OBO: Education
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INTERNATIONAL ISSUES IN HIGHER EDUCATION
Stephen P. Heyneman
Professor, International Education Policy
Department of Leadership, Policy and Organizations
Vanderbilt University
Jeongwoo Lee
PhD Candidate
International Education Policy and Management
Department of Leadership, Policy and Organizations
Vanderbilt University
Introduction
General Overviews
Regional Overviews
OECD Countries
Developing Countries
Africa
Middle East and North Africa
Latin America and the Caribbean
South and East Asia
Central Asia
Western Europe
Textbooks
Journals
Data Sets
Access and Equity
Governance
Human Capital, Economics and Finance
Accreditation and Quality Assurance
The Role of International Organizations
Corruption
Social Cohesion
Competition and Ranking
Future Issues
Changes in Technology
Industry Relations
The Role of Education in International Technology
INTRODUCTION
International higher education issues refer to those problems or dilemmas which pertain to more than one
country or region. These can include the nature of student affairs, finance, professional misconduct and
corruption, international trade, management efficiency, equity, institutional governance, academic integrity,
student migration, research quality and many others. Until recently the study of higher education and the
preparation of higher education managers were predominantly North American. The literature on higher
education and concepts of higher education issues of importance, are influenced by these origins. This is
now changing. Today higher education issues are heavily influenced by the nature of the changes in
Western Europe, the Former Soviet Union and in East Asia and the Pacific. And the research on higher
education increasingly reflects the new balance of these international issues. The study of international
higher education issues continues to be influenced by the North American context – endowments,
differential remuneration of faculty, transfer of course credits. On the other hand, many issues which used
to be considered solely North American are now international – enrollment ratios, dropout rates,
differentiation in institutional function. Lastly, there are issues which have emerged elsewhere, – the
study of corruption, trade, research quality assessment and undergraduate student achievement – which
are rapidly being studied within North America.
GENERAL OVERVIEWS
The following works provide an introduction to the field of international higher education issues. Some
provide this introduction without regional or specializations. This is the case with respect to: Teichler 2007,
Hirsch and Weber 1999, Altbach and Peterson 2007, and Goedegeburre et. al. 1994. Others provide an
overview with a particular emphasis. For instance, Altbach et. al. 2009 track policies which were originally
North American, but today can be found globally. Purcell et. al. 2004 provides a perspective on issues
pertaining to women’s colleges; Baker and Wiseman 2007 on issues which stem from research findings.
Geiger et. al. 2007 track issues pertaining to the research university; Stromquist 2007, the professorate;
Neave and van Vught 1994, the relations with government, and Qiang 2003, internationalization.
Altbach, Philip G. and Patti McGill Peterson, ed. 2007. Higher Education in the New Century: Global
Challenges and Innovative Ideas. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Analysis of six key challenges in higher education: academic profession, access and equity, higher
education and social cohesion, private higher education, international student flows, and research
universities
Altbach, Philip G, Liz Reisberg, and Laura E Rumbley. 2009. Trends in Global Higher Education: Tracking
an Academic Revolution. Boston: Center for International Higher Education.
Investigation of main driving forces, in particular globalization and massive demand for higher
education, for changes in scope and diversity in higher education and their impacts on higher
education
Goedegeburre, Leo, Frans Kaiser, Peter Maassen, Lynn Meek, Frans A. van Vught, and Egbert de Weert,
ed. 1994. Higher Education Policy: An International and Comparative Perspective. Oxford: Pergamon
Press.
A volume providing not only comprehensive identification and analysis of the principles, structural
features, modes of different higher education policies in 11 different countries but also higher education
policies’ similarities and differences in international trends and issues and country-specific elements
Hirsch, Werner A. and Luc E. Weber, ed. 1999. Challenges Facing Higher Education at the Millennium.
Oxford: Pergamon Press.
A overview of some key issues in higher education including challenges at the millennium, future
environment of higher education, and certain initiatives in relation to funding, governance, alliance
building between industry and institutions and technology
Neave, Guy and Frans A. van Vught, ed. 1994. Government and Higher Education; Relationships across
three Continents: the Winds of Change. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Analysis of the relationships between government and higher education in 12 countries in Africa, Asia,
and Latin America to examine the effectiveness of specific types of government regulation in
comparison with others in tackling higher education crisis arising in many developing countries
Purcell, Francisca, Robin Matross Helms, and Laura Rumbley, ed. 2004. Women’s Universities and
Colleges: an International Handbook. Chestnut Hill: Center for International Higher Education.
This book as an inventory of women’s higher education institutions worldwide provides a wide range of
specific and detailed information and resources by region, which are expected to be used as practical
resources for research and studies for women’s’ higher education.
Qiang, Zha. 2003. Internationalization of higher education: Towards a conceptual framework. Policy
Futures in Education 1, no. 2: 248-70.
Presentation of a conceptual and organizational framework of internationalization of higher education
including the meaning of, rationale for, and approach to internationalization and strategies to
incorporate international dimensions
Stromquist, Nell, ed. 2007. The Professoriate in the Age of Globalization. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Discussion of the professoriate, a primary player in higher education institutions, in six countries, in
particular in terms of its conditions in a comparative perspective
Teichler, Ulrich. 2007. Higher Education Systems: Conceptual Frameworks, Comparative Perspectives,
Empirical Findings. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Description of various dimensions of higher education in Europe between 1990s and the present such
as higher education’s changing role, access and admission, diversity of institutions, the Bologna
process, excellence, and education systems
REGIONAL OVERVIEWS
Higher education issues vary in more respects than from country-to-country; they also vary from one
group of countries to another. We have followed this variation in the categories of citations located below.
Some summarize the issues with respect to the industrial democracies (OECD 2009), low and middle
income countries (Task Force on Higher Education and Society 2004; World Bank 1994; World Bank
1995; World Bank 2002). Other overviews pertain to specific geographical regions such as the Middle
East and North Africa (Bashshur 2004), Central Asia (Heyneman and De Young 2004; Brunner and Tillett
2007), Western Europe (Fagerlind and Stromquist 2004; In’t Veld et. al. 1996), Latin America and the
Caribbean (Segrera, et al. 2009), South and East Asia (APEID-UNESCO 2006), and Sub-Saharan Africa
(Hinchliffe 1987; Teferra and Altbach 2003). In some instances an overview might include a specialized
issue within a region (Assie-Lumumba 2007).
OECD Countries
The challenges of higher education in Industrial democracies are dramatically different from other parts of
the world. There is greater access so attention is paid to efficiency and quality. There is intensive
competition in higher education.
OECD. 2009. Higher Education to 2030, Volume 2: Globalization. Paris: OECD.
