation of the drama rather than the final language product provides them with natural and purposeful need for speaking, which describe Maley and Duff (1982) by stating that “the problem of not wanting to speak or, more often, not knowing what to say is practically resolved because the activity makes it necessary to talk”. (p.13-14) According to these educators “drama techniques have the singular merit of directly engaging students’ feelings and, as a result, often making them aware of the need to be able to express them appropriately”. (Maley and Duff, 1982, p.11) 2.1.2.2.4 Learning styles and multiple intelligences Harmer (2007) stems from the theories of the Neuro-Linguistic Programming and Multiple Intelligences and warns that “in any one classroom we have a number of different individuals with different learning styles and preferences, which means that we have to offer a wide range of different activity types in our lessons in order to cater for individual differences and needs” (p. 16). Such classroom forms a perfect environment for using drama work which includes all kinds of stimuli and can develop all types of human intelligences. The theory of the Neuro-Linguistic Programming introduces to the educational theories different stimuli that students prefer while learning and that predetermine their learning style. According to this concept, the learners can be divided between visual learners, responding the best to the visual stimuli such as pictures, written texts and diagrams; auditory learners, benefiting most 18 from the auditory input such as traditional lecturing or music; and kinaesthetic learners who are the most successful when they are aged with the learning activity. They acquire information fastest when participating in a science lab, drama presentation, skit, field trip, dance, or other active activity. Because of the high numbers of kinaesthetic learners, education is shifting toward a more hands-on approach; manipulatives and other ‘props’ should be incorporated into almost every school subject, from physical education to language arts (Butterfield, 1989). Another concept of students’ individualities in learning that teachers should take into consideration is the theory of multiple intelligences, first introduced in 1980’s by an acknowledged American psychologist Howard Gardner. His theory claims that each individual disposes of different types of intelligences defined as “abilities to solve problems that are of consequence in a particular cultural setting or community. The problem-solving skill allows one to approach a situation in which a goal is to be obtained and to locate the appropriate route to that goal” (Gardner, 1993, p.15).An individual can demonstrate an extraordinary facility in one of the seven described intelligences: musical, bodily-kinaesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal and intrapersonal; but each individual has usually developed several of them. An educator’s task is to create a variety of learning activities that would help particular students to develop their intelligences. Considering the fact that drama includes all kinds of stimuli, visual, auditory, and kinaesthetic, and encourages students to develop all the intelligences through active exploration of reality and problem-solving, its use in education can be regarded as extremely beneficial. 2.1.2.2.5 Psychological benefits 19 Wessels (1987) provides the best definition of what drama in education is and how it benefits students’ learning and personality development. “If a learner of English asked you ‘What is a blind person?’, you might simply reply, ‘A blind person cannot see’, and this would probably satisfy him intellectually. But if you replied, ‘Shut your eyes and try to find your pen on the desk in front of you’, you would be involving him in the actual experience of being blind, and would thus satisfy him not only intellectually, but emotionally as well, and possibly inspire in him feelings of empathy with all blind people. He would be more likely to remember the meaning of the word as a result of this moment of direct experience” (Wessels, 1987, p. 7). As drama gives the direct experience of human reality, students are first getting to know themselves and then also the others. They naturally develop empathy, by creating and taking over different social roles and asking questions like ‘What is he or she thinking?’ ‘What does he or she feel?’ ‘How would I feel being in their shoes?’, etc. Hamilton and McLeod (2001) describe drama as a process of social learning: “Involving relations with others, it promotes social and adaptive skills which in their turn feed in to the process of learning a foreign language. (...) Learners are encouraged to explore themselves and their reactions in relation to the outside world in a way which can be both strengthening and enriching” (p. 5). 2.2 Anxiety and Language 2.2.1Definition and types of Anxiety In order to understand the specific type of anxiety that learners experience in a foreign language classroom, it is important to first consider anxiety in general terms. 20 As a psychological construct, anxiety is described as “a state of apprehension, a vague fear that is only indirectly associated with an object” (Scovel, 1991, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 3). Speiberger (1976, cited in Wang, 2005, p. 13) distinguished anxiety from fear by pointing out that although anxiety and fear are both “unpleasant emotional reactions to the stimulus conditions perceived as threatening,” fear is usually derived from a “real, objective danger in the external environment” while the threatening stimulus of anxiety may not be known. Spielberger (1983, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41) defined anxiety as the “subjective feeling of tension, apprehension, nervousness, and worry associated with an arousal of the autonomic nervous system.” More specifically, Morris, David, & Hutchings (1981, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41) claimed that general anxiety consists of two components: “worry and emotionality.” Worry or “cognitive anxiety” refers to “negative expectations and cognitive concerns about oneself, the situation at hand, and possible consequences,” and emotionality or “somatic anxiety” concerns “one’s perceptions of the physiological-affective elements of the anxiety experience, which are indications of autonomic arousal and unpleasant feeling states, such as nervousness, upset stomach, pounding heart, sweating, and tension” (Morris, David, & Hutchings, 1981, cited in Wilson, 2006, p. 41, & cited in Cubucku, 2007, p. 134). 2.2.1.1 Trait, State and Situation-Specific Anxiety MacIntyre and Gardner (1991, p. 87-92) identified three approachesto the study of anxiety, which are: trait anxiety, state anxiety, and situation-specific anxiety. Trait anxiety is “an individual’s likelihood of becoming anxious in any situation” (Spielberger, 1983, cited in MacIntyre& Gardner, 1991, p. 87). As 21 trait anxiety is a relatively stable personality characteristic, a person who is trait anxious would probably become anxious in many different kinds of situations, “more frequently or more intensely than most people do” (Woodrow, 2006, p. 309). This approach to anxiety research has been criticized in that the interpretation of trait anxiety would be meaningless without being considered "in interaction with situations" because a particular situation may be perceived as anxiety-provoking by some but not by others although those people may have similar trait anxiety scores (MacIntyre& Gardner, 1991, p. 88). State anxiety, in contrast to the stable nature of trait anxiety, is momentary and thus not an enduring characteristic of an individual’s personality. It is the apprehension that is experienced at a particular moment in time (MacIntyre& Gardner, 1991, p. 90). In other words, it is a transient anxiety, an unpleasant emotional temporary state, a response to a particular anxiety-provoking stimulus such as an important test (Spielberger, 1983, cited in Wang, 2005, p.13, and cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 4). The higher the level of trait anxiety an individual possess, the higher the level of state anxiety he or she may experience in stressful situations (MacIntyre& Gardner, 1991, p. 90). The state-anxiety approach to anxiety research has been criticized for asking the question “Are you nervous now?” instead of “Did this situation make you nervous?;” in other words, it does not the subjects to ascribe their anxiety experience to any particular source (MacIntyre& Gardner, 1991, p. 90). Situation-specific anxiety reflects a trait anxiety that recurs consistently over time within a given situation (MacIntyre& Gardner, 1991, p. 87; Spielberger, Anton and Bedell, 1976, cited in Woodrow, 2006, p. 309). Zheng (2008, p. 2) proposed that the three categories of anxiety can be identified on a continuum from stability to transience, with trait anxiety related to a generally stable predisposition to be anxious across situations on one end, state anxiety related 22 to a temporary unpleasant emotional state on the other, and situational-specific anxiety related to the probability of becoming anxious in particular situations in the middle of the continuum. According to MacIntyre and Gardner (1991, p. 90), situation-specific anxiety can be considered as trait anxiety, which is limited to a specific context. This perspective examines anxiety reactions in a “well-defined situation” such as public speaking, during tests, when solving mathematics problems, or in a foreign language class (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991, p. 90). 2.2.1.2 Facilitating Anxiety and Debilitating Anxiety Facilitating anxiety improves learning and performance, while debilitating anxiety is associated with poor learning and performance. According to Scovel (1978, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 10), anxiety, in its debilitating and facilitating forms, serves “simultaneously to motivate and to warn” the learner. Facilitating anxiety occurs when the difficulty level of the task triggers the proper amount of anxiety (Scovel, 1978, cited in Zheng, 2008, p. 2). In such case, facilitating anxiety “motivates the learner to ‘fight’ the new learning task; it gears the learner emotionally for approach behavior” (Scovel, 1991, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 11). However, although a certain level of anxiety may be beneficial, too much anxiety can become debilitating: it motivates the learner to “flee” the new learning task; and stimulates the individual emotionally to adopt avoidance behavior which may lead to avoidance of work and inefficient work performance (Scovel, 1978, cited in Zheng, 2008, p. 2; Scovel, 1991, cited in Tanveer, 2007, p. 11). Such phenomenon can be best described by the Yerkes-Dodson Law, which suggests a curvilinear association between arousal and performance (Wilson, 23 2006, p. 45). When represented graphically on an inverted U-shaped curve, the Yerkes-Dodson Law shows that too little arousal produces minimum performance; moderate arousal enhances performance and reaches a peak at the top of the curve; after that, too much arousal will again hinder performance (MacIntyre, 1995, p. 92). Figure 2.2 Inverted U relation between anxiety and performance (Source: MacIntyre, 1995, p. 92) 2.2.1.3 Foreign Language Anxiety According to Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986), foreign language anxiety belongs to situation-specific anxiety. In the following, I will review the literature on foreign language anxiety concerning the concept of foreign language anxiety, the construct of foreign language anxiety, and the effects of 24 foreign language anxiety. The role of anxiety in language learning was not put much emphasis because previous studies usually generated contradictory results and were hard to interpret (Chastain, 1975; Scovel, 1978). Gardner and MacIntyre (1993a) believe that using general measures of anxiety is the reason to generate contradictory results. Based on the situation-specific perspective, recent studies have focused on anxiety which is specific to language situations. After examining the concept of language anxiety empirically, researchers find language anxiety is distinct from any other type of anxiety and is not merely a composite of other anxieties (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991b). In order to identify and measure foreign language anxiety, Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) developed the Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS), in which 33 question items ask respondents to respond to situations specific to foreign language learning anxiety and reflect the three components of foreign language anxiety: communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation (Ganschow& Sparks, 1996). For example, they ask questions about students’ anxiety in situations like speaking in front of the language class, taking exams in language course, and perceiving other students’ evaluation of them. Due to the scale’s success on construct validation and reliability, FLCAS has been widely adopted by many researchers to explore learners’ foreign language anxiety (Aida, 1994; Chang, 1999; Ganschow et al., 1994; Ganschow& Sparks, 1996; Liao, 1999). Horwitz, Horwitz, and Cope (1986) describe three components of foreign language anxiety: communication apprehension, test anxiety, and fear of negative evaluation. According to McCroskey’s (1978) definition, communication apprehension