SWCMUN 2011
Human Rights Council Background Guide
Sir Winston Churchill HSMUN Conference
SWCMUN 2011
Table of Contents
Current Membership in HRC:
Angola
Burkina Faso
Cameroon
Djibouti
Gabon
Ghana
Mauritania
Mauritius
Nigeria
Senegal
Uganda
Zambia
Bahrain
Bangladesh
China
Japan
Jordan
Kyrgyzstan
Malaysia
Maldives
Pakistan
Qatar
South Korea
Saudi Arabia
Thailand
Hungary
Argentina
Poland
Brazil
Moldova
Chile
Russia
Cuba
Slovakia
Ecuador
Ukraine
Guatemala
Belgium
Mexico
Uruguay
France
Norway
Spain
Switzerland
United Kingdom
United States
The Human Rights Council was established by the General Assembly on March 15, 2006 in
order to provide a body for addressing human rights violations in the international community.
It is comprised of 47 member states and replaced the United Nations Commission on Human
Rights. The Human Rights Council recently implemented the Universal Periodic Review, which
provides a mechanism to review the human rights situations in every member state of the UN.
The Council also created a Complaints Procedure that provides a mechanism for bringing
complaints regarding human rights to the UN, as well as an Advisory Committee that provides
expert advice and recommendations on human rights issues. This newly created
intergovernmental body provides an exciting opportunity to address human rights from a new
perspective. In this committee, delegates will focus on the repercussions for human rights in
each topic. Debate will center on creating mechanisms for addressing human rights violations in
the international community and strengthening the UN’s commitment to protecting human
rights worldwide.
Human Rights Council Background Guide | SWCMUN 2011
Committee Description:
1
Human Rights Council Background Guide | SWCMUN 2011
Committee: United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)
Topic 1: Human Trafficking
Background
Human trafficking involves an act of “recruiting, transporting, transferring, harbouring
or receiving a person through a use of force, coercion or other means”, merely for the purpose
of exploiting them. Human trafficking has become a major problem in the global community.
Internationally, human trafficking is linked to illegal arms trade and is the second largest crime
in the world (following the drug trade). This issue violates numerous human rights and poses a
great threat to the victims. The smuggling of migrants and human trafficking for commercial
exploitation and slave labour are just two of the quickest growing international issues in recent
years. Exploitation usually comes in forms of forcing trafficked victims into prostitution, slavery,
or servitude, or tricking victims into debt bondage. It is estimated that nearly eighty percent of
trafficking involves sexual exploitation and approximately nineteen percent involves labour
exploitation.
Trafficking has become an illegal lucrative business in which traffickers or “travel
agents” make large amounts of profits from hundreds of thousands a month to a million a year.
According to the United Nations, there are approximately 2.5 million trafficked victims from
127 countries.
It is a common misconception to believe that human trafficking only occurs in lesser
developed and poorer countries; however, nearly every country, if not all, is involved in this
business. Although it is commonly presumed that trafficking occurs mainly in cities, trafficking
takes place more frequently in suburbs because traffickers feel they are less likely to get caught
in the act. Due to weak borders of neighboring countries also serve as destinations for
trafficked women and children. Illiteracy, unemployment, poverty, child matrimony, domestic
violence, and hazardous migration are presumed to be main causes for the growing rate of
illegal human trafficking.
The majority of trafficked victims are often effortlessly tricked through false
advertisements in newspapers and magazines for a “better life,” approached in public
sceneries, or are taken advantage of when traveling to and from cities. Many times, victims are
placed in the business by families who are hoping to gain an income.
In many cases, destinations for trafficked victims include brothels. Brothel owners rarely
intervene with the law enforcement (police), and those who have only do so due to unpaid
payments. The children in brothels are born there and often times have little access to proper
upbringing. Lack of education among girls, women, and men is also fuelling the rapid growth of
sexually transmitted diseases, namely HIV/AIDs. Women who have been sexually exploited
experience a notably higher rate of HIV, tuberculosis, and permanent damage to their
reproductive systems. Children victims are also are a higher risk to developing mental health
problems and engage in violent crimes in the future. At these brothels, many clients hold a
misconception, believing that having sexual intercourse with a virgin can cure their HIV/AIDs
and other common sexually transmitted diseases. This has also greatly contributed to the
growing spread of these diseases.
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U.N. Involvement
Recently, the United Nations High Commissioner on Human Rights and the United
Nations Children’s Education Fund have been working tirelessly to find solutions to human
trafficking. The United Nations passed the General Assembly Resolution 159/54, in which it
condemns kidnapping under any circumstances. Nine resolutions regarding combating human
trafficking were passed at the General Assembly’s 55th session.
In 2000, the United Nations adopted the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish
Trafficking in Persons, especially Women and Children (also known as the Trafficking Protocol)
to create a global set of guidelines instituted by the United Nations Convention against
Transnational Organized Crime. The aforementioned Protocol is the very first legally binding
catalyst with an approved definition for human trafficking. The Protocol was effective on 25
December 2003, and by June 2010, the Trafficking Protocol was signed by 137 parties and 117
countries.