A book exploring significant issues including trends and developments in higher education provision,
financing, international mobility governance, and quality assurance in the context of how to meet
challenges over the next 20 years
Developing Countries
Issues in low or middle income countries include access and the difficulties of maintaining standards of
quality and efficiency with marginal available resources.
World Bank. 1994. Higher Education: The Lessons of Experience. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Investigation of the major aspects of higher education crisis in developing countries and the prospects
for four main directions for reform (diversity of institutions, funding, the role of government, and quality
and equity)
World Bank. 1995. Priorities and Strategies for Education. Washington, D.C: World Bank.
A review of the proposals of the World Bank made in the 1980s intended to develop new approaches
for the educational sector, in particular education as a mechanisms for economic growth and poverty
reduction, in the 1990s
World Bank. 2002. Constructing Knowledge Societies: New Challenges for Tertiary Education.
Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
A report describing the contribution of higher education to a country’s capacity to take part in an
knowledge-based global economy and examining policy options to promote economic growth and to
alleviate poverty through higher education
Africa
In the case of Sub-Saharan Africa, universities struggle not only with the inadequacy of financial
resources and unmet demand, but with weak institutions, autocratic governments with an intolerance for
academic freedoms.
Teferra, Damtew and Altbach Philip, ed. 2003. African Higher Education: An International Reference
Handbook. Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
A comprehensive survey of current trends and issues in higher education in Africa and analytic essays
in 54 African countries’ higher education
Hinchliffe, Keith 1987. Higher Education in Sub-Saharan Africa. London: Croom Helm Publishers.
This book addresses higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa, in particular concentrating on the
present and future labor market for higher education graduates and on financing higher education. This
book will be helpful to understand current status and growth of higher education and costs and outputs
(efficiency) of higher education in Sub-Saharan Africa.
Assie-Lumumba, N’Dri T. 2007. Women and Higher Education in Africa: Reconceptualizing Gender-
Based Human Capabilities and Upgrading Human Rights to Knowledge . Abidjan: CEPARRED.
Analysis of complicated issues necessary to appreciated the interface between gender, higher
education, and the production of knowledge and issues related to the fundamental right of women to
higher education
Middle East and North Africa
Higher Education in the Middle East and North Africa is characterized by unresolved traditions of state
monopoly, low private costs, poor quality and an intolerance of academic debate which may question
social or political authorities.
Bashshur, Munir. 2004. Higher Education in the Arab States. Beirut: UNESCO Regional Office.
A report on higher education in the Arab states in the world context, ground-level case studies from
three countries on purposes and performance of higher education institutions, and possible dilemmas
in higher education
Latin America and the Caribbean
Higher education in the Latin America and Caribbean region is characterized by high quality government
universities attended largely by the economic elite who have benefited from non-government primary and
secondary education and lower quality non-government institutions attended largely by students from
lower socio-economic backgrounds who have attended lower quality government primary and secondary
schools.
Segrera, Francisco López, Colin Brock, and José Dias Sobrinho, ed. 2009. Higher Education in Latin
America and the Caribbean 2008. Caracas, Venezulea: IESALC-UNESCO.
An overview of current main trends in higher education in Latin America and presentation of case
studies analyzing key issues and realities in higher education
South and East Asia
Higher education in South and East Asia is characterized by rapid expansion matching growth in the
general economies and the struggle to maintain quality with reference to higher education in the industrial
democracies.
APEID-UNESCO. 2006. Higher Education in South-East Asia. Bangkok: UNESCO.
A report on case studies from eight countries analyzing higher education systems, specifically reform,
access, diversification, governance, research capacities, private education, internalization,
accreditation, quality assurance, and challenges for the future
Central Asia
Higher education in Central Asia is characterized by the challenges of changes the structures from what
was appropriate under the Soviet Union to the structures appropriate for industrialized democracies. Also
relevant is the growth of education corruption which threatens the higher education sector generally.
Heyneman, Stephen P. and Alan J. De Young, ed. 2004. The Challenge of Education in Central Asia.
Greenwich (Conn.): Information Age Publishing.
Exploration of challenges in elementary, secondary, and higher education in Central Asia along with
introduction of social, political, and economic background of Central Asia
Brunner, Jose Joaquin and Anthony Tillett. 2007. Higher Education in Central Asia: the Challenges of
Modernization – an Overview. The Chilean Education Forum.
Exploration of current challenges that higher education in Central Asia is confronted with, focusing on
Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan in terms of system, policy, and competitiveness
Western Europe
The issues of higher education in Western Europe, aside from those of industrial democracies generally,
contain issues of re-structuring under the Bologna Process, the search for a ‘European dimension’ and
the natural competition with the quality and flexibility of higher education in North America.
Fagerlind, Ingemar and Gorel Stromquist, ed. 2004. Reforming Higher Education in the Nordic Countries:
Studies of Change in Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway and Sweden. Paris: International Institute of
Education Planning.
Review of changes in the higher education sectors which are generated by technology, globalization,
and competition in the Nordic countries
In’t Veld, Roel, Fussel, Hans-Peter, and Neave, Guy, ed. 1996. Relations between the State and Higher
Education: Legislating for Higher Education in Europe. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
Identification of key issues that European countries need to face in their higher education legislations
and description of exemplary good practices of European countries
TEXTBOOKS
Though much attention is paid to the importance of electronic technologies, textbooks remain deeply
important. They shape the character of the manifest curriculum. They are lightening rods for debate over
history and civics, and they provide an unprecedented ‘window’ into the character of public education in
every country.
Altbach, Philip G. 2006. International Higher Education: Reflections on Policy and Practice. Chestnut:
Boston College Center for International Higher Education.
Discussion of worldwide issues in the contemporary debate in higher education policy and practice
such as globalization, internationalization, world-class research universities, funding, private higher
education, corruption, and academic freedom
Forest, James F. and Philip G. Altbach, ed. 2006. International Handbook of Higher Education. Dordrecht,
Netherlands: Springer.
A volume containing in-depth analyses of the central topics in higher education across the globe and
comparative analyses of key countries and regions in an attempt to provide the background, trends,
and realities of contemporary higher education
Mauch, James E. and Paula L.W. Sabloff, ed. 1995. Reform and Change in Higher Education:
International Perspectives. New York: Garland Publishing, Inc.
Discussion of the changing roles of government involvement in higher education policy reform in 10
countries
Phelps, Phelps P., Greta L. Dietrich, Gabriele Phillips, and Kevin A. McCormack. 2002. Higher Education:
An International Perspective. Washington, D.C.: The ERIC Clearinghouse on Higher Education.