is an individual’s level of fear or anxiety 25 associated with either real or anticipated communication with other persons. Horwitz , Horwitz, and Cope (1986) submit the construct of communication apprehension to their conceptualization of foreign language anxiety. They think interpersonal interactions are the major emphasis in the English class. In a foreign language classroom, language learners’ oral tasks include not only learning a second language but also performing the language. Therefore, communication apprehension in a foreign language context is different from that in other context. Oral communication consists of two components: listening and speaking. Speaking is anxiety-provoking in foreign language activities (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991c). Daly (1991) and Young (1986) find that most students are particularly anxious when they have to speak a foreign language in front of their class. As to listening, it is a problem for language learners, too. Foreign language learners usually have difficulty understanding others. Because of the lack of control of oral communication, communication apprehension emerges (MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991d). Test anxiety is defined by Sarason (1984) as “the tendency to view with alarm the consequences of inadequate performance in an evaluative situation.” Test anxiety occurs when students have poor performance in the previous tests. Students develop a negative stereotype about tests and have irrational perceptions in evaluative situations. These students might have unpleasant test experience from either language class or other subjects, and they transplanted the unhappy image to the present English class unconsciously (Chan & Wu, 2000). Test-anxious students may have false beliefs in language learning. These students habitually put impractical demands on themselves and feel that anything less than a perfect test performance is a failure (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986). Young (1991) claims test anxiety would affect foreign language learners with low levels of oral proficiency more than those with high levels of 26 proficiency. On the other hand, learners experience more language anxiety in highly evaluative situations. Researchers find that test anxiety could be significantly higher under an official and unfamiliar condition (Daly, 1991; Young, 1991). Moreover, an oral test is more complicated because it provokes both test anxiety and oral communication apprehension. The fact reveals that the constructs of foreign language anxiety overlap and are difficult to distinguish. Unfortunately, constant evaluations by the instructor in the foreign language classrooms are rather commonplace, and “even the brightest and most prepared students often make errors” (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986), so test-anxious learners will doubtlessly suffer stress and anxiety frequently. As mentioned above, test anxiety is a type of performance anxiety deriving from a fear of failure and evaluative situations. Although it overlaps with other constructs of foreign language anxiety, test anxiety is relevant to academic context where performance evaluation is frequent. Fear of negative evaluation is defined as ‘apprehension about others’ evaluations, distress over their negative evaluations, and the expectation that others would evaluate oneself negatively” (Watson, & Friend, 1969). Although it is similar to test anxiety, fear of negative evaluation is broader in scope because it is not restricted to test-taking situations. In addition to situations of tests, it may take place in any social, evaluative situation such as interviewing for a job or speaking in foreign language class. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991d) propose that fear of negative evaluation is closely related to communication apprehension. When students are unsure of what they are saying, fear of negative evaluation occurs and they may doubt about their ability to make a proper impression. In a foreign language context, negative evaluation derives mainly from both teachers and their peers because foreign languages require continual evaluation by the teacher and anxious students 27 may also be intensely susceptible to the evaluations of their peers. Students with fear of negative evaluation might adopt the action of avoidance. In Aida’s (1994) opinion, students with fear of negative evaluation might “sit passively in the classroom, withdrawing from classroom activities that could otherwise enhance their improvement of the language skills. In extreme cases, students may think of cutting class to avoid anxiety situations, causing them to be left behind.” These components are considered to have a deleterious effect on second language acquisition. Besides, they overlap and are closely related to each other (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986). Over the past few years, foreign language educators have found that anxiety plays a role in success or failure in the foreign language classroom (Ganschow, et al., 1994). In addition, a lot of researchers indicate that high level of anxiety can interfere with foreign language learning (Horwitz, Horwitz, & Cope, 1986; MacIntyre & Gardner, 1991c; Madsen, et al., 1991). Actually, anxiety can be either facilitating or debilitating. Facilitating anxiety motivates the learner to adopt an approach attitude and is willing to confront the new learning task. On the other hand, debilitating anxiety motivates the learner to assume an avoidance attitude and therefore tends to escape from the new learning task (Scovel, 1978). The factor of task difficulty affects the learner to develop a facilitating or a debilitating anxiety. MacIntyre (1995) suggests only when "a given task is relatively simple," foreign language anxiety could be facilitating. In such a situation, anxiety may improve performance through increased effort. But once the task is too difficult, anxiety will impair performance. Therefore, anxiety could either benefit or impair the language learning and performance, and the determinant is task difficulty. The above-mentioned approach and avoidance behavior caused by anxiety can be further confirmed by the theory of language class risk-taking and language 28 class discomfort. Ely (1986) defines language class risk-taking as “an individual’s tendency to assume risks in using the L2 in the second language class.” The learners’ willingness or policy of approach to undertake actions that involve a significant of risk is an important characteristic of successful foreign language learning. Because successful learners have to be willing to try out the new language and take the risk of being wrong. Conversely, language class discomfort is the personality construct that is contrary to language class risk-taking. Adopting the policy of avoidance, a language learner with discomfort is unwilling to participate in activities or volunteer answers. Consequently, he performs poorly in the language classroom settings. Although anxiety could be facilitating or debilitating, it in most cases “negatively affects performance in the second language” (MacIntyre & Gardener, 1991b). In the following, the impact of language anxiety on foreign language achievement will be reviewed. 2.2.2Impacts of Foreign Language Anxiety Impacts of foreign language anxiety have been found both on foreign language learning and speaking performance. 2.2.2.1 Impacts of foreign language anxiety on learning In second language acquisition, impacts of languageanxiety play a vital role in foreign language learning performance. According to Oxford (1999), language anxiety stands high among the factors having influences overlanguage learning no matter that what learning setting is. As such, research studies into foreign language classroom anxiety discovered negative correlations between language anxiety and foreign language learning performance. In Krashen’s Monitor Model, a key role is given toemotional variables that 29 affect the language acquisition process. One of it is thesignificant hypotheses in this model is “Affective Filter Hypothesis.” This hypothesis describes that only the affective optimal conditions yield language acquisition. Theaffective conditions stated here are motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety. In termsof anxiety, it is said that optimal conditions are found when anxiety is very low. As Krashen (1982) states, only a student whose anxiety is low is able to seek out a newinput and process it in the target language. Tobias (1986) divides language learning into three stages: input; processing; and output (see Figure 2.1) and claims that these stages can help study theroots of anxiety’s effects. The input stage is associated with the learners’ firstexperience with a given stimulus at a given time and is said to be the initialrepresentations of the items in memory. In this sense, internal representations aremade, and then attention, concentration and encoding occur when encounteringexternal stimuli. The processing stage relates to the performance of cognitiveoperations on the subject matters, including organization, storage, and assimilation ofthe material. So, this stage is concerned with unseen, internal manipulations of itemsfrom the input stage. For the output stage, it involves the production of material previously learned. Hence, the production (performance) of this stage highly depends on previous stages when there is a correspondence involving the organization of the output and the speed to retrieve the items from the memory. In this sense, this stage relates to language learners demonstrating their ability in using a second language. With regard to the impact of anxiety on language learning, MacIntyre (1999) states that the cognitive effects of anxiety on learning performance can be perceived in the stages of input, processing and output. Anxiety at the input stage is similar to the role of the filter, hindering the information from entering 30 into the system of cognitive processing. In the processing stage, the effect of anxiety is to distract students’ attention, having an impact on both the speed and accuracy of learning, and at the output stage, anxiety impairs speaking and writing abilities in the second language learning. Figure 2.3 Model of the effects of anxiety on learning from instruction (Source: MacIntyre, 1999 p. 35) In sum, language anxiety has tremendous impacts on foreign language learning performance in all three learning stages: input, processing, and output. With the effects of foreign language anxiety on foreign language learning in each stage, research indicates that negative relationships between foreign language classroom anxiety and foreign language learning performance can be assumed. Thus, language anxiety brings about inefficient foreign language learning performance. 2.2.2.2 Impacts of Foreign Language anxiety on Speaking Performance 31 With a concern for oral competence of EFL students, many investigations turn to study anxiety in relation to its debilitating impact on EFL learners’ speaking skill. Thus, research studies into the relationships between language anxiety and foreign language speaking performance have been investigated. Horwitz et al. (1986) demonstrated that high levels of anxiety led to low speaking performance. That is, with a fear of negative evaluation, students developed communication apprehension, resulting in a fear to speak in a foreign language, a feeling of nervousness, confusion, and even panic. MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) asserted that because of foreign language anxiety, students turned into negative self-talk, leading them to poor speaking performance and, in turn, affected their abilities to process information in foreign language contexts. Phillips (1992) studied the effects of foreign language anxiety on students’ oral performance and attitudes and revealed that students with higher language anxiety tended to say less, produce shorter communication units, and use fewer dependent clauses and target language than low anxiety students in an oral exam. McIntyre and Charos (1995) discovered social effects of anxiety on speaking performance. They found that students’ willingness to communicate could be reduced if students were provided with an opportunity to communicate in a natural setting where their speaking fluency could be decreased. However, successful students were willing to talk in order to learn. Also, MacIntyre (1998) indicated that learners with higher language anxiety tended to avoid interpersonal communication more often than less anxious learners and that anxiety provoking could impair the quality of communication output. To clarify, the information retrieval process might get stuck by the “freezing up” moments when getting anxious. 32 Wilson (2006) examined the relationships of overall proficiency of English oral performance, variables in an association with overall proficiency, oral test performance, and foreign language anxiety of a group of tertiary students. The study revealed that there was a statistically significant and negative relationship between language anxiety and oral test grades using two oral performance criteria. Highly anxious group of students tended to perform oral test grades significantly more poorly than those with moderate and low anxiety. Obviously, high anxiety led to overall poor English proficiency. Woodrow (2006) studied the debilitating impacts of second language anxiety on oral performance of advanced English for academic purposes (EAP) students studying on intensive EAP courses prior to entering Australian universities. The study found that a second language anxiety was considered a significant predictor of oral achievement and anxious language learners can experience difficulties in retrieval interference and skills deficit. In brief, based on the above aforementioned literature review on the pervasive impacts of foreign language anxiety, specifically on speaking performance it was found that speaking in the target language seemed to be among the most threatening experience of foreign language learners, resulting in their poor speaking performance. 