The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) oversees core programs
in protecting human rights and implementing international rights agreements. Under this
agency, the Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women and the Working Group on
Contemporary Forms have both well addressed trafficking. Special Rapporteur on the Sale of
Children and the Committee on the Rights of the Child work in coalition to overlook specific
needs regarding children. Recently, the General Assembly’s 64 th Session in 2009, has addressed
the Report of the Special Rapporteur on Trafficking in Persons, Especially in Women and
Children. In addition to the aforementioned mechanisms, OHCHR recently established a system
for intra-Office coordination specifically for human trafficking.
The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) is responsible for crime
prevention and law reform. In 2010, UNODC hosted the 12th United Nations Congress on Crime
Prevention and Criminal Justice. At this event, participants were explored two top issues: the
first was discussing the link between organized crime and trafficking/smuggling of persons and
the second was discussing ways to prevent violence against migrants.
The UN Global Program against Trafficking in Human Beings (GPAT) is also an
organization that is cooperating against the trafficking of persons. The countries involved in this
program are Asia, Europe, Africa and Latin America and was established in March 1999. GPAT
assists areas in their efforts to cease trafficking in human beings. It emphasizes the involvement
of organized crime groups in human trafficking and promotes the development of effective
ways to track down criminals responsible for the crime.
The Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAID is an umbrella organization
that brings together seven UN agencies for a common cause: the United Nations Children’s
Fund (UNICEF), the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), the United Nations
Population Fund (UNFPA), the United Nations International Drug Control Programme (UNDCP),
the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World
Health Organization (WHO), the World Bank, and the International Labour Organization (ILO).
UNAIDS has recognized that trafficked persons highly vulnerable to HIV/AIDS exposure because
they are usually prone to multiple physical and psychological health problems. Hence, UNAIDS
has integrated anti-trafficking in its HIV/AIDS programmes to prevent the spread of the
epidemic.
3
Previous Solutions
As mentioned formerly, law enforcement and prosecutors are often given “hush
money” as bribes to allow traffickers and brothel owners to get away with human rights
violations with little to no punishment. It is therefore critical to remember to create
transparency while simultaneously ensuring national sovereignty.
Human trafficking is an issue that needs to be gradually stopped, as it will be difficult to
discontinue all of a sudden. Many families rely on these actions as an income and victims often
have trouble reintegrating back into society if they even are released. Due to these
circumstances, previous solutions mainly consisted of awareness and fundraising, however, just
these methods will not suffice in truly combating human trafficking. Keep in mind that one of
the main problems with human trafficking is that even after a victim is “rescued,” the victim has
a sixty-five percent chance of falling back into the system again. Victims also face serious
psychological problems and need medical attention.
One past solution was in June 2000, the UN Inter-Agency Project on Human Trafficking
(UNIAP) was established. Phase one of this program was completed in May 2003 and phase two
was established in November 2003. Although phase two evolved its ideas and suggestions from
phase one, UNIAP has customized the project approach and structure to better achieve the
objectives.
African Bloc: The African Bloc is similar to the Asian Bloc since the lesser developed nations lack
the education and economic stability of more developed nations. In many countries such as
Ghana, a family is often rebuked for offering a virgin female for sexual servitude. Hence,
trafficked women are not eligible to the name of “wife.” African nations need cost-effective
solutions since regions in Africa lack the basic necessities and infrastructure.
Latin America Bloc: Deficient economic conditions and social problems create conditions which
are favorable to human trafficking. Interpol accounted that nearly 35,000 women are trafficked
from Colombia annually. Organized criminal networks are sometimes related to illegal armed
parties, and have made much of internal trafficking victims vulnerable. Within the Latin
American nations, children are heavily trafficked, sometimes in conjunction with Latin
America’s drug trafficking problems.
Middle Eastern Bloc: Keep in mind that cultural differences may come into play. For example,
In India, there is currently no official electronic database for victims of human trafficking, and
this is unfortunately an issue due to cultural traditions. Children are given common names with
no surname; hence, have no access to official/identification paperwork. In addition, nearly fifty
percent of Indian children drop out of school by the secondary system and never graduate. This
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Bloc Positions
Asian Bloc: Many of the developing nations do not have the same education or economic
stability as the developed nations do. Japan, for example, is a main destination country for
trafficked victims from countries such as Philippines and Thailand. Hence, it is estimated that
200,000 to 225,000 women and children are trafficking within the Southeastern Asian region
every year. Most of the trafficking destinations are within the region.
4
has increased the causes to join trafficking. In addition, Iraqi women fleeing the Iraq War turn
to prostitution as a last resort and others are trafficked abroad to countries such as Turkey,
Jordan, and Qatar. Great prices are offered for virgins.
Western Bloc: The Western bloc primarily consists of Western Europe, Canada, and the United
States. This bloc is the most developed; despite these conditions, it is important to remember
that this does not mean human trafficking does not exist in this region. Your country will most
likely have laws established regarding human trafficking. The nations in the Western Bloc can
provide majority of the resources needed to aid other nations and non-governmental
organizations (NGOs).