A report providing a review of higher education systems in selected 12 developed countries and
outcomes of comparing the U.S. with 11 other countries, which share some similarities with the U.S., in
the context of such higher education measures as student participation, resources and expenditures
and education outcomes
Tight, Malcolm, Ka Ho Mok, Jeroen Huisman, and Christopher Morphew, ed. 2009. The Routledge
International Handbook of Higher Education. New York: Routledge.
Critical and comparative overview of the major eight issues and questions in higher education and
higher education research across countries
JOURNALS
International issues of higher education can be found in the journals which specialize in international
education. Few journals focus on international higher education exclusively.
This list includes most of those which contain higher education issues.
*Comparative Education [http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/title~content=t713410081]*
This journal investigates theoretical and empirical analyses and debates in the field of comparative
education from national, international and global perspectives
*Comparative Education Review [http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/toc/cer/current]*
Founded in 1957 by University of Chicago Press, this journal explores cross-national issues of
education and the social, economic, and political influences and forces shaping them.
*Education Review [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/00131911.asp]*
This journal covers national and international issues in a wide range of schooling and education fields
including education policy and management
*Higher Education Management and Policy [http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/oecd/16823451]*
Published by OECD, this journal investigates practices and policies on wide international scope in the
field of higher education institutional management and system
*International Journal of Educational Development
[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/07380593]*
This journal intends to stimulate significant debates about the roles of education in development, with
particular emphasis on developing new theoretical insights and understanding of the interaction
between local, national, regional. And global contexts
*International Higher Education [http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/soe/cihe/newsletter/index.htm]*
This journal addresses critical issues in higher education from international perspective and reports
analyses of the issues
*International Journal of Higher Education Research
[http://www.springer.com/education+%26+language/higher+education/journal/10734]*
This journal explores educational developments in higher education institutions and in public and
private higher education sectors on a basis of comparative analyses and studies
*Studies in Higher Education [http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/titles/03075079.asp]*
This journal publishes both research-based empirical analyses and policy-oriented articles from any
perspective in higher education or discipline
*UNESCO Prospects [http://www.springer.com/education+&+language/journal/11125]*
Published by UNESCO, this journal covers current and controversial comparative and international
educational issues with emphasis on not only theoretical or research-oriented discussions, but policy
implementation for policy makers and practitioners
DATA SETS
Statistical information on international higher education can be found in three central locations:
*OECD[http://www.oecd.org/document/54/0,3343,en_2649_39263238_38082166_1_1_1_37455,00.html]*
(for the industrialized democracies), UNESCO Institute of Statistics (for all member states), *World Bank
Education [www.worldbank.org]* (for middle and low-income countries). Additional information can be
found at *Eurostat [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home]*, *USAID:
Education & Universities [http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/education_and_universities/highered/index.html]*, the *U.S. National Center for Education Statistics [http://nces.ed.gov/]*, and three
Regional Development Banks: *Asian Development Bank – Education
[http://www.adb.org/Education/default.asp]*, *Association for the Development of Education in Africa
[http://www.adeanet.org/adeaPortal/]*, and *Inter-American Development Bank – Education
[www.iadb.org/sds/edu/]*. Available statistics include rates of enrollment, drop out, specializations,
graduation rates and portion of the general population with post-secondary education. OECD includes
higher education financial data including portion of public expenditures allocated to higher education,
portion of higher education expenditures from non-government sources, and unit expenditures. These
data are not as complete in either the UNESCO or World Bank data sets, though they are improving over
time. Data sets do not yet include academic achievement or unit expenditures/faculty, but these are
currently under construction.
*Asian Development Bank – Education [http://www.adb.org/Education/default.asp]*
This agency contains comprehensive and broad information on education, in particular educational
reform and development, for Asian countries
*Association for the Development of Education in Africa [http://www.adeanet.org/adeaPortal/]*
This agency created in 1988 in an attempt to establish links between ministries of education and
development agencies provides databases and plentiful information on education policies and the
transformation of education for development.
*Eurostat [http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/eurostat/home]*
This portal site of the European Union provides information and statistics on European Union affairs by
theme that allow comparison between countries and regions in an attempt to help EU Member States
make decisions on a concrete foundation of reliable and objective statistics.
*Inter-American Development Bank – Education [www.iadb.org/sds/edu/]*
This agency with objectives of alleviation of poverty and inequality and sustainable development for
Latin America and the Caribbean countries contains over 1,000 searchable statistics and indicators
which create a wide-ranging dataset for the region. A dataset of educational indicators is provided in
the subsection titled “Sociometro”.
*Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development[OECD] [www.oecd.org/education/database]*
OECD’s educational database serve as reliable database in that they are based on documents and
reports Ministries of Education or National Statistical offices provide. In particular, there are two useful
annual publications: Education Policy Analysis and Education at a Glance, which compile comparable
indicators on country-specific education systems’ performance, quality, equity, and efficiency.
*UNESCO Education [http://www.unesco.org/en/education]*
UNESCO is one of the most comprehensive sources of educational dataset worldwide. *Institute for
Statistics [http://www.uis.unesco.org]*provides a multitude of publications and numerical data. Also, it
contains resources for higher education and important international higher education policy issues
*online [http://www.unesco.org/en/higher-education].
*USAID: Education & Universities [http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/education_and_universities/highered/index.html]*
The principal U.S. Agency focusing on foreign assistance also works in the field of higher education,
especially in terms of contribution of education to political, economic, and social development. It is
possible to acquire many publications and reports on higher education from *Higher Education for
Development[HED] [http://www.hedprogram.org/]*and specific education data from *USAID Global
Education Database [http://ged.eads.usaidallnet.gov/]*which includes data from UNESCO and the
Demographic and Health Surveys.
*U.S. National Center for Education Statistics [http://nces.ed.gov/]*
The primary federal entity of the U.S., NCES gathers and analyzes data associated with education in
the country and other countries. NCES annually makes public a wide range of education statistics and
publications.
*World Bank Education [www.worldbank.org]*
As another huge epicenter of data and researches on various sectors, World Bank provides a rich,
comparable and up-to-date range of data and indicators on education as well through its *Education
data page [http://data.worldbank.org/topic/education]*
ACCESS AND EQUITY
Stemming from WWII, the principal equity concern has been the selectivity of higher education and its
fairness to marginal populations, working class families, low-income minorities, residents of rural areas.