2.2.2.3 Possible Factors Contributing To Learners’ Anxiety Scholars and research studies into foreign language classroom anxiety have proposed sources of foreign language anxiety in the following different aspects. The primary sources of language anxiety, explicated by Horwitz et al. (1986), are communication apprehension (e.g., difficulty in understanding the 33 teacher’s instruction) negative evaluation (e.g., fear of correction and fear of making mistakes) and a general feeling of anxiety (e.g., fear of failing the class) (Horwtiz et al., 1986; Pappamihiel, 2002; Casado and Dereshiwsky, 2004). Young (1991) identifies six potential sources of foreign language classroom anxiety based on the following three factors: the learner, the teacher, and the instructional practice. He postulates that language anxiety is caused by (a) personal and interpersonal anxiety; (b) learners‟ beliefs about language learning; (c) instructors‟ beliefs about language teaching; (d) instructorlearner interactions; (e) classroom procedures; and (f) language testing. These sources of language anxiety are interrelated. Price (1991) states that language students are found most anxious when they were asked to speak in front of their friends and this is attributed to a fear of being laughed at, making fools of themselves, and being embarrassed. Koch and Terrell (1991) account that among the 23 activities judged to trigger anxiety, oral class presentation is found to be the activity that triggers the most anxiety for the first two years of NA Spanish classes at the University of California, Irvine. Von Wörde (2003) reveals that an inability to comprehend what is being taught is a cause of a considerable anxiety. That is to say, anxiety might be provoked by an inability to listen to a teacher speaking too fast and insisting using English at all times in the class. Students, therefore, cannot keep up during class and they then carry this difficulty over into the homework assignments. These factors, consequently, make students become tense because they cannot clearly perceive what has been taught. In sum, most of the various sources of foreign language classroom anxiety 34 seem related to affective issues. These sources could be students‟ personality factors, learning and teaching styles, interaction between a teacher and learners, a classroom management and teaching methodology. To investigate causes of foreign language classroom anxiety, these affective factors should be taken into consideration. 2.3 Research into the Effects of Drama on Anxiety Research investigating whether drama-based curricula positively affect learner anxietyis relatively recent. Kao (1994) pioneered the investigation of the effect of process-oriented drama on anxiety in L2 oral skills. Her research investigated 23 Taiwanese university students who were learning English. Qualitative analyses of the teacher's perceptions gathered from video, audio, and written class records suggest a positive impact on the learning experience: drama provided learners with more opportunities to speak the L2, resulting in learners applying communicative strategies; interaction between teacher and students, as well as between students increased; learners gained more confidence in speaking English because the drama-based activities encouraged them to convey their thoughts in an natural way. The learners who felt “afraid” of speaking in the target language prior to the commencement of the course became more confident after participating in the drama program. However, other learners with very low self-esteem and lower language proficiency seemed to have benefited less from the course. Another example of how drama can affect anxiety has been provided by Coleman (2005) in her research with adolescent Korean English learners. On the last day of classes, two types of data collection were presented to learners: a ten-item questionnaire on a six point Likert scale (1 = not at all to 6 = 35 completely); and an interview with ten questions about learners’ perceptions of the drama-based curriculum on a three-point Likert scale (from1 = not helpful to 3 = very helpful). Results from both questionnaires suggest that participants ranked the statement “feel more relaxed speaking English” the highest (M = 5.07). In addition, results from the interview revealed that learners ranked the statement “manages anxiety and apprehension” the lowest (M = 2.12). However, Coleman (2005) concedes that factors other than the drama instruction might have influenced results. For example, it could be that learners' age affected the results. More recently, Piazzoli (2011) examined the impact of process-oriented drama on L2 learners' anxiety levels. Six process-oriented drama workshops were designed and delivered to twelve advanced learners of Italian enrolled in a third-year course at a university in Brisbane, Australia. The workshops included a reflection on Italian socio-cultural issues through discussion, improvisations, and the presentation of formulaic language structures. At the end of each workshop, a forum was provided for learners to reflect on intercultural issues. Qualitative data were gathered through video-recording of the workshops, the researchers' reflective journal, transcriptions of the forums, semi-structured interviews, three concept mapping diagrams, and group sessions using videostimulated recall, in which learners watched segments from each process drama and were asked to comment. Results of the data analysis suggest that learners who experienced language anxiety benefited from the process drama workshops. Through the role they played, the learners gained more confidence in speaking the L2. In addition, the transcriptions from the group forums and interviews suggest that the learners did not feel “worried”, “scared”, or “threatened”, and were not “judged” while speaking the L2 during the process 36 drama workshops. The author suggests that process drama lowers language anxiety for learners who are often reluctant to speak the L2, and builds selfconfidence. 2.4 Summary This chapter outlines the theoretical framework of this study. The first, theoretical part concerns the concept of Drama in Education and examines the impact in English language teaching. Evidence has demonstrated that drama helps to facilitate real communication and language skill development. It is also found that drama motivates students to participate in classroom activities and boosts self-confidence. The next part deals with literature of foreign language anxiety in terms of concept, construct, effects, and impact on foreign language learning. It is obvious that foreign language anxiety affects foreign language learning. Although the majority of scholars tend to support the use of dramaactivities to lower anxiety about speaking a second language, it seems thatstudies on anxiety about speaking in the context of Korea are few. Sources ofanxiety about speaking English may be different in adrama-oriented second language classroom since students tend to have more chancesto perform in the class. The next chapter will state the research questions and outlinethe research design of this study. 37 Chapter 3. Research Methodology 3.1 Overview This study reports part of an investigation of the effect of drama on students’ reticence and anxietyinspeaking in English.This section outlines the research design of this study.It will first state theresearch questions and describe the participants involved in this study. Next, it will discuss the four instruments used to help in answering the two research questions, and the procedures associated with administering the data collection in detail. Finally, analysis of the data collected, describing what methods were used and how they answered the two research questions will be presented. 3.2 Research questions In the light of the research discussed in chapter 2, this study attempted to answer the following research questions: 1) How do the drama activities affect students’anxiety level in speaking in English? 2) What are the factors that affect students' anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities? 38 3.3 Participants The participants in this study were 27 female undergraduate students enrolled in the drama class at a university located in Seoul, Korea, from March 5 through June 20, 2014. Twenty-six of these participants identified as native Korean speakers and one identified as a native Chinese speaker. They attended three hours a week for a 16 -week semester. A total of 27 students, twenty students (70%) were Englishmajors (Teaching English as a second Language (TESL) and English Language and Literature) and seven students (30%) were non-English majors(Education, Economics, Multimedia Science, Business Management, Physical Education, and Child Welfare), participated in the study (See Figure 3.1).A first-year student(4%, n=1), sophomores (30%, n=8), juniors(26%, n=7), and seniors(41%, n=11) participated in the current study(See Table 3.1).Their proficiency level ranged from mid-intermediated to high-advanced. The participants ranged in agefrom 19 to 25, whose mean age was 22 years. The general information about these participants is summarized in Table 3.2. The participants varied substantially with regard to their prior exposure to English. In terms of the period of English study, themajority of the participants (63%, n=17) hadhad the experience of studying or living abroad (see Table 3.3). More than half participants (59%, n=9)had studied abroad for one month or one year, including 7 participants (21.4%) who had lived abroad for two years or more(see Table 3.3). Figure 3.1 Description of Participants' Majors 39 Note: (Number of students) Table 3.1 Participants’ school year School year Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior Total Number of student 1 8 7 11 27 % 4 30 26 41 100 Table 3.2 General information about participants Total participants Age range Average age Starting age to learn English 27 19-25 22 3-11 Table 3.3 Experience of studying or living aboard Answer Yes No Total Number of student 17 10 27 % 63 37 100 How long Number of student %* 1-5monthes 3 18 1year 7 41 40 Starting age to learn spoken English 4-20 2-4years 3 18 5-9years Total 4 17 23 100 *Parentages are rounded to the nearest whole number. 3.4 Instruments To investigate the effect of drama on students’ anxiety ofspeaking English, a triangulation of methods wereused: survey, observations, reflective journals and interviews, as detailed below. 3.4.1 Survey In this study the Public Speaking Class Anxiety Scale (PSCAS) was used to the students to measure their anxiety levels about speaking in a drama classroom. The PSCAS was developed from that in Yaikhong and Usaha’s (2012) study which was adapted from previous scales: Foreign Language Classroom Anxiety Scale (FLCAS) by Horwitz et al. (1986); Personal Report of Communication Apprehension (PRCA-24) and Personal Report of Public Speaking Anxiety (PRPSA-34) by McCroskey (1970); and Speaker Anxiety Scale (SA) by Clevenger and Halvorson (1992) based on their critical appraisals. 25 items were directly adopted to reflect the situation in the drama classroom where students are supposed to speak in English in front of a group of individuals (See the Appendix A, 1-25). As theorized by Yaikhong and Usaha (2012), the PSCAS intended to measure four dimensions of public speaking class anxiety: communication apprehension, test anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, and comfort in using English. The scale was checked in terms of reliability and construct validity in which a factor analysis of the PSCAS was performed. 41 Table 3.4 Four Dimensions of the PSCAS Dimension Communication Apprehension Test Anxiety Fear of Negative Evaluation Comfort in using English Total items (25) 7 4 9 5 Items no. 3, 4, 6, 7, 19, 20, 22 1, 9, 16, 23 2, 8, 11, 13, 17,18, 21, 24, 25 5, 10, 12, 14, 15 The scale items about four dimensions of the PSCAS are grouped in Table 3.4 (See the Appendix A for detailed PSCAS of each item). The scale measures communication apprehension consisting of 7 items which indicated apprehension of speech communication, by answers such as “I start to panic when I have to speak English without a preparation in advance” and “I get nervous and confused when I am speaking English”; test anxiety having 4 items suggestive of fear of English tests such as “I never feel quite sure of myself while I am speaking English” and “The more speaking tests I have, the more confused I get.”; fear of negative evaluation comprising 9 items which were reflective of fear of being negatively evaluated, such as “I am afraid that other students will laugh at me while I am speaking English” and “I keep thinking that other students are better at speaking English than I.”; and comfort in using English including 5 items which expressed confidence in speaking English such as ,“I have no fear of speaking English” and “I face the prospect of speaking Englishwith confidence”. The PSCAS was designed on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from ‘Strongly Disagree’ to ‘Strongly Agree’ with values 1–5 and applied to the participants both before and after the drama activities respectively. 