Helpful Websites
1. http://www.humantrafficking.org/
2. http://humantrafficking.change.org/
3. http://www.notforsalecampaign.org/
4. http://www.ohchr.org/
5. http://www.un.org/en/
6. http://www.unodc.org/unodc/index.html
7. http://www.un.org/Overview/rights.html#atop
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Points to Consider
1. What has your nation done in the past to help eradicate human trafficking?
2. Has your nation ratified all protocols, conventions, and documents trying to combat
human trafficking?
3. How can the help of nations, organizations, and the United Nations be combined in
order to successfully work in specific aforementioned regions?
4. What aid can your country provide?
5. Has your nation had any past human trafficking violations?
6. What standards has your country set in relation to human trafficking?
7. How can your country help to improve the law and system within your country and how
can you suggest your thoughts to other nations?
8. What new solutions can your nation implement/suggest to the international community
that is feasible yet economically cost effective?
5
Committee: United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)
Topic 2: Torture
Torture has long been used to inflict both physical and mental pain and harm on
individuals. Although the use of torture has began to diminish, there are still over 150 countries
were such crimes are still prevalent. Organizations such as Amnesty International, the Human
Rights Watch, and the International Rehabilitation Council for Torture Victims have recorded
countries including China, Egypt, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Malaysia, Morocco, Nepal, North
Korea, Pakistan, Russia, Syria, Turkey, Uganda, and Uzbekistan were recorded for using torture.
Torture is used as a means of punishment, discrimination, confession, intimidation, coercion,
and most prominently, to receive information. Those facing torture include: activists, criminal
suspects, prisoners, outcasts of society due to ethnicity, religion, or gender, and even random
innocent civilians during times of opposition or conflict. Physical and psychological torture is
induced using force and violence to receive compliance and answers, rather than
communication or further investigation; torturers fail to realize that this crime rarely supplies
them with the needed information; along with disregarding the crucial fact that all forms of
torture are violations of human’s rights and international law. Beating, electric shock, sexual
assault, hanging by limbs, whipping, burning, and submersion in water are all forms of physical
torture. Psychological torture on the other hand consists of mock executions, witnessed torture
of others, being forced to kill or torture others, threats, isolation, sleep deprivation,
blindfolding, insults, humiliation, and removal of needed medical attention and treatment. Both
types of torture however have a similar and lasting effect upon the bodies and mind of these
victims, as they are most often crippled be fear, guilt, shame, anxiety, nightmares, inability to
sleep or think correctly, and post-traumatic stress disorder. Admiral Dennis C. Blair, Director of
National Intelligence stated, “The bottom line is these techniques have hurt our image around
the world, the damage they have done to our interests far outweighed whatever benefit they
gave us and they are not essential t our national security,” for all governments must realize that
aside from being unjust and dehumanizing, torture lacks efficiency and productivity.
UN Action
The United Nations have taken many steps to ensure a strong framework for the
prevention of torture, while condemning its usage and encouraging its removal. Both the
Universal Declaration on Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil and Political
Rights move that all people maintain the right to freedom for torture. In 1984 the Convention
against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or Punishment which sets
guidelines to prohibit and punish torture, while creating a definition for torture, making
prosecution and punishment for this crime achievable on an international consensus.
Furthermore the Article 2 of the convention reads that, “Each party shall take effective
legislative, administrative, judicial, or other measures to prevent acts of torture in any area
under its jurisdiction.” This convention also calls on states to ensure that all acts of torture are
criminal offences within their laws, disable the extradition of criminals to nations where they
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Background
6
Questions to Consider:
1. Is torture used within your nation either by the government or external parties like rebel
groups?
2. What does your nation do to prevent torture? How does it punish those that commit
this crime?
3. How are torture victims treated within your country?
4. Does your country have any laws or treaties regarding the extradition of criminals
subject to receiving torture?
5. How does your nation classify ill treatment and torture? Are the punishments the same?
Human Rights Council Background Guide | SWCMUN 2011
may be subject to torture, and calling upon nations to supply torture victims with resources for
rehabilitation. The Convention also establishes the Committee against Torture to oversee the
implementation of the convention within nations, as well as, requiring countries to supply the
committee with information and reports demonstrating convention implementation as well as
recommendations. The Subcommittee of Prevention of Torture taking force in 2007 and the
Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture of 2006, both work as inspection programs
while the subcommittee oversees regions and bodies where citizens are deprived their liberty
in their national parties. Resolution 36/151 installed the UN Fund for Victims of Torture which
uses donation from governments, NGOs, and individuals to provide torture victims with
humanitarian assistance including medical, legal, and psychiatric care. Equally beneficial are the
UN Code of Conduct for Law Enforcement Officials and UN Body of Principles for the Protection
of All Persons Under any Form of Detention of Imprisonment as they inhibit and denounce the
usage of torture throughout the international community. The Human Rights Council issued an
extension of three years in Resolution 8/8 so that all countries and individuals will be reported
at any suspicion or knowledge of torture, allowing for country inspections, and the submission
of the reports to the Human Rights Council and General Assembly. Approving Resolution
62/149, the General Assembly approved a global suspension on death penalty, and then a year
later in 2008 adopted another resolution calling for a international postponement on capital
punishment. In 2000 the General Assembly’s Resolution 55/89 created the Principles on the
Effective Investigation of Torture and Other Cruel, Inhumane or Degrading Treatment or
Punishment. Aside from strictly UN bodies preventing torture, the World Organization Against
Torture serves as the most important network of NGOs protecting human rights with the SOSTorture network under the OMCTT’s Prevention of Torture provides a guide on mechanisms to
counter torture, as well as supplying UN committees with reports. Finally the Association for
the Prevention of Torture promotes monitoring and transparency and ensures effectiveness of
legal and policy framework, as all bodies an committees work and correlate alongside one
another to achieve a fully encompassing plan and method for ridding all countries of torture.