Since no nation, including the Soviet Union, has ever had a system where the portion of students exactly
mirrored their portion of the general population, much of the debate has centered on interventions which
hold the potential of raising the portion of underserved populations in higher education (see Clancy and
Goastellec 2007). This has raised tensions on grounds that need for assistance might contrast with ability,
hence the concern over whether under-served populations were sufficiently prepared for university work
and whether the efficiency of the economy was inhibited by inattention to the more able (though they
originate disproportionately from middle class families). Recent work on access and equity however has
broken into new areas. Traditionally it was thought that the gap in higher education quality was widening
between wealthy and poor countries and with every new technological innovation, and that this gap only
increased. Now with the wide-spread use of electronic technologies in higher education, it may be
possible to narrow instead of widen the gap. The fact that a student with electronic access in Shanghai
may have the same level of bibliographic resources as the student in Boston (see Capshaw 2008)
suggests that the equity issues of the future may be cast quite differently than they have in the past.
Similarly, the struggle over alternative sources of higher education income has traditionally revolved
around tuition fees. It has been a common understanding that higher tuition raises a handicap to those
from low-income families; hence the struggle has been to keep tuition low or non-existent on the grounds
that to not do so would hurt the poor. New cross-national surveys of student populations in countries with
different higher education systems have now challenged this traditional notion (Arun et al. 2007).
Countries with a wide divergence in higher education missions and a wide divergence in tuitions have
been found to have higher portions of the poor enrolled. Moreover, the higher the portion of income from
sources other than the state (which can include tuition and other sources), the larger the portion of low
income students with higher education opportunity. The future of this issue internationally is likely to
continue to challenge these traditional assumptions that because it is free it is therefore advantageous to
the poor.
Arun, Richard, Adam Gamoran, and Yossi Shavit. 2007. More Inclusion than Diversion: Expansion,
Differentiation, and Market Structure in Higher Education. In Stratification in Higher Education: A
Comparative Study, ed. Yossi Shavit, Richard Arum, and Adam Gamoran, 1-39. Stanford: Stanford
University Press.
This is the first cross-national study of the influence of higher education structures on socio-economic
representation in higher education institutions. The book contends that systems where institutions have
diverse missions and large portions of income from non-state sources have higher access and higher
portions of students from low income backgrounds within their student populations.
Capshaw, Norman Clark. 2008. Do Electronic Technologies Increase or Narrow Differences in Higher
Education Quality Between Low and High Income Countries? Peabody Journal of Education 83, no. 1:
117-42.
An attempt to figure out how technologies of the internet and computers have influenced the gap in
higher education quality, focusing on the U.S. first and low- to middle-income countries second
Clancy, Patrick and Gaele Goastellec. 2007. Exploring Access and Equity in Higher Education: Policy and
Performance in a Comparative Perspective. Higher Education Quarterly 61, no. 2: 136-54.
This article conducts a comprehensive analysis of some commonalities and differences in national
policies of access and equity in higher education between countries and introduces some problems of
measuring equity in and access to higher education from a comparative perspective
Skilbeck, Malcolm and Helen Connell. 2000. Access and Equity in Higher Education: an International
Perspective on Issues and Strategies. Dublin: Higher Education Authority.
A report on the international range of equity issues in terms of legislative framework for pursuing equity
in Ireland, fundamental concepts in the equity debate, current state of equity in higher education, and
issues and problems that primary equity target groups are confronted with and applicable strategies
and approaches to accomplish greater quality in higher education
Stromquist, Nell P. 2005. Comparative and International Education: A Journey toward Equality and Equity.
Harvard Educational Review 75, no. 1: 89-111.
Discussion of issues of equality and equity in the context of the comparative and international
education including gender in education, non-formal education, globalization, international finance
agencies and translational organizations as new educational actors, and public policies in education
GOVERNANCE
Rapid growth in enrollment rates (massification), rapid improvements in quality, new standards of equity
yet insufficient public resources have combined to drive major shifts in higher education governance. A
university of 20 years ago might have been considered ‘autonomous’ if it had control over academic
content and faculty appointments. Today, the definition of autonomy includes sources of revenue,
remuneration policies, ownership of property, admissions, allocation of scholarships, and managerial
structures. Originally thought of as ‘privatization’ today these areas of governance are considered the
normal components of good management. The literature on university governance such as Heyneman
(2009) and Thompson (1998) reflects shifts in the nature and function of the state from one of control to
that of supervision. It also reflects managerial choices which universities now must face. These include
the choice of breadth vs. depth of endeavor; the range of topics to cover; the type of student market to
target; the question of whether they are a developer (rare) or a deliverer (more common) of knowledge.
Bad or naïve choices may contribute to over-expectations and inefficiencies (see Thompson, 1998).
Amaral, Alberto, Glen A. Jones, and Berit Karseth,ed. 2002. Governing Higher Education: National
Perspectives on Institutional Governance. Dordrecht: Springer.
Analysis of higher education governance (jurisdiction) issues and reforms in nine countries from
different theoretical perspectives and presentation of empirical evidence and theoretical approaches to
examine system-level reforms and institutional governance issues
Heyneman, Stephen P. 2009. The Appropriate Role of Government in Education. Journal of Higher
Education Policy 3, no. 2: 135-57.
A review of the origins and purpose of public education and higher education and a discussion of the
roles and responsibilities of the government in education
Huisman, Jeroen, ed. 2009. International Perspectives on the Governance of Higher Education:
Alternative frameworks for coordination. New York: Routledge.
In an attempt to answers to a question of how to better comprehend governance in higher education
and its impact, this paper concentrates on three directions: the traditional approaches (application of
existing governance frameworks), deviation from the traditional approaches, and new and complex
interaction of governance and cooperation
Kennedy, Kerry. J. 2003. Higher Education Governance as a Key Policy Issue in the 21st Century.
Educational Research for Policy and Practice 2, no. 1: 55-70.
Introduction of governance in terms of its definition, its significance in current higher education, the
social, political, and economic condition governance should consider, and the desirable features of
university governance in the 21st century
Paradeise, Catherine, Emanuela Reale, Ivar Bleiklie, and Ewan Ferlie, ed. 2009. University Governance:
Western European Comparative Perspectives. Dordrecht: Springer.
Analysis of the structure, governance, and management of seven Western European higher education
and research systems from the perspective of national dynamics, organizational design, and the
changes introduced through steering tools
Thompson, Quentin. 1998. Trends in Governance and Management of Higher Education. Human
Development Department LCSHD Paper Series No. 33. Washington, D.C.: The World Bank.
A report on trends in higher education governance and management primarily in the English speaking
OECD countries, the impact of external environmental changes on higher education governance, and
governance and management at the institutional level in terms of changes within higher education
institutions
Trakman, Leon. 2008. Modeling University Governance. Higher Education Quarterly 62, no. 1-2: 63-83.