3.4.2 Reflective journals In order to gather additional data about personal anxiety provoking situations and affective factors on speaking English during the drama activities, the 42 participants were each required to write 9 reflective journals during the study. They had to write one journal entries per drama lesson and worked on writing entries at home freely, which were submitted to the researcher. Journals have been used to investigate anxiety in various studies as a data collection method (e.g. Bailey, 1995; Halbach, 2000; Hilleson, 1996; Parkinson et al., 2003). According to Nunan (1992), journals may provide ‘insights in psychological aspects of language development’ (p.121). Keeping journals could benefit students as they would reflect more on their second language learning. It is also a useful tool to look at what students experience in the drama class. The participants’ were also provided with guided questions which were mainly consisted of 3 sections (See the Appendix B). The first section was an overall lesson writing task that required the students to write what they learn from the drama lesson. In the second section, the students were encouraged to write their experiences or observations, and their reflections in the learning drama activity. They were also encouraged to connect their thoughts and feelings and experiences with the drama activity they were engaged in. In the last section, they could write about their anxiety experienced in the drama activity. They were told they could write as much as they wanted in English, but at least 2 pages. They got feedback from the researcher but they did not be correct the grammatical mistakes. 3.4.3 Interviews To get a more comprehensive insider view of anxiety in the drama classroom, 1 high-anxious, 1 moderate-anxious, and 2 low-anxious students from the post survey result of the PSCAS were invited for a semi-structured interview. The researcher modified the questions and procedures according to the interviewees’ responses. There were nine questions for student interview (See 43 the Appendix C). These prepared questions were designed based on the research questions. Interview questions covered such aspects as personality, educational experience, personal experience, participation and level of anxiety in University English lessons, self-assessed oral English proficiency, and reasons for feeling anxious. These questions were not asked in a fixed order, and the actual wording was not determined in advance. Modification was made according the survey results and participants’ responses. Just as Patton (1990) suggested that participant’s response format should be open-ended, the interviewer did not supply and predetermine the phrases or categories that must be used by respondents to express themselves. The strategy of openended response helped capture the complexities of the respondents’ individual perceptions and experiences. In case the interviewees may have difficulty understanding the questions in English or do not like speaking English, all the interviews were carried out in Korean. 3.5 Procedure Table 3.5 Research schedule Procedures Date Methodology Pre-survey March 5th, 2014 Execute and submit the PSCAS Classroom observation March 5th, 2014~ June 20th, 2014 Observe the experiment group Reflective journals March 12th, 2014~ June 4th, 2014 Write and submit journals Post-survey June 13th, 2014 Execute and submit the PSCAS 44 Interviews July 3rd~14th , 2014 Conduct 4 interview sessions Evaluation March 5th, 2014~ August 8th, 2014 Collection of data and analysis complete 3.5.1 General procedure The study were conducted during one semester (16 weeks for undergraduate students, the last of which was for final exams) of the academic year 2014, from March, 5th to June, 20th (see Table 3. 5). The PSCAS was administered twice for pre- and post-survey until the day before the final exams. For the presurvey, students were asked to complete the questionnaire included a background questionnaire at home and then submitted them to the researcher on March 7th, 2014 in the first week. Also, students were complete the same survey for the post-survey on the last day of 15 weeks. The students started journal writing in the second week and made one entry per drama activity for nine weeks. In the last four months of the study, the researcher observed and videorecorded the students’ participation and level of anxiety in the various drama activities on a weekly basis from March 5th, 2014 to June 20th, 2014, from the first week on till the last week (16 weeks in all), two classes a week. Each class lasted for 50 and 100 min each time. Each time before video-recording, the students were required to check their attendances so that the researcher could be sure of the seating in the classroom. In case the students might feel nervous when video-recorded for the first time, only one video-recording were used for analyses in the study. The semi-structured interviews were held on July 3rd, 2014 (after the finalterm exam was over) and conducted in Korean. At the beginning of the interviews, the researcher informed the students about the purpose of the study 45 and assured them that the information provided would be kept confidential. Nevertheless, the results would be shared with them. After some small talk, the researcher started the interviews by asking the students to talk about interview questions. Each student interview lasted for 45-50 min, which were audiorecorded. Four students were interviewed individually, and the study was ended. 3.5.2 The procedure of the drama class The drama class involved two lessons per a week. Each lesson lasted 50 and 100 min. In order to understand of drama in ELT and to apply this in Korean ELT effectively, theories underpinning drama activities, such as, multiculturalism, interactionism, pragmatism, and psycholinguistics were studied as well as variety kinds of activities and tasks. Drama activities were explored in terms of using there in a real context. One drama activity was taught in two or three lessons. Overall 9 drama activities were covered in the class (See Table3.6). Table 3.6 Schedule for the drama class Week Name of the drama activity Date/time 1 Scripted role-plays I March, 5th & 7th 2 Scripted role-plays II-Eco drama March, 12th & 14th 3 Mime March, 19th & 21st 4 Situational role-plays I-Still picture March, 28th 5 Situational role-plays I-Still picture April, 2nd & 4th 6 Situational role-plays II-An imaginary person in an April, 9th & 11th imaginary situation 7 Situational role-plays II-An imaginary person in an imaginary situation 46 April, 16th & 18th 8 Midterm presentation April, 25th 9 Simulation April, 30th & May 2nd 10 Connecting reading texts into drama activities I May, 7th & 9th 11 Connecting reading texts into drama activities II May, 16th 12 Three types of reading May, 21st & 23rd 13 Three types of reading May, 28th & 30th 14 National Holidays (No classes) 15 Process drama June, 11th & 13th 16 Final presentation June, 20th Students were provided with the basic information about drama to meet there needs for theoretical information about drama during the first two classes (three hours total). During these presentations, the students focused on things they should pay attention to during the drama activity, and the students were provided with answers to their questions regarding the activity. After the students were basically informed about drama, the weeks which the groups were expected to perform the plays were determined randomly. The researcher was asked to create the groups with which the students would perform their plays together. The groups were limited to 4-5 students and had been changed 3 times for 16 weeks. The drama groups made use of the creative writing technique while preparing their plays. The basic reason was not restrict the creative and free thinking of the students. After they wrote their scenarios, a copy of those scenarios was presented to the researcher at the end of the drama. While the drama groups stuck to the scenarios they wrote, they also made use of the improvisations depending on the flow of the play. When and which group will perform their plays were determined by drawing lots or the instructor among the group. After these, each group continued their work until it was their turn to perform. In this way, all the groups took part in the 47 drama activity. The conference hall of the school was used for the drama activity. The classroom contained movable chairs, which enabled enough room for physical activities. The conference hall, on the other hand, was equipped with an overhead projector and the stage was available for students’ performances. The researcher monitored the process of all which the plays were recorded. Every week a performance was done, and after each performance, all the groups provided the researcher with a reflective journal mentioning the experiences of the students in the drama activity. 3.6 Data analysis In sum, there were four types of data collected: (a) the students’ responses to the PSCAS items; (b) their self-reports in the reflective journals to, and (c) informants’ responses to the un-structured interview. The student data were collected and analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively to answer the research questions in this study. Quantitatively, to answer Research Questions (1) “How do the drama activities affect students’ anxiety level in speaking in English?”, the results of the survey were computed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS, version 20.0) in terms of percentage, mean, frequency, and standard deviation to determine the students’ anxiety levels. When computing these scores, the researcher reversed the values assigned to different alternatives from ‘Strongly Disagree’ (1) to ‘Strongly Agree’ (5) of some items. Namely, for items 5, 10, 12, 14, and 15 which expressed comfort in using English, the response ‘Strongly Disagree’ got a value of 5 instead of 1, the response ‘Strongly Agree’ got a value of 1 instead of 5, and so on. Thus, the total scores of the PSCAS revealed the respondent’s anxiety at the beginning and end of the semester. The higher the total scores are, the more anxious the student is. 48 According to Liu and Jackson’s (2008) suggestion (See Table 3.7), since there are 25 items on the PSCAS, each item having five alternatives with a value of 1–5 assigned to them respectively, a total score of more than 100 implies that the respondent is a high level anxiety. A total score of 75–100 signifies a moderate level of anxiety and a total score of less than 75 indicates a low level of anxiety. A paired samples t-test was conducted to test the significant differences in anxiety scores before and after the drama activities. Table 3.7 Liu and Jackson (2008) Anxiety Levels Score of a PSCAS (25) 100 - 125 75 - 100 75- 0 Anxiety Level High Anxiety Moderate Anxiety Low Anxiety Note: (Number of items) In addition, the PSCAS offers a four-dimensional conceptualization of anxiety, such as communication apprehension, test anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, and comfort in using English (Yaikhong and Usaha, 2012). By calculating the scores of the items related to each category, the distribution of the four dimensions of public speaking class anxiety were analyzed in figure to determine the types of anxiety levels from the students’ responses before and after the drama activities. Qualitatively, to answer Research Question (2) “What are the factors that affect students' anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities?”, verbatim transcripts were produced of reflective journals and interviews, and content analysis was done to identify the theme and categories of responses. Processing of the data from journals and interviews started with reviewing all the data and sorting into categories, and transcribing the interview audiotapes. 49 Individual entries with special units of information were sorted and placed into categories provided meaningful information related to students’ anxiety of speaking English. All the interview audiotapes were transcribed into word-byword transcripts in Korean. Only those events that were necessary for data analysis and related to the study would be transcribed. After making sure that all the data from the interview source were completely transcribed, it was further translated into English and transferred to approximately 420 entries with separate units of information. Based on the analyses, some calculations were carried out, for example, about how many students personally felt anxious in each drama activity, which is the reason why students’ anxiety experiences were reduced, and which factor affects students anxiety in speaking in English so on. 3.7 Summary This chapter outlined the research design of this study. It first stated the tworesearch questions of this study. It then gave an account of the research design. A questionnaire, observations, interviews and reflectivejournals from participants were the methods used to collect data. This chapter also described how the research instruments were developed. The results and discussion will be illustrated in the next chapter. 