Despite these many steps taken, torture remains a prevalent issue as the international
community struggles to find and then remove torture from nations.
7
UN Documents:
Universal Declaration on Human Rights <http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/index.shtml>
Human Rights Council Background Guide | SWCMUN 2011
International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights
< http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/ccpr.htm>
Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment
< http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cat.htm>
Optional Protocol to the Convention against Torture
< http://www2.ohchr.org/english/law/cat-one.htm>
Resolution 36/151 < http://daccess-ddsny.un.org/doc/RESOLUTION/GEN/NR0/407/77/IMG/NR040777.pdf?OpenElement>
Resolution 8/8 < http://ap.ohchr.org/Documents/E/HRC/resolutions/A_HRC_RES_8_8.pdf>
General Assembly Resolution 62/149 (A/RES/62/149)
<http://daccess-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N07/472/71/PDF/N0747271.pdf?OpenElement>
General Assembly Resolution 55/89 (A/RES/55/89) < http://daccess-ddsny.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N00/564/73/PDF/N0056473.pdf?OpenElement>
8
The Global Food Crisis
A recent, significant challenge to food security arrived in 2008 when global food prices
increased dramatically.7 Between December 2007 and June 2008, food prices rose by nearly 60
percent.8 Staple crops were particularly affected during this period; the price of both wheat and
soybeans rose by 75 percent, while the price of rice rose by 177 percent.9 Significant gains that
had been made in the fight against poverty and hunger were jeopardized, and an even greater
burden was placed upon the world’s least developed countries.10 For instance, low-income food
deficit countries in Africa saw their cereal import bill rise from $6.5 billion US in 2002-2003 to
$14.6 billion US in 2007-2008.11 Before the rise in prices, it was estimated that 854 million
people were already undernourished; that figure has since risen to well above one billion.12
While food prices have started to stabilize, the crisis is not over.
Experts from FAO, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), and
the US Department of Agriculture (USDA) predict that high prices will persist for most food
crops through 2015.13 The United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
emphasizes that the current food crisis did not arise only out of recent factors.14 Rather, the
food crisis was “also the consequence of deep-rooted long-term trends arising from changing
demographic and consumption patterns and years of system failures of development
strategy on many fronts,” at both the national and international levels.15 Over the past two
decades, demand for food has been rising in proportion with the general trends of population
growth, rising income, and diet diversification.16 However, agricultural investment has declined.
The percentage of public spending in developing countries devoted to agriculture fell by 50
percent between 1980 and 2004.17 Funding for farm credit, crop distribution, and reserve
programs has been reduced or abolished.18 Simultaneously, agricultural investment by the
governments of developed nations and by multilateral institutions has diminished.19 In 1980,
the World Bank allocated $7.7 billion US to agricultural lending; in 2004, that amount was only
$2 billion US.20 During the same period, the United States Agency for International
Development (USAID) cut agricultural aid by 75 percent.21 Lowered agricultural investment has
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Committee: United Nations Human Rights Council (UNHRC)
Topic 3: Food Security and the Right to Food
Introduction
According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), “food security
exists when all people, at all times, have physical, social and economic access to sufficient, safe
and nutritious food which meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and
healthy life.”1 Food provides the energy needed for physical activity, mental activity, and the
maintenance of good health.2 Proper nutrition is therefore vital for human growth and
development, especially in childhood, during which children require enough energy both to
maintain their body systems and to grow.3 Presently, the world produces more than enough
food for every nation to be food-secure and for every person to have the benefit of a healthy
diet.4 Yet, in spite of ample supply, approximately one billion people are regularly unable to
meet their daily caloric needs, while the diets of two billion lack vitamins or minerals that are
essential to good health.5 Food security has been regarded as a significant concern since the
mid-1990s; however, notwithstanding the world’s best efforts, hunger is on the rise.6
9
International Efforts
Following the Bangladeshi famine of 1972, the first World Food Conference was convened by
the General Assembly in November 1974 and “entrusted with developing ways and means
whereby the international community, as a whole, could take specific action to resolve the
world food problem within the broader context of development and international economic
cooperation.”40 Attended by representatives from 135 states, the Conference adopted the
Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger and Malnutrition, as well as twenty
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“eroded” the ability of developing countries to maintain agricultural production.”22 In India, for
example, the production of cereals has fallen by 17 kilograms per capita over the past
ten years.23 Demographic demand for food continues to rise while harvests continue to wane,
resulting in higher prices and a supply-and-demand imbalance that will be rectified only
through long-term strategies.24 Prices have also been distorted by speculation and export
restraints. In an increasingly globalized world, food prices have become interdependent upon
other economic trends. Following the collapse of the US subprime market in 2007, speculators
looked amid market volatility to invest in assets with rising prices.25 A general shift in portfolios
toward food assets has only “[fed] the price rise spiral.”26 Meanwhile, a further reduction in
food supply has followed from hoarding within nations in conjunction with bans or tariffs on
exports.27 While nations have employed such protectionist tactics to address local needs, they
have regrettably contributed to the distortion of markets on a greater scale. In general, high
energy prices have raised the cost of food production, and ultimately the cost of food, by
increasing the costs of agricultural inputs.28 But the relatively new food versus fuel debate is
adding another dimension to a growing association between food and energy, as high energy
prices have also increased demand for biofuels.29 The use of inputs such as corn, sugar, and
vegetable oils for biofuel production has the immediate effect of reducing food supply,