Evaluation of competing trends in types of university governance in three countries, the U.K., Australia,
and the U.S. and description of five models of board level governance in higher education institutions
and the models’ practical application
HUMAN CAPITAL, ECONOMICS AND FINANCE
Early human capital models suggested that public or private investment in higher education led to positive
economic rates of return and could explain a sizeable portion of the variation in economic growth and
innovation. However, with the rates of enrollment above 50% of the age cohort, the economic rates of
return to higher education might be expected to decline. Instead they have been maintained. Wage
differences between high school and college completion in OECD countries have increased rather than
decreased. Today, attending some sort of higher education is becoming the norm rather than the
exception. On the other hand explanations of economic growth have shifted. Economic growth used to be
attributed to the quantity of education to which an age cohort had been exposed; today the major portion
of the variance can be explained by the quality of learning to which an age cohort has attained But
economic growth is also influenced by the style of higher education. Land grant institutions may have
made a large contribution to the economic growth in the American west With respect to finance there has
been a long-standing observation as to the characteristics of ‘cost sharing’ the need to finance higher
education with a combination of resources from the state and the student. It also includes the discussion
over the characteristics of student loan programs which may be feasible in the context of a particular
country Equal attention has been paid to how financing can be used to augment organizational efficiency.
Performance-based funding schemes have become more common
Bennell, Paul. 1996. Using and Abusing the Rates of Return: A Critique of the World Bank. International
Journal of Educational Development 16, no. 3: 235-48
Examination of how the World Bank’s 1995 Education Sector Review draws on the research of rate of
return to education, whether patterns of internationally acknowledged rate of return to education are in
existence, and the role of rate of return to education in economic analysis of education
Bowman, Mary J. 1962. The Land Grant Colleges and Universities in Human Development. Journal of
Economic History 22, No. 4: 523-46.
Examination of the diffusive and indirect impacts of land-grant higher education institutions and their
activities on human resource development and the contribution of land-grant activities to American
economic growth
Hanuskek, Eric and Ludger Wobmann. 2007. The Role of Education Quality for Economic Growth. The
World Bank Policy Research Working Paper Series No. 4122. Washington, D.C.
A review of the role of education, in particular education quality, which is representative of the cognitive
skills, in promoting economic welfare, which is expressed in individual earnings, income distribution,
and economic growth
Heyneman, Stephen P. 1995. Economics of Education: Disappointments and Potential. UNESCO
Prospects XXV, no. 4: 559-83.
This article summarizes the problems with using economic rates of return to make investment
decisions in higher education. It explains the categories of education questions to which economic
rates of return can inform and the categories of education investment issues on which economic rates
of return have no useful role.
Johnstone, Bruce D. and Pamela N. Marcucci. 2007. Worldwide Trends in Higher Education Finance:
Cost-Sharing, Student Loans, and the Support of Academic Research. UNESCO.
Discussion of six worldwide trends underlying the financing of higher education, trends in the contexts
of country-specific and global politics and ideology, and such solutions as cost-side solutions, costsharing, student loans and government’s financial sponsorship for research and development in
response to financial pressures and growing demands for accountability
Jongbloed, Ben and Hans Vossensteyn. 2001. Keeping up Performances: An International Survey of
Performance-Based Funding in Higher Education. Journal of Higher Education Policy and Management
23, no. 2: 127-45.
Exploration of national government policies for funding higher education in 11 OECD countries and a
description of mechanisms for funding the higher education sector and the multitude of how grants to
higher education institutions are oriented on performance
Shin, Jung Cheol. 2010. Impacts of Performance-based Accountability on Institutional Performance in the
U.S. Higher Education. DOI: 10.1007/s10734-0099285-y
This article analyzes the changes in institutional performance in the United States resulting from the
adoption of the new standards of accountability. The article discovers that performance has not
improved with performance-based accountability.
Task Force on Higher Education and Society. 2000. Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and
Promise. Washington, D.C. World Bank.
A report on the future of higher education in developing countries in the context of higher education’s
problems and new realities, public interest in higher education, higher education as a system,
governance, science and technology education, and need to develop general education curricular
Task Force on Higher Education and Society. 2004. Moderated Discussion: The Task Force on Higher
Education and Society. Comparative Education Review 48, no. 1: l70-88.
Description of three different comments on the Task Force on Higher Education and Society’s 2000
report (Higher Education in Developing Countries: Peril and Promise): introductory comment
(background to the report, the impact of the report on the World Bank’s programs and priorities, the
content of the report, and the impact of the report
ACCREDITION AND QUALITY ASSURANCE
New non-government institutions have been founded in Africa, Asia, Latin American and the former
Soviet Union. Some are branches of well-known universities in OECD countries; others are newly-formed
and well financed; others are no more than profit-making proprietary schools. There has been a growing
literature on how standards can be maintained for these new institutions and others can be accredited.
Billing, David. 2004. International Comparisons and Trends in External Quality Assurance of Higher
Education: Commonality or Diversity? Higher Education 47, no. 1: 113-37.
A comparative study on the major national external quality assurance frameworks for higher education
in the context of commonality and diversity
Brennan, John L. and Tarla Shah. 2000. Managing Quality in Higher Education: An International
Perspective on Institutional Assessment and Change. McGraw-Hill Education
Clarification of the purposes, methods, and impacts of national systems of quality assessment and
management in higher education institutions that are elucidated through a series of case studies on the
experiences of 29 institutions and 7 national quality agencies in 17 countries
Gaither, Gaither H, ed. 1998. Quality Assurance in Higher Education: An International Perspective. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Presentation of some of the best quality assurance policies, practices, and procedures in higher
education which are identified in five countries
Uvalic-Trumbic, Stamenka. 2002. Globalization and the Market in Higher Education: Quality,
Accreditation and Qualifications. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
Exploration of the probable extent of an international framework in quality assurance, accreditation,
and qualification and the potential limitations of the framework and discussion of how governments and
higher education institutions are acting in response to the challenge of global markets in higher
education
Van Damme, Dirk. 2002. Trends and Models in International Quality Assurance and Accreditation in
Higher Education in Relation to Trade in Education Services. Higher Education Management and Policy
14, no. 3: 93-136.
Providing an analytical and descriptive overview of trends and models in quality assurance
contributable to transnational regulation of trade in higher education with an emphasis on four models
of development of international quality assurance
Westerheijden, Don F., Bjorn Stensaker, and Maria J. Rosa, ed. 2007. Quality assurance in higher
education: Trends in regulation, translation and transformation. Dordrecht: Springer.
Description of quality assurance in higher education in terms of the impact of quality assurance on
higher education system, quality assurance in relation to regulation, translation, and transformation,
problems of current quality assurance practices, and proposals for better quality assurance in dealing
with institutional challenges
Wit, Hans de and Jane A. Knight. 1999. Quality and Internationalisation in Higher Education. Paris:
OECD.