50 Chapter 4. Result This section presents the results from the data collected by survey, participants’ reflective journals, and interviews to answer the two research questions. 4.1 Results from the survey The results of pre and post survey public speaking class anxiety elevation indicate that the drama activity actually affected positively in leveling down anxiety of the students. Table 4.1 Results of the comparison of pre and post survey PSCA mean scores Pre survey Post survey N 27 27 Mean 71 64.7 Standard Dev. 15.6 15.16 Note: P<0.05: Result significant. 51 t 2.58 p .016 As illustrated by Table 4.2, there was a minor decrease (about a score of 7) in mean scores after the drama activities. Students’ PSCA level seemed to be alleviated from 71 in the pre survey to 64.7 in the post survey. Both results indicate that students were categorized as low anxiety based on Liu and Jackson’s (2008) suggestions. It was seen that there was a significant difference in favor of post survey between the pre and post survey PSCA mean scores of the students (t: 2.580; p (.016) < 0.05). Figure 4.1 Four dimensions of anxiety levels of pre and post survey PSCA Note: To determine mean values, the values of rating scores of all the items in the Comfort in using English aspect were reversed to obtain precise results because they were all positively worded items as discussed in Chapter III. 52 Moreover, analysis of each kind of anxiety of the PSCAS, as shown in figure 4.1, shows that there was a slight change for all kinds of anxiety as a whole after the drama activities. According to the interpretation of the results found in data analysis of the pre survey result of the PSCAS, it was found that the participants’ test anxiety level was the lowest in its mean score (2.72) amongst the other levels and followed by communication apprehension (2.76), comfort in using English (2.88), and fear of negative evaluation (2.93). However, the post survey result of PSCAS revealed that the scores decreased after the drama activities. Communication apprehension (0.30) was lower than the other types of anxiety, followed by fear of negative evaluation (0.29), Test anxiety (0.19), and comfort in using English (0.15) respectively. Obviously, the results confirmed that there were traces of public speaking class anxiety reduction after the drama activities. It could be stated that the drama activities had made some influence on the students’ anxiety of speaking in English. 4.2 Results from the reflective journals The results of the reflective journals indicate that students expressed that the drama activities alleviated their anxiety in speaking in English from time to time. Figure 4.2 Students’ self-reported anxiety in different drama activities reflected in journals 53 Note: Some students did not finish all the 9 journals and thus theirs were considered invalid for analysis. Each time in reflective journals subjects should choose between “Yes” or “No” to the question which asks whether they had felt the speaking anxiety during the lecture. As Figure 4.2 shows, a majority of students felt anxious/nervous or a little anxious/nervous when speaking in English at the very beginning of the drama activities. However, the students’ anxiety experiences reported at each journal entry were reduced from time to time after the use of the drama activities. Comparing with the average students’ anxiety experience percentage of 66.4%, interestingly, the students’ anxious experiences ranked three times higher than the average percentage before the midterm presentation and their anxious experiences ranked three times lower than the average percentage after the midterm presentation. Moreover, the students expressed positive feelings 54 towards the drama activities over times. It could be stated that students’ selfreported anxiety experiences reduction in reflective journals were also in line with their levels of anxiety reported on the survey, according to which, the drama activities affected positively in leveling down anxiety of the students. The students further claimed that the drama activities yielded positive effects on their anxiety reduction in speaking in English. Students stated that the drama activities helped reduce their anxiety with various reasons, in terms of frequent opportunities of speaking, motivation, self-confidence, interesting activities, and team spirit. These responses of the students are summarized in the following chart. Figure 4.3 Students’ responses, with percentage, regarding of the effects of drama for decreasing their anxiety 55 Note: 50 out of 241 journal entries were described positively. With a percentage of 46%, as reflected in Figure 4.3, one of the reasons for anxiety level reduction stated mostly in the reflective journal was frequent opportunities of public presentation and speaking practice. Students reported that drama allowed them to do many performances in public. The students commented that they were able to become aware of patterns and sequences in the drama that indicated familiar activities and could help them anticipate what happened next. Thus, they made improvement on oral presentation skills and gained confidence to speak English. As indicated in the following students’ journal excerpts: Actually, I become very used to those ‘presenting’ and ‘showing’ situations which the drama class includes most. Still I feel a bit anxious, but I am getting better to talk in front of the class, and I become more confident than the first week. (6th journal, Yunng). What I feel ‘accomplished’ is that I have overcome my anxiety a lot compared with week 1~2 when I was first presenting. Doing lots of presentations in the drama class, I think my anxiety coming out when speaking in front of other people started fading away (8th journal, Hyun). Also, some of students reported that the drama activity provided the opportunity to practice on speaking in English. They wrote that their speaking anxiety was reduced and they understood how a speech should be prepared. This made presentation easy before delivering. The following is an excerpt from one student journal: I enjoy the class. Speaking English is always challenged to me but I tried to say whatever without shameless. Through this activity, I learned the importance of context. Also, I should speak in English continually; that is, I could practice my oral ability before presentation. (…) I’m still poor at 56 speaking in English but my fear about it is a little bit reduced (6th journal, Jang). The second reason was that 18% of students noted that their speaking anxiety had reduced because drama enhanced their motivation. The students reported that the drama activities helped them know that they could learn new things and helped their motivation. They believed that it helped in learning and opening their mind. They also indicated that they enjoyed the drama activities and were motivated to participate in more, as indicated in the following student journal excerpt: Unlike before I felt that I become much better to control the nervousness while I present in front of others. Also, I could experience the enjoyable moment while I prepare the presentation. Furthermore, it was a good opportunity not only enjoy with group members but also to learn today’s social issues from exiting drama activity. (…) therefore, I could feel the power of drama once again. If I can have another chance to participate the kind of activity, I will put more effort in performance and I will keep trying to other many ideas which will be helpful to our group work (Midterm presentation journal, Yoon) The third reason was that students with a percentage of 12% reported that their speaking anxiety was reduced because drama improved their confidence. Most of the students commented on the confidence that they felt after completing their performances in the drama activity. They also said that it helped them improve communication with proper voice modulations and appropriate gestures. Consequently, drama reduced their speaking anxiety and they gained more confidence. The following is an excerpt from one student journal: I feel comfortable now. It is a big change for me. I wrote in my first paper I felt anxiety in almost every situation when I talk something in English. I am still not very good at speaking, but not that shy anymore about it. I always try to do it, and everybody looks like understand to my words. If they looked confused, I use body languages draw a picture. The best value I learned from this class is that if we have a confident of myself, we could do everything 57 well (7th journal, Lee). The fourth reason was that 10% of students noted that their speaking anxiety was reduced because of interesting activities. Most of students reported that they often became involved in the drama activities because it was fun and enjoyable. The students described that they also built up students’ engagement and motivation to speak, as the following excerpts suggest: This time, I did not feel any anxiety in the drama activity. Taking with other students in English was fun and exciting and showing our intelligence in front of class was fun as well (5th journal, Neui) The last reason was that the same percentage of students (10%) believed that their speaking anxiety was reduced because the classes enhanced the spirit of working in a team. The students were aware that teamwork during the drama activities was of critical importance for their anxiety, as the following excerpts suggest: I’m always nervous when I’m standing in front of many people to present something. However, I could overcome it with our team members’ help. I could have courage after seeing their great presentation (4th journal, Yoo). In conclusion, students repeatedly expressed that the drama activities were effective for reducing their personal anxiety levels in speaking in English. With the drama activities, they did many presentations in public and practiced speaking English repeatedly, developed their motivation, often became involved in the drama activities, increased their self-confidence and gained more communication skills. Furthermore, the use of drama activities enhanced team spirit. 4.2.1. Factors contributing to anxiety Analysis of anxiety factors given by the students through the reflective 58 journals suggested that there were 8 different factors which they believed had negatively contributed to their anxiety in speaking in English, namely fear of stage fright, poor in English, lack of preparation, lack of self-confidence, fear of failure, afraid of perception of others, introvert/shy, and conflict of opinion. Table 4.2 Reported factors based on reflective journals data when speaking in English during the drama activities Factors Fear of stage fright Poor in English(in terms of grammar, pronunciation, etc) Lack of preparation Lack of self-confidence Fear of failure Afraid of perception of others Introvert/shy Conflict of opinion N(161) 47 34 29 22 14 12 2 1 % 29 21 18 14 9 8 1 1 Note: (Number of the journal entries) As can be seen in the table above, the majority of the students had fear and anxiety of speaking in public or with performance on a stage when speaking in English where 47 out of 161 entries indicated the same response. With a percentage of 29%, fear of stage fright was placed as the major cause of anxiety and of speaking English. Most of the students concerned about some degree of nervous apprehension when preparing to speak or perform in front of an audience. Some of them commented on the presentation situation, for example they would try to avoid eye contact with the audiences, even if they were sure of the drama activities being performed. The students also were afraid of being singled out to speak English in front of an audience of individuals when they did not know for the first 1 or 2 weeks especially if they had lack of experience in speaking in public, as indicated in the following 59 student journal excerpt: When I should act or doing things in front of audience, I felt anxious. Whenever I talk before the audience, I feel embarrassed, so I blush. I don’t like this habit. When I was freshman, I acted play, but it’s long time ago. I think if get familiar with other classmates, it will be better than now (1st journal, Shin) The second factor that could be identified was a lack of English proficiency with 21% of the students expressing a similar response. Some of them reported that they were weak in English, some were afraid of making mistakes in terms of grammar, pronunciation and arranging of words, and also their perceived lack of knowledge about the drama activities that they were participating. But the most frightening classroom situation experienced by most of the students was when their perceived lack of English proficiency was combined with their lack of unpreparedness of the activities in presentations. These factors contributed to their level of anxiety. The following is an excerpt from one student journal: When I have to explain a story or situation to other students in English, I sometimes feel frustrated because I can’t express myself well in English. Therefore I usually need much time for preparing in English but I couldn’t do this time. I should train harder to improve the fluency and provide precise expressions (5th journal, Keum) The next factor was lack of preparation, with 18% of the students writing the same answer. This was because the students felt anxiety when they entered the class and not doing the practicing before the presentation, not being able to do the assignments or not making their script before the scheduled performance. This factor also