resulting in higher prices.30 Also of note is that almost all biofuels are produced from materials
that could also be used as human food or livestock feed; biofuel opponents argue that these
materials “should be used to feed people rather than fuel vehicles.”31
Outside of the realm of purely human influence, natural causes are also contributing to world
hunger. Land degradation, whether through erosion or chemical and physical changes to soil, is
the environmental issue that stands to have the greatest impact upon future food production.32
Scientists are currently debating the potential effects of global warming upon agriculture.33 If
sea levels continue to rise, agricultural land in coastal areas may become flooded; changing
weather patterns may also influence average crop yields worldwide.34 Natural disasters appear
to be increasing in frequency.35 Drought has become the single most common cause of food
shortages worldwide, and has been particularly harmful for such countries as Ethiopia. 36 Most
recently, the world has witnessed a catastrophe in Pakistan. Beginning in late July 2010, severe
monsoon rains precipitated a sequence of floods that have continued to devastate the
country.37 Prior to the disaster, Pakistan was considered food-secure, but the floods “have
caused the most colossal wipeout of a national food system in recent history.”38 One million
hectares of agricultural land have been lost, and countless livestock and poultry have
drowned.39 Regaining food security will doubtlessly be an extraordinary challenge to long-term
recovery, which cannot truly begin until the floodwaters have subsided.
10
Food as an International Human Right
A human rights-based perspective of food security holds that all people have the right to the
satisfaction of their basic needs. Governments are responsible for fulfilling this right and they
are accountable to their citizens, who actively participate in the process of human
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resolutions on diverse topics.41 Numerous international conferences have since been held,
including the 1996 World Food Summit, which saw the adoption of the Rome Declaration on
World Food Security and the World Food Summit Plan of Action, and the 2002 World Food
Summit, at which states reevaluated and renewed their commitment to the goals established in
1996.42 Among these goals was a pledge to halve the number of the world’s undernourished
people by 2015, which was later reiterated through the first of eight Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs) in 2000.43 Most recently, during the 2009 World Summit on Food Security, world
leaders unanimously adopted a declaration that refocuses their endeavour towards achieving
food security upon five principles.44 The Five Rome Principles for Sustainable Global Food
Security encompass investment in country-owned plans; better strategic coordination; a
comprehensive approach to food security that incorporates both short- and long- term
strategies; the sustained involvement of the multilateral system; and the continued dedication
of all partners to agriculture, food security, and nutrition.45 Within the structure of the United
Nations, the World Food Programme (WFP) is one of the most important initiatives that seeks
to eliminate food insecurity. As the largest humanitarian agency devoted to fighting global
hunger, WFP prioritises ensuring food security during and shortly after times of emergency,
while also providing general assistance to food-insecure countries.46 It aims to increase selfsufficiency at the national level and to support long-term solutions to global hunger.47 Armed
with a similar mandate but with different tools, FAO operates as a forum for nations to meet
and to discuss policy.48 It also contributes legal, technical and educational expertise to
supplement food security projects on the ground.49
In response to the current global food crisis, the United Nations Chief Executives Board
established the High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis (HLTF) in April 2008.50
Chaired by the Secretary-General, HLTF meets every two months and unites the leadership of
UN specialized agencies, funds and programmes with representatives from the UN Secretariat,
the World Bank, the International Monetary Fund (IMF), OECD, and the World Trade
Organization (WTO).51 In 2008, HLTF published a Comprehensive Framework for Action (CFA),
which comprises two sets of actions to tackle the global food crisis.52 The first set of actions
addresses “the immediate needs of vulnerable populations.”53 It includes the improvement of
emergency food assistance, nutrition interventions and safety nets; the bolstered support of
smallholder farmer food production; the adjustment of trade and tax policy; and the
management of macroeconomic implications such as inflation.54 The second set of actions
“builds resilience and contributes to global food and nutrition security.”55 It includes the
expansion of social protection systems, the sustainment of smallholder farmer food production
growth, the improvement of international food markets, and the development of an
international biofuel consensus.56 Further, the CFA also aims to strengthen systems for
gathering information and monitoring the progress associated with the actions it has
recommended.57
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Previous Actions of the Human Rights Council (HRC)
Since its inception, HRC has continuously advocated for the understanding of food as a human
right, and through its resolutions, it has called upon UN Member States to fulfil their
responsibility of guaranteeing that right to their respective citizens.68 As a body designed to
promote and address violations of human rights, HRC also has the ability to employ special
procedures to monitor human rights situations within specific nations or globally.69 In
April 2000, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR) adopted Resolution
2000/10, which appointed a Special Rapporteur on the right to food.70 The Special Rapporteur’s
mandate was initially intended to last three years, but it was later extended by both UNCHR
and subsequently by HRC.71 The role of the Special Rapporteur is largely one of promotion,
research, and reporting to HRC and the United Nations General Assembly.72 Recent reports
have examined the impact of trade negotiations at the WTO upon the right to food, the impact
of intellectual property rights upon the right to food, and the contribution of the private sector
to the advancement of the right to food.73 The current Special Rapporteur, Olivier De Schutter,
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development, rather than being relegated to passivity.58 As a basic need, food constitutes a
fundamental human right that has been firmly established in international law. 59 As with
other human rights, states have an “obligation to respect, protect and fulfil (meaning to
facilitate and — as a matter of last recourse — provide for) the progressive realisation of . . . the