Discussion of the internationalization of higher education and quality assurance in terms of its concepts
and review process, presentation of case studies of internationalization quality review process in six
countries, and analysis of the uses, benefits, approaches, and issues in internationalization quality
review process of higher education
THE ROLE OF INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
Because policies for improvement are in high demand, because higher education development costs are
high for low and middle income countries, and because of the premium for student and faculty exchanges,
research collaboration and clarifications in the international regulatory environment, there has been a
growing literature on the role of international organizations.. This literature covers trade organizations
(WTO), international banks (the World Bank and the regional development banks), U.N. professional
agencies (UNESCO) and institutions to maximize regional cooperation and development (EU, SEAMEO).
Altbach, Philip G. 2001. Higher Education and the WTO: Globalization Run Amok. International Higher
Education 23: 2-5.
Discussion of the rules of WTO and GATS in changed circumstances such as inequalities among the
world’s universities exacerbated by globalization and the commercialization of knowledge and higher
education and each country’s need to control over its higher education.
Bassett, Roberta M. and Alma Maldonado-Maldonado. 2009. International Organizations and Higher
Education Policy: Thinking Globally, Acting Locally? New York: Routledge
A book describing the significance of international organizations as the global drivers behind higher
education policy, especially in developing countries and analyzing their impacts on the formulation and
implementation of national higher education policy and roles in higher education institutions
Heyneman, Stephen P. 2003. The History and Problems of Making Education Policy at the World Bank,
1960 – 2000. International Journal of Educational Development 23: 315-37.
Discussion of reasons of the World Bank’s growing influence on the global education agenda and,
however, of its ineffective policies that in some cases create significant educational distortions
Jones, Phillip W. 1992 World Bank Financing of Education: Lending, Learning and Development. London:
Routledge.
Description of the World Bank as a driving force of the major changes in global education, specifically
the history and evolution of the Bank’s lending policies in education, the Bank’s education lending
project experiences, and the Bank’s influence on formulation of educational policy of a lot of countries
Jones, Phillip W and David Coleman. 2005. The United Nations and Education: Multilateralism,
Development and Globalization. London: Routledge
Description of four key agencies within the UN system, UNESCO, the World Bank, UNICEF, and UNDP
during the period of the post-Cold War in terms of their commitment to the promotion of worldwide
advancement of education.
Jones, Phillip W. 2006 Education, Poverty and the World Bank. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers
Description of the World Bank’s role in education, in particular the expansion and reform of education
systems, and the World Bank’s policies and projects for education and education systems since 1963
within the context of promoting economic growth and alleviating poverty.
CORRUPTION
One purpose of higher education is to offer an opportunity for the more able to prove themselves worthy
of specialized, often expensive training. Such training frequently leads to positions of societal leadership
in the arts, politics, the military, business, law, medicine and many other fields. It is important for nations
to have leaders who have achieved their positions on the basis of what they have accomplished rather
than on inheritance, military force, or wealth. As a profession, faculty members in a university have a
code of ethics not unlike medical doctors. They are obligated to treat all students fairly and to judge their
work on the basis of achievement rather than on race, ethnicity, gender or other characteristics acquired
at birth. In the last decade however, it has been discovered first in the former Soviet Union then
elsewhere that university systems can be corrupt. Admission and good grades can be acquired for a
price; university accreditation can be purchased illegally; research can be plagiarized. The literature on
these tendencies began with the definition and description of higher education corruption Altbach (2004)
and Heyneman (2004) open the discussion of its definition. Hallak and Poisson (2007) open the
discussion of how to manage it as a problem and Rumyantseva (2005) relates the issues of higher
education to corruption in the economy more generally. It then progressed to noting the differences
between regions (see Heyneman 2009a; Osipian 2008) and lastly to issues of its adverse economic
impact (see Heyneman et al. 2008) and social development (see Heyneman 2009b).
Altbach, Philip G. 2004. The Question of Corruption in Academe. International Higher Education 34: 7-8.
Discussion of professional corruption such as academic posts, plagiarism, and promotion process, the
examination system considered a common site for corruption, and causes and effects of academic
corruption
Hallak, Jacques and Muriel Poisson. 2007. Corrupt Schools, Corrupt Universities: What can be Done?
Paris: Institute for International Educational Planning.
A report on educational corruption in terms of definition, a conceptual framework, diagnosis of
corruption phenomena, and factors conducive to explaining the development of corrupt practices,
applicable strategies to improve transparency and accountability, and policy recommendations to
combat educational corruption
Heyneman, Stephen P. 2004. Education and Corruption. International Journal of Educational
Development, 24(6), pp. 637-648.
Discussion of the definition and importance of corruption in education, description of various types of
corruption and their causes, and introduction of four categories of reforms designed to minimize the
risk of educational corruption
Heyneman, Stephen P. 2007. Buying your way into heaven: The Corruption of Education Systems in
Global Perspectives. Perspectives on Global Issues, 2(1), pp. 1-8.
Explanation of the meanings of education corruption and how it works, illustration of the effects of
corruption, and provision of measures to deal with education corruption
Heyneman, Stephen P., Anderson, K.H. & Nuraliyeva, Z. 2008. The Cost of Corruption in Higher
Education. Comparative Education Review, 52(1), pp. 1-25.
Discussion of corruption in higher education in Europe and Central Asia along with empirical evidence
in incidence of corruption and empirical analysis of the impacts of corruption on educational attainment
and private economic return
Heyneman, Stephen P., ed. 2009b. Buying Your way into Heaven: Education and Corruption in
International Perspective. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
A book compiling discussions of corruption in higher education in global perspective
Osipian, Ararat L. 2008. Corruption in Higher Education: does it differ across the nations and why?
Research in Comparative and International Education 3, no. 4: 345-65.
Discussion of the differences in types of corruption in higher education across countries, the multitude
of the differences, and the reason of the differences
Rumyantseva, Nataliya L. 2005. Taxonomy of Corruption in Higher Education. Peabody Journal of
Education 80, no. 1: 81-92.
Exploration of the common forms of corruption in higher education in developing countries, the features
of educational-specific corruptions, and two types of educational corruption (corruption with and without
students directly involved in)
SOCIAL COHESION
One purpose of schools and universities is to influence social as well as economic behavior. It has been
noticed however that the influence of schools and universities can be negative as well as positive; that is,
under certain circumstance they have been known to exacerbate social tensions. But how are these
influences defined and characterized; and how might they be measured. These are the questions which
originally motivated Heyneman 2007a and Moiseyenko 2005. Since then, questions have arisen as to
how universities in different contexts operate to influence social cohesion. Work has been done on the
Netherlands (see Bastedo 2007), Indonesia (see Kraince 2007), South Africa (see Lesko 2007) and
Central Asia (see Heyneman 2007b). This has then stimulated work such as Heuser 2007 on the
question of social cohesion within universities.