involved the anxiety that the students felt when they was given a task on the spot and were 60 happened when when s omebody they were not not prepared prepared. Moreover, the lack of time to prepare for the upcoming performance was pointed out by most of the students. The students were aware that preparation was the key to attaining success in the drama activities, as the following excerpts suggest: When I went in front of people, I was so nervous to present the picture. The practice is important for me. I did practice normally but it was so lack of presenting fluently. Everyone has to be person who want to be the best presenter, if so, the practice will be the best way, all so (3rd journal, Pack) The fact that we had less time than other groups made me feel anxious and a little uncomfortable. I feel anxious when I am not well prepared. When I am not prepared, I lose control of my mind because I start to worry about the presentation while I am giving the presentation. However, I was not anxious on Friday at all because I was well-prepared (7th journal, Sun). The fourth factor was lack of self-confidence with 22 students said that they believed they did not have the confidence to express themselves in English. Most of the students indicated that they felt anxious in speaking classes even if they were well-prepared. They never feel quite sure of themselves and always think about others better than them when speaking in English. Also, this factor that caused anxiety when speaking in English is when speaking with people who are fluent in the language. One of the students wrote that she felt her confidence was lowered when she had to speak with a foreigner in her group. There was also one student who wrote that she felt anxious when she had to speak with people with a higher status as she believes these people are proficient in their English. The two following excerpts are students’ reflective journals: I feel I’m not a good English speaker. Most students in our class were very good at English speaking, and that makes me feel anxious to speech to them. 61 However, that’s the reason why I take this class, so always; I try to overcome it (4th journal, Jea). We had to have a presentation in front of the class again. It was a little nervous for me because I didn’t feel confident and there were many other groups who did a great job and felt we were not as well prepared. However, I tried to talk calmly. I wanted to act as a read the script but I wasn’t confident enough. I felt unsatisfied with not able to be more confident and really act. I will try to practice more and be more confident next time! (3rd journal, Joo) The fifth factor that the students experienced anxiety before, during or after a performance because of worry or fear of failure, or about making mistakes while speaking English (9%). Most of the students said that they feared taking tests, because test-taking situations would make them anxious about the negative consequences of getting a bad grade. In addition, they said they sometimes felt pressured to think that they had to organize their ideas in a short period of time (e.g., improvisations) while caring about grammar errors at the same time. Some of them expressed such anxious feelings, as indicated in the following student journal excerpt: I was very nervous when I had to perform. I was not sure if I could do well because I was worried in case I forget my part or have mistakes. Performing and acting in front of many people was pretty challenging (Midterm journal, Eun) The sixth factor that the students were afraid of the perceptions of others when they spoke in English where 12 out of 161 respondents indicated the same response. With a percentage of 8 %, most of the students were concerned about various kinds of evaluative situations in which their knowledge and performance of English were to be monitored by students around them. They were conscious about the facial expressions of other students and also of the 62 instructor. They were afraid if their audiences looked bored and confused, and could not understand the information they were trying to deliver, as the following excerpts suggest: I felt anxious when we were up playing; because I worried that maybe the audience might not understand what our intention was (8th journal, Chun). Hopefully, I think that the anxiety that I had last time decreased. I felt less nervous when I performed. However, another anxiety arose; my new anxiety is that I worry about the response of the audience. In other words, I worried whether the audience liked our performance or not. The situation that I felt was right after I finished my performance because after the performance I can listen to the feedback from the professor and other classmates (2th journal, Jieu) An introvert person or feeling shy also contributes as one of the causes of speaking English anxiety with 2% of the total respondents expressed as shown below: Whenever I do presentation I feel really nervous and it stresses me out. I am quite introvert so I need much courage (3rd journal, Sung). The last results were similar with conflict of opinion with one respondent said that she felt anxiety when the group had different opinions against her. One student noted: When I am in situations that my opinion is against the team’s opinion, I feel anxious and I don’t know how to do and what to do. However, through many drama activities and group activities, I could find that making group opinion is much more important than only thinking my opinion right (5th journal, Hye). It can be concluded that among all of the factors that can be listed from the response in the reflective journals, the top cause that affected on student’s anxiety in speaking in English was fear of stage fright during the drama activities. 63 4. 3 Results from the interviews The results of analysis of the transcripts in interviews showed that all four interviewees revealed positive reactions towards the drama activities, in which the students could engage with their own roles during the drama activity and kept them speaking in English all the times, even though their post anxiety survey results were different after the drama activities. The researcher conducted four individual interviews; 1 high-anxious (participant D), 1moderate-anxious (participant G), and 2 low-anxious student (participant J and S) from the post survey results of the PSCA in order to get in-depth data about speaking anxiety experienced by the students in the drama classroom,. All the names reported here are pseudonyms. Below is a brief description of the participants. Three (participants G, J, and S) were native Korean undergraduate students majoring in Education. One (participant D) was a native Chinese undergraduate student, whose major was English language and literature. Comparing with the pre survey results of the PSCA, the D and G participants of anxiety levels were increased and the J and S participants of anxiety levels were decrease in the post survey results of the PSCA. All participants shared almost the same educational background in terms of the length of learning English (10 to 12 years), except for differing lengths of studying or living abroad experiences. Age differences ranged from 19 to 25 years old. Their own estimate on the ratio of Korean and English use within a week was approximately 8 (Korean): 2 (English) on average (See the Appendix 5for detailed descriptions of each participant). From the findings, the students D and G who felt more anxiety after the drama 64 activities stated that they got stressed and worried very much about their performing in the activity with their personal anxiety factors such as stage fright and lack of confidence. However, they expressed positive feelings about the drama activity because they could have a lot of chances to speak in English and did not feel bored, as they said: When I attended in this class, I felt more uncomfortable than the other English class. The more I thought about the upcoming performance, the more depressed I become. However, now that I think about the drama class, it was good for me to have many chances to speak and write in English in the drama activities (Students D). I couldn’t enjoy the drama class. There were many good English speakers in my class and I didn’t know how to do what I thought. Also, (…) I had to have my own roles and had to speak in English during the drama activities. These situations made me stressful all the times because I am not good at English. Afterwards, I felt relaxed and did not feel bored at all in the drama activity. I still have anxious of speaking in English but I had a lot of practice of speaking (Student S). On the other hand, the student J and S who felt much lower anxiety after the drama activities commented that their anxiety level was reduced because of the frequent speaking opportunities. Consequently, they increased their selfconfidence. They recounted: At the first drama activity I feared to speak English and felt nervous, after practicing many times, now my anxiety was reduced and I became more confident. Moreover I enjoyed the drama activities a lot (Student J). The drama activities didn’t help me improve my speaking fluency, but I used to perform in front of others… so… I felt less anxiety on speaking in English (Student S). To sum up, although the students anxiety levels varied after the use of the drama activity, the students found that the drama method encouraged them to 65 speak in English, in terms of frequent opportunities. This finding was also in line with students’ self reports in the reflective journals that suggest one of the effects of drama for decreasing anxiety of the students. 4.3.1 Factors contributing to anxiety After the analysis of student interviews, the factors of students’ anxiety on the drama class collected in this study (See Appendix 6). Four students expressed in the interviews that students’ lack of self confidence to speak in English was a major source of anxiety about speaking and they felt that other students are better than mine. The following interview between the researcher (R) and student (S) illustrates what she experienced in an interview, R: What do you think are the factors of your nervousness in speaking English on the drama class? S J: I am a very extrovert … but I was not confident to speak in English. R: Do you have any problems with your English? S J: No… but I felt that other students’ English was better than mine and it was burden for me to speak English in front of them. The students were also anxious when they experienced lack of self confidence in their English Proficiency. Moreover it was the main factor for low-anxiety student J and S. They seemed to agree upon the anxious feelings associated with their lack of English proficiency. They expressed a deep concern about the difficulty communicating in English. Student S said their frustrated feelings to their lack of English proficiency. If I could write in the same way in English, I wouldn't feel so nervous (when asked to clarify my points in class). Even if I am quite familiar with the topic in my group discussion, I somehow tend to hesitate to comment on that because I have to think about the proper words, grammar, and pronunciations at once, and after class I feel so bad about myself (Interview, student S). 66 In another interview, student D and G who felt more anxiety after the use of the drama activities explained how the students being afraid to speak in English and fear of negative evaluation mainly cause anxiety. Their anxiety happened when they were speaking in front of the class because the students thought other students would be ridiculing them. As student D clearly noted: R: What kind of situations caused anxiety when you were speaking English? S J: I prepared a lot for the presentation but I was afraid to be in front of others. R: Why did you feel like that? S J: Because I was the only one foreigner in this class and I was not good at speaking English (…) so I thought that other students ridiculed me when I made errors. From the student interviews the obtained results revealed that students’ anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities arose from three major factors. These were lack of self-confidence, low English proficiency, and fear of negative evaluation. The results of these factors were also in line with selfreports in the reflective journals, according to which, students felt anxious/nervous or a little anxious/nervous when speaking English in class. Chapter 5. Discussion The goal of this research was to investigate the effect of drama on students’ anxiety of speaking English. In this chapter, each research question will be discussed in light of the results of the study. After summarizing findings by research questions, a more detailed account of the study's limitations will be provided as well as avenues for further research. 