right to adequate food.”60 Article 25 of the 1948 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
contains the most basic stipulation, stating that “everyone has the right to a standard of living
adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing,
housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of
unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in
circumstances beyond his control.”61 The right to food was later reaffirmed in different forms,
including the 1966 International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR),
which recognizes “the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his
family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and to the continuous improvement of
living conditions.”62 The 160 states that have ratified the Covenant also agreed to take the
requisite measures to improve the means by which food is produced, conserved, and
distributed, with a specific goal of ensuring a distribution system that is both equitable and
reflective of need.63 The Universal Declaration on the Eradication of Hunger and Malnutrition,
adopted by the World Food Conference in 1974 and ratified by 192 states, again reiterates the
right to food: “Every man, woman and child has the inalienable right to be free from hunger
and malnutrition in order to develop fully and maintain their physical and mental faculties.”64 It
acknowledges that society already has the resources, organization, and technology needed to
guarantee this right, and it explicitly reaffirms the duty of all states, especially developed states,
to work toward the eradication of hunger.65 The right to food has also been established for
specific groups of individuals. It is included in the 1951 Convention relating to the Status of
Refugees, the 1979 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women, the 1989 Convention on the Rights of the Child, the 2006 Convention on the Rights of
Persons with Disabilities, and the 2007 Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples.66
Further, the 1949 Geneva Conventions also ensure the right to food for individuals involved in
warfare or other armed conflict.67
12
Case Study: Cuba
Due to its overwhelming magnitude, the global food crisis may appear difficult to address and
nearly impossible to resolve. However, the successful resolution of Cuba’s domestic food crisis
during the 1990s readily promises the possibility of a brighter future for the world’s presently
food-insecure nations. Prior to 1989, the Cuban agricultural system had been highly
industrialized, in accordance with the communist ideology of industrialization that purported
to liberate farmers from the menial nature of manual labour and to produce an ample supply of
inexpensive food.75 As a country without substantial reserves of oil, Cuba necessarily
conformed with “a model of externally assisted agricultural modernization,” importing a wide
variety of essentials such as petrol, machinery, chemical fertilizers and pesticides from other
socialist countries.76 In return, it exported goods and resources including sugarcane, tobacco
and fruits at highly inflated prices.77 This arrangement pushed Cuba far from agricultural selfsufficiency; in 1988, it imported 90 percent of fertilizers and pesticides, along with 57 percent
of food needs and 80 percent of its machinery and spare parts.78
In the wake of the disintegration of the Soviet Bloc in 1989 and the subsequent tightening of
the American embargo, Cuba was confronted with a serious economic and agricultural crisis.79
Having lost its major trade partners, Cuba saw its GNP fall from $19.3 billion US to $10.0 billion
US between 1989 and 1993.80 On the world market, Cuban goods sold for only a fraction of
what Soviet allies had paid.81 Even more troubling was the loss of inputs upon which the Cuban
agricultural system depended. Cuba was suddenly faced with a 53 percent reduction in imports
of oil, a 50 percent reduction in imports of grain, and a 70 percent reduction in availability of
fertilizers and pesticides.82 Industries closed and agricultural production plummeted, resulting
in a critical food shortage. It is estimated that in the early 1990s, average daily caloric and
protein intake by the Cuban population was as much as 30 percent below that of the 1980s.83
Swiftly, the Cuban government took action, declaring the beginning of an emergency “Special
Period in Peace Time” in 1990 as the country struggled to find alternatives to a defunct
system.84 Slowly, Cuba worked toward a self-sufficient and sustainable agricultural model.85
Local and largely biological substitutes were found for the chemical inputs — pesticides,
herbicides, and fertilizers — to which Cuba no longer had access.86 Animals were used in place
of machinery.87 As an incentive for farmers, the government abolished many state farms in
favour of collective ownership, or rent-free lease, by workers themselves; anything that a
collective produced beyond a state established quota could be sold for profit at farmers
markets.88 Additionally, prompted by higher prices for produce due to limited supply, as well as
a state decree that all unused urban land be cultivated, Cuban farmers began an urban
agricultural movement.89 With strong government support, urban agriculture “exploded to near
epic proportions,” helping urban families to achieve food security through the proliferation of
food crops, farm animals and produce stands throughout Cuban cities.90
By the late 1990s, though the nation continued to experience occasional shortages of certain
food items, the Cuban food crisis was over.91 Cuba’s success at the domestic level certainly
offers a myriad of suggestions for strategies that may prove effective either within other
Human Rights Council Background Guide | SWCMUN 2011
has dedicated much of his attention to the extent to which national and international responses
to the global food crisis have incorporated the right to food.74
13
Conclusion
The current global food regime assumes that food insecurity is an economic problem that will
be solved by policies of an economic nature. The prevailing notion is that “economic growth, via
market mechanisms, provides the most suitable solution for curbing poverty and achieving food
security.”97 However, the coexistence of both food abundance and widespread hunger suggests
that “a purely market-based approach to food security” has fallen short of creating “a just
global food system.”98 Indeed, the food price crisis of 2008 confirmed the existence of
fundamental problems within the world’s food systems, which Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon
described as “dysfunctional” for having “fail[ed] too many people and many of our most
vulnerable nations.”99
As hunger persists, new measures must be taken to address the faults inherent to extant
structures for food production and distribution. To an extent, Cuba’s example advances a
framework for an alternative food system paradigm.100 Is this paradigm feasible for other
countries? Are there further alternatives that could be effective on a global scale?