Bastedo, Michael N. 2007. Rethinking Governance from the Bottom Up: The Case of Muslim Students in
Dutch Universities. UNESCO Prospects XXXVII, no. 3 (September): 319-32.
Discussion of faculty members’ perspective on the role of the university in promoting social cohesion
and the integration of Islamic minorities in Dutch society and the governance implications for fostering
social cohesion
Heuser, Brian L. 2007. Academic Social Cohesion within Higher Education. UNESCO Prospects XXXVII,
no. 3 (September): 293-303.
Exploration of the theoretical foundations of academic social cohesion within higher education
institutions and the role of universities as moral institutions in promoting moral awareness, in particular
academic social cohesion
Heyneman, Stephen P. 2007a. Higher Education and Social Cohesion: A Comparative Perspective. In
Higher Education in the 21st Century: Global Challenges and Innovative Ideas, ed. Philip G. Altbach and
Patti McGill Peterson, 55-78. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Discussion of how higher education institutions affect social cohesion and provision of comparative
filed studies describing the successes and failures of higher education institutions in dealing with social
cohesion in six countries: Indonesia, South Africa, the Netherlands, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and
Georgia
Heyneman, Stephen P. 2007b. Three Universities in Georgia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan: the Struggle
Against Corruption and For Social Cohesion. UNESCO Prospects, no. 3 (September): 305-18.
Discussion of the relationship between higher education and social cohesion and exploration certain
areas for universities to influence social cohesion in Georgia, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan
Kraince, Richard G. 2007. Islamic Higher Education and Social Cohesion in Indonesia. UNESCO
Prospects XXXVII, no. 3 (September): 345-56
A report exploring public Islamic higher education institutions’ role in cultivating better relations
between a variety of religious communities and social cohesion in post-authoritarian Indonesia
Lesko, Nancy. 2007. University Teaching and Social Cohesion in the age of HIV/AIDS: A South African
Case Study. UNESCO Prospects XXXVII, no. 3 (September): 333-44.
Examination of the relationships between university curriculum and teaching, HIV/AIDS, and social
cohesion, specifically teaching about HIV/AIDS in two departments at a university and the teaching
implications for social cohesion
Moiseyenko, Olena. 2005. Education and Social Cohesion: Higher Education. Peabody Journal of
Education 80, no. 4: 89-104.
Presentation of how higher education institutions affect social cohesion and higher education
institutions’ role in fostering social cohesion in local communities
COMPETITION AND RANKING
Higher education competition makes many uncomfortable. Shouldn’t a university education be considered
as a source of personal growth and intellectual stimulation? However, competition within and across
countries is a new reality (see Hendel and Ingo 2008; Marginson 2006) and in many ways it is a
competition with increasingly shared criteria for excellence and displays of results (see Usher and Savino
2006). Systems which attempt to rank universities internationally have emerged in Europe, the U.K.,
China and the U.S. The question is what effect do they have. See Dill and Soo (2005) for a comparison of
the U.S., the U.K., Australia and Canada. See Hazelkorn (2007) for a general overview of ranking;
Högskoleverket (2009) for in terms of the history of ranking. Other parts of the literature cover how
ranking systems should be handled in terms of public policy. See Hendel and Ingo (2008) for a discussion
of the implications within Europe; Margingson and van der Wende (2007) for a discussion of how they
factor into the global higher education competition, Salmi and Saroyan (2007) on recommendations for
using them effectively, and Siganos (2008) for the influence of one specific system from China.
Dill, David D. and Maarja Soo. 2005. Academic Quality, League Tables, and Public Policy: A CrossNational Analysis of University Ranking. Higher Education 49, no. 4: 495-533.
Comparison of national university ranking systems through a comparative analysis in four countries
(Australia, Canada, the U.K. and the U.S.) and examination of ranking systems’ effect on institutional
decision making and policy
Hazelkorn, Ellen. 2007. The Impact of League Tables and Ranking Systems on Higher Education
Decision Making. Higher Education Management and Policy 19, no. 2: 81-105.
An overview of effect of ranking systems and league table on higher education institution decision
making on a basis of a comprehensive world-wide survey of higher education leaders and senior
managers
Hendel, Darwin D. and Stolz Ingo. 2008. A Comparative Analysis of higher Education Ranking Systems in
Europe. Tertiary Education and Management 14, no. 3 (October): 173–89.
A comparative analysis of a number of European higher education ranking systems and presentation
of a model categorizing qualitative indicators for comparing ranking systems
*Högskoleverket (Swedish National Agency for Higher Education)[http://www.hsv.se/]*. 2009. Ranking of
Universities and Higher Education Institutions for Student Information Purposes? Report 2009: 27R,
Swedish National Agency for Higher Education.
A report describing the ranking phenomenon for universities and other higher education institutions in
terms of history and current trends and many existing ranking systems at the international and
domestic levels and discussing the preconditions for ranking and the pros and cons of ranking as
information for students
Marginson, Simon. 2006. Dynamics of National and Global Competition in Higher Education. Higher
Education 52, no. 1: 1-39.
Explanation of the dynamics of national and global competition in higher education and discussion of
interactions between national and global competition by exploring Australian higher education in the
context of the vertical segmentation of national higher education systems and national and global
competition’s interface
Margingson, Simon and Marjik van der Wende. 2007. To Rank or to be Ranked: The Impact of Global
Rankings in Higher Rducation.Journal of Studies in International Education 11, no. 3-4: 306-29. entre for
Higher Education Policy Studies, University of Twente.
Discussion of global university rankings, in particular the Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU) and
the Times Higher Education Supplement, research in global rankings, and possible methodological
problems and policy limitations
Siganos, André. 2008. Rankings, Governance, and Attractiveness of Higher Education: The New French
Context. Higher Education in Europe 33, no. 2-3: 311–16.
Illustration of the influence of the Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU) ranking on the French higher
education and the definition of a university at the regional, national, and international levels
Salmi, Jamil and Alenoush Saroyan. 2007. League Tables as Policy Instruments: Uses and Misuses.
Higher Education Management and Policy 19, no. 2: 24-62.
Outlining league table’ usefulness and role in measuring and comparing higher education institutions’
performance in a variety of countries and providing recommendations for effective usage of rankings
by institutions and national policy makers
Usher, Alex and Massimo Savino. 2006. A World of Difference: A Global Survey of University League
Tables. Canadian Education Report Series. Toronto, ON: Educational Policy Institute.