67 5.1 Research question 1 The first research question asked how the drama activities affect students’ anxiety level in speaking in English. After analyzing the results of the pre and post survey PSCA, this study confirmed that the drama activities positively affected on students’ anxiety levels. In terms of anxiety reduction in English public speaking, there were significant changes in public speaking class anxiety levels after the drama activities; however, there was a slight reduction of mean scores after the drama activities (M = 71, 64.7) and the students were categorized as low anxiety before and after the drama activities based on means values distribution suggested by Liu & Jackson (2008). Moreover, means for all kinds of anxiety of the PSCAS decreased after the drama activities, in terms of communication apprehension, test anxiety, fear of negative evacuation and comfort in using in English. It could be stated that the results showed that drama was effective in lowering the PSCA levels of the students who had a high level of PSCA in the pre survey. This finding supports the studies that suggest the positive impact of process-oriented drama on L2 learners’ anxiety levels (Chan, 1999; Coleman, 2005; Kao, 1994; Phillips, 1999; Piazzoli, 2011; Stern, 1980; Turecek, 1998). The study found that by analyzing the response of the students taking part in the drama activities to the questions in the journals and interview form, the students’ anxiety experiences decreased over time after the use of the drama activities and they reported that the drama activities yielded positive effects on their anxiety level reduction in speaking in English. It was seen that the qualitative findings support the findings obtained via the statistical analysis. The students further claimed that this reduction of the PSCA of the students 68 may have resulted from the drama learning environments, in which they were able to do many presentations in public and repeat practices of speaking English, increase engagement and motivation, gain more communication skills and enhance their confidence, and enhanced team spirit. Further, they experienced less anxiety. This can be attributed to the fact that drama positively affect on students’ anxiety level and enhance self-confidence and motivations towards speaking English. This finding correlates with Phillips’ (1999) emphasis that some of the areas where the drama method could be useful. The Review of the Literature (Chapter II) also supports this conclusion. Stern’s (1980) study showed that drama helped ESL students felt less nervous speaking English in front of the group and gained self-confidence. Most of them enjoyed the drama activities and were motivated to participate in more (Stern, 1980). Stern also interviewed their teachers and overall they also perceived the drama activities as helpful in relaxing their students, making them less nervous, and motivating them. Students in a Korean EFL study also reported feeling more relaxed and confident speaking English, and showed significant pretest-posttest gains in English speaking skills as a result of a drama-based English language program (Coleman, 2005). A study of EFL students in Singapore by Stinson and Freebody (2006) also indicated that students felt much more confident speaking English and improved oral language skills as a result of participating in an English speaking drama program, and most of them expressed a desire to continue to participate in a drama program. Therefore, the results of the present study is critical importance and take a step further to reduce foreign language classroom anxiety as stated by MacIntyre and Gardner (1991) that the investigation of the effects on anxiety reduction 69 was crucial and needed if foreign language anxiety was not a stable factor. 5.2 Research question 2 The second research question asked the factors that affect students’ anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities. Although the students did not show a high level of anxiety in the pre and post survey results of the PSCAS, six major factors that negatively contributed to their anxiety levels in class were often mentioned in the journals: fear of stage fright, poor in English, lack of preparation, lack of self-confidence, fear of failure, and afraid of perception of other. Results from the interview also showed similar findings. Fear of stage fright was the most cited theme among the students during the drama activities. The comments suggest that these students agreed that they felt anxious when they performed an actual speech in class. Sometimes for some students who are high proficiency levels in English, even a stage was frightening. This finding correlates with previous studies (Bailey, 1983; Hilleson, 1996; Jackson, 2002; Price, 1991) that many students appeared to be anxious when speaking English in the oral English classroom. The students felt the least/not anxious during pair work and group work but the most anxious when asked to speak English in class, especially when unprepared. Another reported factor was lack of English proficiency. 34 students suggested that anxious caused by poor language ability. They were afraid of making mistakes in terms of grammar, pronunciation and arranging of words, and also their perceived lack of knowledge about the drama activities that they were participating. Sparks and Ganschow (1991) also state that those who have difficulties with native language systems are liable to experience the similar problems when they attempt to learn a foreign language and thus make them anxious. Moreover, most teachers report that low English proficiency is 70 responsible for student reticence (Tusi, 1996). The third contributing factor was related to lack of preparation. Not doing the practicing before the presentation was reported by 29 students who indicated feeling somewhat uncomfortable using English. It was possible that students had time to rehearse a speech that they had already prepared so their anxiety was not very high. It may be possible that speech rehearsal was important in building students’ confidence in public speaking and decreasing their anxiety level. This supports the study of Menzel and Carrell (1994), which showed that oral rehearsal contributes to students’ success in their actual speech performance. Lack of self-confidence was the fourth contributing factor for students’ anxiety when speaking in English. 22 students reported that they did not have the confidence to express themselves in English. They found that they could easily got anxious when speaking with people who are fluent in the language. The problem of self-confidence (lack of confidence) experienced by the lower intermediate learners is likely to be caused by their limitation in foreign language mastery. This claim is also supported by Pappamihiel (2002) who argues that learners limited competence in foreign language use, such as lack of vocabulary, can contribute to their FL anxiety. The fifth factor that negatively contributed to students’ anxiety in the drama activities is related to fear of failure. 14 students reported they experienced anxiety before, during or after a performance because of worry or fear of failure, or about making mistakes while speaking English. In addition, as a study conducted by Ohata (2005), task difficulty, time limit, the fear of getting bad grades and lack of preparation for a test are the other factors that make learners worried. The last factor that was frequently reported in the journals was the perceptions of 71 others when speaking in English. This has been supported by Pappamihiel (2002), where in one of her interview processes, one participant in her study said that one cause that made him feel anxious was being afraid that the other students will laugh at him when he says something in a class. This finding is also similar with the study of Kota Ohata (2005) where in one of his interviews with five Japanese who studied in the USA, the respondents agreed that they felt anxious when they thought about the perceptions of others when they had to speak in English especially because their peers are native speakers of English. Thus, from the findings, it can be concluded that English speaking anxiety is multi-dimensional where it affects students differently depending on the context of the situation. The students’ anxiety levels vary depending on the situation. This result is also supported by the study of Pappamihiel (2002) where she finds that English language anxiety is of a dynamic nature where it can possibly affect students in many different ways. Chapter 6. Conclusion This chapter will include a summary of the conclusion, and a discussion of the limitations of this study followed by recommendations for the future. 6.1 Conclusion 72 The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of drama activities on Korean university students’ anxiety in a public speaking context. Furthermore, the anxiety factors were examined. In the current study, the data were collected by quantitative and qualitative methods. The level of speaking anxiety experienced by the students was identified via a questionnaire, and 27 students were also asked to write reflective journals and interviewed for a deeper analysis of this anxiety. According to the findings and discussion in the previous chapter, PSCA levels were found to be low among the students. In spite of this, some seemed to be anxious when giving presentations in speaking in English, even when they were properly prepared for it. Therefore, it is necessary for English teachers to find a way to help students reduce their anxiety about speaking. In this study, the drama activity proved to be an effective way to address the problem of students’ anxiety, by providing a supportive climate in the classroom. These findings show that the drama activity had a positive effect on students’ anxiety and students had positive opinions towards it. The study provides some insights into the factors of students’ anxiety in speaking in English by clustering their responds. When related responds were clustered, fear of stage fright, poor in English, lack of preparation, lack of selfconfidence, fear of failure, and afraid of perception of other were categorized as some issues which were found to be contributing to students’ anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities. The results have indicated that the majority of students have problems with speaking anxiety and the anxiety causes in fact differ in several ways between these different activities of drama. Generally, the findings of the present study support the findings of the past studies conducted within different contexts and settings. Some further research on what to attribute anxiety provoking situations to and why certain situations 73 cause anxiety may be enriching for future studies. The identification of factors causing speaking anxiety can be used by teachers to apply better teaching drama activities which can help lower students’ anxiety during their English language learning in the class. The results of this study provide some pedagogical implications for teaching. First, it is important to foster a supportive learning environment in which students feel safe and willing to take risks, especially for learners who may have previously had negative learning experiences. Therefore, in order to make the speaking situation less anxiety-provoking, instructors should tailor classroom activities to meet students’ affective needs. Second, instructors can make students realize that in fact making mistakes is normal in speaking. If students are not afraid of making mistakes, they will not care so much about losing face. Consequently, they will feel less threatened and more confident when speaking. 6.2 Limitation Based on the findings and conclusion of this study, the study has a number of limitations. The number of participants in this study was limited to only 27 female undergraduate students from the central part of Korea. Therefore, more participants from other parts of Korea and from other levels of education are needed so as to increase the generalizability of the research results. However, there may be some parts of the findings which can be used as reference to deal with students’ anxiety in ELT. In addition, the class in the present research was observed and recorded with only one camcorder. Through the videorecorded observations conducted over the term partially compensated for this, it would have been better for the researcher to observe the class throughout the 74 term for a better understanding of the changes in students’ anxiety in different classroom activities. This would have also helped reduce student anxiety resulting from camcorders and make them adapt to the existence of the equipment so that more of their natural behavior could have been recorded. It would also have been better to record the class with more camcorders to better identify to what degree each student remained anxious in various drama activities. Further, 6.3 Recommendations for Future Research The following recommendations are presented for future research. First of all, more drama activities should be integrated into the speaking curriculum because, as our study demonstrates, these activities bring variety and enthusiasm to lessons. Second, further research on the effects of drama in ELT classes on motivation, learner autonomy, self-esteem or self-efficacy could be conducted. Third, a comparative study to reduce speaking anxiety using the drama activities between a control group and an experimental group should be conducted. 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Appendix A Public Speaking Class Anxiety Scale (PSCAS) :Name :Date DIRECTIONS: Read the following statements and place a check in the box under the column which fits your opinion of yourself. Work quickly, but be sure to consider each item individually. There are no right or wrong answers. Ite Statement m No. Opinion (5) (4) Strongl Agree y 79 (3) (2) Undec Disag ided ree (1) Stron gly Agree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 I never feel quite sure of myself while I amspeaking English. I tremble when knowing that I am goingtobe called on to speak English. I start to panic when I have to speak English without a preparation in advance. In a speaking class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know. I feel confident while I am speaking English. I feel very self-conscious while speaking English in front of other students. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking English. I am afraid that other students will laugh at me while I am speaking English. I get so nervous when the language teacher asks me to speak English which I have prepared in advance. I have no fear of speaking English. I can feel my heart pounding when I am going to be called on. I feel relaxed while speaking English. It embarrasses me to volunteer to go out first to 80 Disag ree 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 speak English. I face the prospect of speaking English with confidence. I enjoy the experience of speaking English. The more speaking tests I have, the more confused I get. Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while speaking English. I feel anxious while waiting to speak English. I want to speak less because I feel shy while speaking English. I dislike using my voice and body expressively while speaking English. I have trouble to coordinate my movements while speaking English. I find it hard to look the audience in my eyes while speaking English. Even if I am very wellprepared I feel anxious about speaking English. I keep thinking that other students are better at speaking English than I. I always feel that the other students speak English better than I do. 81 Background Questionnaire The questions below are for research purposes only, and your individual answers will not be made available to anyone. Please answer the following questions or check the proper answers. Name:___________________________ Date:_______________ 1. Your gender: Male / Female 2. Your age: years old 3. Country of birth: 4. Ethnicity: 5. What are you in school? (Circle one): Freshman Sophomore Junior Senior 82 Graduate Student Other 6. What is your major? _____________________________________________ 7. What is your native language? _____________________________________ 8. What language(s) do you speak at home? _______________________________________________________________ 9. If more than one, with whom do you speak each of these languages? _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 10. In what language(s) did you receive the majority of your precollege education? _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 11. If more than one, please give the approximate number of years for each language. _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 12. Have you ever lived in a situation where you were exposed to a language other than your native language (e.g. by living in a multilingual community; visiting a community for purposes of study abroad or work; exposure through family members; traveling to, etc.) Circle one: Yes / No 13. If Yes, please give details below. If more than three, list others on the 83 bottom of this page. Experience 1 Experience 2 Experience 3 Country/Region Language Purpose From when to when _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 14. In the boxes below, Self-rate your language ability in each of the languages that you know. Use the following rating: 1) Poor, 2) Good, 3) Very good, 4) Native/Nativelike. How many years (if any) have you studied this language in a formal school setting? Language Listening Speaking Reading Writing Number of years of study English 15. If you have taken TOEFL before, please write your TOEFL scores below: Reading Listening Writhing/TWE 84 Structure/Grammar Speaking/TSE Other:__________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ 16. Why are you taking Drama class? Please explain your specific reasons. _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ _______________________________________________________________ Thank you for your cooperation. Appendix B Interview Questions 1. How would you describe your personality? Are you an introvert or an extrovert? 2. How do you feel about speaking in English in general? 3. How did you feel about speaking in English during the drama activities? 4. Have you ever feel anxiety when you speak in English in general? Please explain. 5. Did you personally have anxiety when you speak in English in the drama class? 6. In what situations did you feel anxious speaking in English during the drama activities? 7. What kind of factors did you affect your anxiety in speaking in English during the drama activities? 85 ① Different types of drama ② Communication apprehension(e.g. difficulty in understanding the teacher’s instruction, lack of preparation, and lack of confidence) ③ Text anxiety(e.g. performance evaluation stemming a fear of failing) ④ Fear of negative evaluation(e.g. fear of correction and fear of making mistakes) ⑤ What else/other made you anxious in speaking in English during the drama activities? 8. Would you want to participate in another drama class in the future? Yes/No Why and why not? 9. Is there anything else you’d to say about the drama class and your experience? Appendix C Drama Reflective Journal :Name :Date Please share with me what you experience in the drama course. I would like to listen to you. (Write down at least 2 pages.) Overall lesson ① How did you like the lesson? -Waswhatyou learnedfromthe lesson new to you? -Was it useful (in practice, in my studies, in my life)? ② What parts of the lesson did you like or enjoy most? And least? And Why? Drama activity ③ How did you think (feel) about the drama activity we did today? And 86 why? -Was what we did too easy or too difficult? -What are the advantages and disadvantages of the activity? ④ How did you participate in the drama activity? And why? -Were there any problems with you or your group? -What went well? What went not so well? -How did you resolve them? -If you were faced with the same problem again, would you do anything differently? Students’ anxiety ⑤ Did you personally have anxiety in the drama activity? -In what situations did you feel anxious? And why? Appendix D PSCAS items with numbers of students selecting each alternative (N=27) SA* A N D SDBoth StrongSDMean 1. I never feel quite sure of myself while I am speaking English. (pre) 1 7 5 13 1 2.78 1.01 (post) 1 5 11 8 2 2.81 0.96 2. I tremble when knowing that I am going to be called on to speak English. (pre) 1 7 6 10 3 2.7 1.1 (post) 1 7 6 10 3 2.74 1.1 3. I start to panic when I have to speak English without a preparation in advance. (pre) 2 6 3 13 3 2.67 1.14 (post) 1 6 6 10 4 2.63 1.11 4. In a speaking class, I can get so nervous I forget things I know. (pre) 2 7 5 12 1 2.89 1.09 (post) 1 5 7 13 2 2.56 0.89 5. I feel confident while I am speaking English. (pre) 1 8 9 8 1 3 1.04 87 (post) 3 7 12 5 1 6. I feel very self-conscious while speaking English in front of other students. (pre) 1 17 4 4 1 (post) 1 14 5 7 0 7. I get nervous and confused when I am speaking English. (pre) 1 10 4 10 2 (post) 1 2 8 14 2 8. I am afraid that other students will laugh at me while I am speaking English. (pre) 2 4 3 14 4 (post) 0 4 3 12 8 9. I get so nervous when the language teacher asks me to speak English which I have prepared in advance. (pre) 1 4 5 12 5 (post) 0 4 5 13 5 10. I have no fear of speaking English. (pre) 1 9 2 11 4 (post) 0 11 4 9 3 11. I can feel my heart pounding when I am going to be called on. (pre) 3 9 7 8 0 (post) 1 6 11 8 1 12. I feel relaxed while speaking English. (pre) 1 3 10 9 4 (post) 2 6 10 7 2 13. It embarrasses me to volunteer to go out first to speak English. (pre) 1 15 7 4 0 (post) 1 3 11 10 2 14. I face the prospect of speaking English with confidence. (pre) 2 7 12 6 0 (post) 1 8 15 2 1 15. I enjoy the experience of speaking English. (pre) 8 14 4 1 0 (post) 8 11 6 2 0 16. The more speaking tests I have, the more confused I get. 88 2.78 1.01 3.48 3.33 0.94 0.92 2.93 2.48 1.11 0.89 2.48 2.07 1.16 1.04 2.41 2.3 1.08 0.95 3.3 3.07 1.2 1.11 3.26 2.93 1.02 0.92 3.37 2.96 1.04 1.06 3.48 2.74 0.8 0.94 2.81 2.78 0.88 0.8 1.93 2.07 0.78 0.92 (pre) 0 6 9 10 2 2.7 (post) 0 3 12 10 2 2.59 17. Certain parts of my body feel very tense and rigid while speaking English. (pre) 1 3 12 11 2 2.63 (post) 1 6 5 13 2 2.67 18. I feel anxious while waiting to speak English. (pre) 1 14 7 5 0 3.33 (post) 2 6 6 10 3 2.78 19. I want to speak less because I feel shy while speaking English. (pre) 1 4 7 13 2 2.59 (post) 1 3 3 14 6 2.22 20. I dislike using my voice and body expressively while speaking English. (pre) 0 2 3 16 6 2.04 (post) 1 1 2 15 8 1.96 21. I have trouble to coordinate my movements while speaking English. (pre) 0 2 5 17 3 2.3 (post) 0 0 4 18 5 1.96 22. I find it hard to look the audience in my eyes while speaking English. (pre) 0 8 6 10 3 2.7 (post) 0 1 6 15 6 2.07 23. Even if I am very well-prepared I feel anxious about speaking English. (pre) 3 6 9 6 3 3 (post) 1 3 5 13 5 2.33 24. I keep thinking that other students are better at speaking English than I. (pre) 3 10 6 7 1 3.26 (post) 3 6 10 5 3 3.04 25. I always feel that the other students speak English better than I do. (pre) 2 9 5 8 3 2.96 (post) 2 7 5 10 3 2.81 *SA ->Strongly agree; A -> Agree; N -> Neither; D -> Disagree; >Strongly Disagree. 89 0.91 0.8 0.93 1.04 0.88 1.15 0.97 1.05 0.81 0.94 0.82 0.59 1.03 0.78 1.18 1.04 1.1 1.16 1.19 1.18 SD - Appendix E Student Profiles Participant J: She is an international undergraduate senior student majoring in English language and literature and she came to the Korea after she dropped out of a local university in China 5 years ago. While in her high-school days, she never had an English tutor who was an American. She said she had no chance to speak in English in her daily life until she came to Korea. She had a lot of foreigner friends who speak in English and had conversations with her roommate or friends for a year and half. After finishing 10-month Korean language education center 4 years ago, her current situation is that she speaks quite little in English. Her own estimate on the speaking ratio of Korean and English within a week was approximately 8 (Korean): 2 (English). With the moderate anxiety level of 84 on the pre-survey, she had the highest anxiety 90 level of 106 on the post-survey in the drama class. Participant D: She was an undergraduate senior student majoring in Physical Education and minored in English language and literature. She had experiences abroad about a year including attending an intensive English program in Philippines (2month). She said she enrolled in this class because she wanted to improve her English skills, especially ‘speaking’ and ‘reading’ skills. Her current use of English in the daily situations seems to be limited only to her classes, but she uses every weekend for her speaking practice with her native conversation partner (2 to 4 hours). She estimated that his use of English in the current situation compared to that of Korean would be 7 (Korean): 3 (English).She not only had the moderate anxiety score of 80 on the pre-survey but also the moderate anxiety score of 85 on the post-survey. Participant E: She was an undergraduate student majoring in Division of Education and minored in English language and literature, and this was her third semester in a university. She said that English classes had taught by native English teachers since she started studying English and she loved to study English and liked to have conversations with friends even she did not have any studying or living abroad experiences. While studying in a foreign language high school for 3 years she had chance to use English, but she experienced fear of speaking in English with friends with a higher proficiency. She lost her confidence and she always concerns about her low English proficiency. Her current situation is that she has a lot of American friends but he speaks quite little in English. Thus, his estimate of how much he uses Korean vs. English in a week was 8 91 (Korean): 2 (English). With the moderate anxiety level of 78 on the pre-survey, she lowered the anxiety level of 59 on the post-survey after the drama activities. Participant G: She had been an undergraduate student majoring in Education for three years including double majoring in English language and literature (2 years). After high school, she went to a private English Institution to prepare TOEFL scores for a year more while studying daytime. She did not have any experiences of traveling or living in an English Speaking Country. She said she had almost no chance to speak in English except English classes she attended in a university. Her daily use of English speaking was limited to approximately 10 to 20minutes on average in classes but instead he spends 1 to 2 hours per day on reading and writing in English for assignments. His estimated ratio of English use (speaking) vs. Korean was 8 (Korean): 2 (English). She documented a score of 99(moderate anxiety level) for her pre-survey, while her post-survey score was 65 (low anxiety level). 92 Appendix F Data Analysis from interviewers No. Factors Frequency Stude Stude nt D nt G 1 I do not have 3 enough practice of speaking 2 I do not know 1 how to do what I think 3 Lack of self- 1 5 confidence for speaking English 4 Lack of English 5 proficiency (vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation etc.) 93 Stude nt J 4 Stude nt S Tot al 7 1 5 2 13 4 9 5 6 7 8 Being afraid of making mistakes To speak in front of others Potential reaction of the other students on my speaking performance Introvert Total 3 3 3 3 10 4 2 1 4 1 4 1 10 3 20 94 11 9