World leaders have frequently promised to achieve global food security, but the number of
people affected by hunger continues to grow. How effective have the efforts of the
international community been? How can they be improved? What contributions can HRC
make? What can be done to ensure the completion of the first MDG by 2015? Is the CFA, in
conjunction with the Five Rome Principles, the most efficient route to food security?
Delegates should also examine the state of food security in their own countries, asking
themselves: does my state produce enough food for all its people? Does it have shortages? If
so, how are they addressed, and could they be better addressed? Does my state have surpluses
of food? If so, how could those surpluses be better used for the world at large? How has my
state contributed to achieving global food security? Have international agencies intervened to
improve food security within my state? Is my state a producer of biofuels? Does my state have
a stance on the food-fuel debate?
In considering these and other questions, it is important to recall that HRC’s work towards food
security is founded upon the concept of food as a human right. The progressive realization of
the right to food is a critical component of HRC’s fight to realize all human rights for every
person, and it represents part of a broader goal that should not be forgotten despite the
turmoil of the present day.
Human Rights Council Background Guide | SWCMUN 2011
countries or on a global scale, including organic farming techniques, fair prices for produce,
redistribution of land, and an emphasis on local production.92 Cuba also demonstrates the
commendable results of approaches to development that actively consider human rights.
Throughout the crisis, the Cuban government adhered to the principle that “everybody eats” —
for instance, milk in short supply would go to children, and never to the production of products
such as butter or cheese.93 Further, the health of all Cubans was a prime concern, and it
became a motivator towards ecological agriculture and pest management methods.94 Perhaps
most significantly, Cuba confirms that the Millennium Development Goal to halve the
proportion of the hungry by 2015 is not unattainable.95 It is a target that can surely be reached
“by a firm political commitment to prioritize basic food rights and a semi-regulatory market
approach.”96
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Human Rights Council Background Guide | SWCMUN 2011
1 High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis, Progress report: Synopsis, 2009.
2 FAO, Trade reforms and food security: Conceptualizing the linkages, 2003, p. 29.
3 Leathers and Foster, The world food problem: Toward ending undernutrition in the Third
World, 2009, p. 29.
4 Leathers and Foster, The world food problem: Toward ending undernutrition in the Third
World, 2009, p. 28.
5 Bassett and Winter-Nelson, The atlas of world hunger, 2010, p. 1.
6 Bassett and Winter-Nelson, The atlas of world hunger, 2010, p. 1.
7 FAO, Trade reforms and food security: Conceptualizing the linkages, 2003, p. 27.
8 United Nations, Global food security crisis: Background, 2009.
9 Leathers and Foster, The world food problem: Toward ending undernutrition in the Third
World, 2009, p. 85.
10 Leathers and Foster, The world food problem: Toward ending undernutrition in the Third
World, 2009, p. 85.
11 United Nations, Global food security crisis: Background, 2009.
12 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 5.
13 United Nations, Global food security crisis: Background, 2009.
14 Clapp and Cohen, The global food crisis: Governance challenges and opportunities, 2009, p.
13.
15 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 6.
16 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 6.
17 High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis, Comprehensive Framework for
Action, 2008, p. 1.
18 Clapp and Cohen, The global food crisis: Governance challenges and opportunities, 2009, p.
20.
19 Clapp and Cohen, The global food crisis: Governance challenges and opportunities, 2009, p.
21.
20 Clapp and Cohen, The global food crisis: Governance challenges and opportunities, 2009, p.
21.
21 Clapp and Cohen, The global food crisis: Governance challenges and opportunities, 2009, p.
21.
22 Clapp and Cohen, The global food crisis: Governance challenges and opportunities, 2009, p.
21.
23 Clapp and Cohen, The global food crisis: Governance challenges and opportunities, 2009, p.
21.
24 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 6-7.
25 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 7.
26 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 7.
27 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 7.