A discussion of 19 university league tables and ranking systems across the globe, the way they are
selected, they serve as measurement of quality, they collect data for quality measurement, and they
measure quality, and an alternative to the league table format
FUTURE ISSUES
At the time it may have seemed like a major innovation when first introduced in Europe in the 1970s, but
land grant universities had been employing distance teaching since WWII. What has changed for all
institutions however is the technologies available. With electronic data bases the norm and instantaneous
connection available in many parts of the world, high quality higher education can be delivered to nontraditional students (older students with high opportunity costs) and outside of major urban centers (see
Capshaw 2007, Capshaw 2008; Collins and van der Wende 2002; Denman 2009). Approximately one
half of the higher education student population in the U.S. is over 40; most attend at night, on weekends,
after work, and by internet. The trend is quicker in some countries than others, but seems unidirectional
(see Heyneman 2001; Heyneman 2006). Because higher education is now a commodity, it is the subject
of international trade discussions and this has created debates that are explored in Barblan 2002, Knight
2006, and Payne 2008. Some such as Tilak 2008 have argued for the maintenance of rules and
regulations which would restrict international provision of higher education and of private higher education,
whereas others such as Agarwal 2009 have argued that nations require open borders to take advantage
of innovations in quality. Heyneman 2007, on the other hand, asserts that having access to high quality
international education is a human right. Lastly is the question of university relations with industry. It may
be essential for a research university to have creative and long-standing relations with local or
international firms; there are mutual benefits for all partners. But the relationship can have drawbacks and
raise problems of bias and challenges to academic freedom (see Baker 2007). What is certain however is
that government policy toward research funding and university strategies to maximize public and private
resources can significantly enhance the future of research universities (see Goodet al. 2007; Hatakenaka
2009).
Changes in technology
Capshaw, Norman C. 2008. Do electronic technologies increase or narrow differences in higher
education quality between low‐ and high‐income countries? Peabody Journal of Education 83, no. 1:
117-32.
An attempt to figure out how technologies of the internet and computers have influenced the gap in
higher education quality, focusing on the U.S. first and low- to middle-income countries second
Capshaw, Norman C. 2007 How the Internet Affects Higher Education: A Multi-Country Analysis.
Saarbrucken, Germany: VDM Verlag.
Focusing on the gaps of access to and quality in higher education between high income and low-tomiddle income countries and whether the gaps will expand or narrow, this book both quantitatively and
qualitatively investigates the internet and computer technology’s spread and effect.
Collis, Betty and Marijk van der Wende, ed. 2002. Models of Technology and Change in Higher Education:
an International Comparative Survey on the Current and Future use of ICT in Higher Education . Center
for Higher Education Policy Studies (CHEPS)
Comparative exploration of possible four scenarios that the use of information and communication
technology (ICT) in teaching and learning in higher education will yield, of strategic choices and
responses to use ICT of higher education institutions across seven countries, and of conditions that
influence the strategic responses and choices
Denman, Brian. 2009. Higher Education by Distance: Opportunities and Challenges at National and
International levels. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the 53rd Annual Conference of the
Comparative and International Education Society, March 22, in Charleston, South Carolina.
Discussion of distance higher education in terms of current key concepts’ definition relevant to
distance higher education delivery and trends in quality assurance, and report on a case study
exploring types of distance higher education delivery in four countries
Heyneman, Stephen P. 2001. The Growing International Commercial Market for Educational Goods and
Services. International Journal of Educational Development 21: 345-59.
A paper defining education products and services, outlining the structure of the two sub-sectors,
describing the size of commercial activity and its trends, and reviewing the challenges and
opportunities for those interested in this arena.
Heyneman, Stephen P. 2006. Global Issues in Higher Education. eJournal USA. Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Department of State. http://www.america.gov/st/businessenglish/2006/February/20080608095226xjyrreP0.6231653.html.
Discussion of global influences on higher education in terms of three ambitions of education (access,
quality, and equity), financial resources, and social cohesion
Industry relations
Baker, David P. 2007. Mass Higher Education and the Super Research University: A Symbiotic
Relationship. International Higher Education, no. 49, Fall.
Discussion of two major world-wide transformations in higher education, expansion and massification
of higher education and the advent and flourishing of the super research university, largely in the USA
Good, David, Suzanne Greenwald, Roy Cox, and Megan Goldman, ed. 2007. University Collaboration for
Innovation: Lessons from the Cambridge-MIT Institute. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers.
Description and exploration of a new form of academic enterprise (international university
collaboration), the Cambridge-MIT Institute (CMI), which is an attempt to bring together the
complementary strengths of each university, in the context of the successful integration of knowledge
into research, and the outcomes of a strategic alliance of the two universities
Hatakenaka, Sachi. 2009. Higher Education in Innovation and Economic Development. International
Higher Education, no. 56 (Summer): 2-3.
Discussion of different roles that higher education plays in the context of higher education institutions
and the industry
The role of education in international trade
Agarwal, Pawan. 2009. Indian Higher Education: Envisioning the Future. Thousand Oaks: Sage
Publications.
Identifying the needs and gaps in higher education in India, this book presents some suggestions for
improvement of higher education, which are drawn from other countries’ experiences and outlines a
framework applicable to create a competitive environment in higher education.
Tilak, Jandhyala B.G. 2008. Higher Education: A Public Good or a Commodity for Trade? UNESCO
Prospects 38, no. 4: 449-66.
Description of the shift in perception on the nature of higher education from a public good to a private
and tradable good and of dangerous implication the shift brings about
Heyneman, Stephen P. 2007. International Trade in Higher Education: What Should India Do? India
Economic Review 4, 4 (December): 86-93.
Discussion of current condition of India’s higher education and of pros and cons of international trade
in education
Knight, Jane. 2006. Higher Education Crossing Borders: A Guide to the Implications of the General
Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) for Cross-Border Education. Vancouver and Paris:
Commonwealth of Learning and UNESCO.
A report examining different aspects, in particular complexities and challenges, of cross-border
education and providing basic information on the principles and rules of GATS and key issues related
to GATS and higher education policy and practice
Payne, Brandon 2008. Compulsion, Craft or Commodity? Education Services Trade in the Larger Context.
Peabody Journal of Education 83, no. 1: 133-53.
A study examining the relationship between trade openness and openness to trade in education in 162
countries and between the strength of commitments to lower barriers to all trade and commitments to
lower barriers to education
Barblan, Andris. 2002. The International Provision of Higher Education: Do Universities Need GATS?
Higher Education Management and Policy 14, no. 3: 77-92.
Discussion of debate on whether or not universities need to make the commitment to the General
Agreement on Trade in Services (GATS) of the World Trade Organization (WTO) made by several
countries that export education