28 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 7.
29 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 8.
30 UNCTAD, Addressing the global food crisis, 2008, p. 8.
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Human Rights Council Background Guide | SWCMUN 2011
31 Westhoff, The economics of food: How feeding and fueling the planet affects food prices,
2010, p. 11.
32 Westhoff, The economics of food: How feeding and fueling the planet affects food prices,
2010, p. 9, 33.
33 Leathers and Foster, The world food problem: Toward ending undernutrition in the Third
World, 2009, p. 181.
34 Leathers and Foster, The world food problem: Toward ending undernutrition in the Third
World, 2009, p. 189.
35 Leathers and Foster, The world food problem: Toward ending undernutrition in the Third
World, 2009, p. 189.
36 United Nations World Food Programme, WFP – Fighting Hunger Worldwide, 2010.
37 United Nations World Food Programme, WFP – Fighting Hunger Worldwide, 2010.
38 Leeder, Flood-hit Pakistan struggles to rebuild its food system from scratch, 2010.
39 Leeder, Flood-hit Pakistan struggles to rebuild its food system from scratch, 2010.
40 Leeder, Flood-hit Pakistan struggles to rebuild its food system from scratch, 2010.
41 World Food Conference, Report of the World Food Conference, 1974, p. 2.
42 World Food Conference, Report of the World Food Conference, 1974, p. 2, 5, 8.
43 United Nations, Key Conference Outcomes in Food, 2010.
44 United Nations, Millennium Development Goals, 2010.
45 World Summit on Food Security, Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security, 2009.
46 World Summit on Food Security, Declaration of the World Summit on Food Security, 2009.
47 United Nations World Food Programme, WFP – Fighting Hunger Worldwide, 2010.
48 United Nations World Food Programme, WFP – Fighting Hunger Worldwide, 2010.
49 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Home, 2010.
50 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, FAO Home, 2010.
51 United Nations, Global Food Security Crisis: Background, 2009.
52 United Nations, Global Food Security Crisis: Background, 2009.
53 High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis, Comprehensive Framework for
Action, 2008, p. ix.
54 High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis, Comprehensive Framework for
Action, 2008, p. ix.
55 High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis, Comprehensive Framework for
Action, 2008, p. 5.
56 High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis, Comprehensive Framework for
Action, 2008, p. ix.
57 High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis, Comprehensive Framework for
Action, 2008, p. 5.
58 High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis, Comprehensive Framework for
Action, 2008, p. 5.
59 FAO, The right to food guidelines: Information papers and case studies, 2006, p. 157.
61 FAO, The right to food guidelines: Information papers and case studies, 2006, p. 156.
62 FAO, The right to food guidelines: Information papers and case studies, 2006, p. 156.
63 United Nations General Assembly, The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (A/RES/3/217
A), 1948.
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64 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, International Standards,
2007.
65 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, International Standards,
2007.
66 World Food Conference, Report of the World Food Conference, 1974, p. 6.
67 World Food Conference, Report of the World Food Conference, 1974, p. 6.
68 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, International Standards,
2007.
69 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, International Standards,
2007.
70 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Special Rapporteur on
the right to food, 2007.
71Commission on Human Rights, The right to food (E/CN.4/RES/2000/10), 2000.
72 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Special Rapporteur on
the right to food, 2007.
73 Commission on Human Rights, The right to food (E/CN.4/RES/2000/10), 2000.
74 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Special Rapporteur on
the right to food, 2007.
75 Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, Special Rapporteur on
the right to food, 2007.
76 Wright, Sustainable agriculture and food security in an era of oil scarcity: Lessons from Cuba,
2009, p. 3.
77 Wright, Sustainable agriculture and food security in an era of oil scarcity: Lessons from Cuba,
2009, p. 4.
78 Wright, Sustainable agriculture and food security in an era of oil scarcity: Lessons from Cuba,
2009, p. 5.
79 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. 91-92.
80 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xvi.
81 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xvii.
82 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xvii.
83 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xviii.
84 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xviii.
85 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xviii.
86 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xix.
87 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. 278.
17
Information in this background guide was compiled using HRC background guides at the National Model UN
(NMUN) Conference, Cerritos High School Model UN Conference, and Surf City MUN.
Human Rights Council Background Guide | SWCMUN 2011
88 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. 279.
89 Wright, Sustainable agriculture and food security in an era of oil scarcity: Lessons from Cuba,
2009, p. 239.
90 Wright, Sustainable agriculture and food security in an era of oil scarcity: Lessons from Cuba,
2009, p. 239.
91 Schanbacher, The politics of food: The global conflict between food security and food
sovereignty, 2010, p. viii.
92 Schanbacher, The politics of food: The global conflict between food security and food
sovereignty, 2010, p. viii.
93 High-Level Task Force on the Global Food Security Crisis, Progress Report: Synopsis, 2009.
94 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xviii.
95 Wright, Sustainable agriculture and food security in an era of oil scarcity: Lessons from Cuba,
2009, p. 5.
96 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. 91-92.
97 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xvi.
98 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xvii.
99 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xvii.
100 Funes et al., Sustainable agriculture and resistance: Transforming food production in Cuba,
2002, p. xviii.
18