November, 2008
CCNS COASTAL POLICY FACTOR SUMMARIES
CLIMATE CHANGE
How does Climate Change affect the Coastal Zone?
Significantly reducing greenhouse gas emissions to well-below pre-1990 levels may
prevent catastrophic and irreversible alterations to the global climate in the future.
Nonetheless, for the next several decades we will be experiencing climate change impacts
as a result of the high levels of greenhouse gas we are emitting now.
Coastal areas are extremely vulnerable to climate change because:
 Many coastlines have low elevations, and are made up of unconsolidated materials
(sand, shale, gravel) that are highly susceptible to erosion
 Coasts receive fresh water discharge from upland areas, as well as tidal influx and
storm surges from the sea, so they are already at risk of flooding
 Coastal areas are home, habitat, and feeding grounds for many birds, plants and other
species at risk whose populations are already in decline
 Coastal areas are experience increasing development pressure that affects the coast’s
natural adaptability and resiliency
Certain areas of the coastal zone are becoming increasingly vulnerable to climate change
impacts. The Natural Resources Canada report: From Impacts to Adaptation, Canada in a
Changing Climate (2008) outlines some of the changes predicted for coastal regions of
Atlantic Canada.
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Sea level rise (50 to 100 cm over the next 100 years along Atlantic Canada’s coasts)
Increases in mean annual temperature and precipitation (by 2050 annual summer
temperature increase between 2 and 4 degree Celsius across the Maritimes)
Accelerated erosion (Erosion rates in excess of 5m/year have been recorded on
beaches in the Chezzetcook area)
More frequent and extensive inland and coastal flooding,
Changes in the duration and extent of ice conditions
Damage to property and infrastructure (hurricane Juan in 2006 was the most
economically destructive storm in Atlantic Canada’s history)
More intense storms and accompanying storm surges (Currently, a storm surge of over
3.6 metres above mean sea level occurs approximately every 40 years. At projected
rates of sea level rise, storm surges of this height could occur annually in parts of
Atlantic Canada)
How is Nova Scotia’s coast impacted?
Detailed coastal sensitivity maps can be used to identify potential hazards such as coastal
flooding and storm surges, coastal erosion, and damage to coastal infrastructure , coastal
erosion and damage and/or the ecology of coastal areas. The sensitivity of the coast to
sea level rise depends on its geology, topography, exposure, and adjacent land uses.
Studies of the sensitivity’s of the coast to sea level rise has been conducted for all of
Atlantic Canada on a broad regional scale (Shaw et al 1998; NRCAN, 2008), and more
detailed assessments have been conducted for specific segments of the coastline. These
general reports indicate that with the exception of the Bay of Fundy coast, most of Nova
Scotia’s coastline is either highly or moderately sensitive to sea level rise (NRCAN,
2004) although there will be local variations in how coastal areas respond.
To make decisions on the varying degree of vulnerability in coastal areas, planners
require knowledge of local geology, soils, coastal features, topography, oceanography,
and predicted climate change impacts. Through the Climate Smart Initiative Halifax
Regional Municipality is using LIDAR mapping to identify its vulnerability to climate
change impacts in coastal areas. LIDAR generates new information about the elevation,
and current land uses along the coast and uses it to model flooding, erosion and storm
surge damage under different sea level rise scenarios. Smaller municipalities and
development authorities have less access to this kind of knowledge. They can obtain
useful information from other levels of government, local colleges and universities,
and/or residents. A methodology to help smaller towns and municipalities assess their
coastal vulnerability by identifying and mapping potentially hazardous areas is described
in Nicol (2008).
There are challenges to accurately monitoring coastal change. In Nova Scotia, the lack of
long term monitoring of coastal erosion rates, means that knowing present erosion rates
may not indicate the magnitude of the impact of past or future storm events
(NRCAN, 2008). Nova Scotia is already experiencing the impacts of climate change: In
the Southern Gulf of Saint Lawrence, there has been accelerated erosion and degradation
of the dune systems as a result of rising sea levels and increased human utilization of the
coast (NRCAN, 2008). Other sensitive coastlines are also facing high rates of erosion
and landward migration of beaches. The Geological Survey of Canada has produced a
report detailing the impact of Tropical Storm Noel on South Shore beach systems, and
infrastructure (http://gsc.nrcan.gc.ca/coast/storms/noel/index_e.php)
Adaptation approaches
The Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines “Adaptation” as:
“Adjustments in ecological, social or economic systems in response to actual or expected
climatic stimuli, and their effects and impacts ... (and) to changes in processes, practices
and structures to moderate potential damages or to benefit from opportunities associated
with climate change” (ICCP, 2001). There are three broad categories of adaptation:
planned retreat, accommodation, and protection. A community/individual needs to decide
which approach is most appropriate to take in a given situation (e.g. what is worth
protecting and what can be let go?). In some cases a hybrid of these approaches is
appropriate.
Planned retreat
Planned retreat involves abandoning areas closest to the shore that are most at risk to be
damaged, or constructing only temporary structures in hazardous areas.
Accommodation
Accommodations involves constructing structures (reinforced or on pilings) in ways that
minimize damage from floods or storms, or developing land use and zoning plans that
allow only those structures that must be built on the shoreline (e.g fish processing plants)
while prohibiting others.
Protection
Protection involves physical reinforcement of the shoreline by hard (shoreline wall, riprap) or soft measures (restoring salt marshes, vegetated buffer zones). Hard measures are
often costly and require on-going maintenance.
In a 2008 project, Kolowski states the need to move away from reactive adaptation
planning towards a more anticipatory approach. Anticipatory adaptation is often
performed when climate change predictions are available and is best carried out as “noregrets planning.” No-regrets planning is land use planning that provides a benefit no
matter the outcome of climate change (Smith and Lenhart, 1996). The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) currently generates and supplies scientific data related
to the impacts and predictions of climate change that can be used to support anticipatory
adaptation techniques.
Reactive adaptation is adaptation in response to existing or past impacts of climate
change and tries to minimize further damage caused by a changing climate. Reactive
adaptation is achieved based on known (or experienced) consequences of climate
change.
Planning for adaptation
Municipalities have the jurisdiction to use their powers over land use to control land use
in coastal areas. Yet in most cases, the lack of long term planning, funding, and available
lands to which to move infrastructure are limiting factors for adaptation (Delusca et al,
2006). The Ecology Action Centre prepared a report called Changing Climate, Changing
Coasts (2007), which contains case studies of types of vulnerabilities facing Nova
Scotia’s coastal municipality and a discussion of some potential adaptation approaches.
Halifax Regional Municipality has prepared a Climate Change Risk Management
Framework, as well as some guidelines for developers with suggestions on how to
include climate change adaptation in new construction.
Nicol (2008) outlines an approach to climate change adaptation based on land use
planning and hazard assessment. Her approach relies heavily on hazard mitigation and
environmental planning principles and coastal planning and climate change adaptation
best practices. Some of these best practices include:
• Using zoning such as ‘Hazard Area’, ‘Environmentally Sensitive’, and ‘Floodplain’
used to prevent or restrict development in vulnerable areas and protect features such as
beaches and wetlands which buffer coastal erosion and flooding impacts.
•Horizontal setbacks to minimize erosion hazards. These can be based on the rate of
erosion per coastal feature, the rate of erosion based on an actual property, and/or the
expected lifetime of a structure. Vertical setbacks reduce flood-risk hazards.
•Regulating development by building size, type, density, lot size, and location of onsite
sewer systems is another option. This limits potential damage in vulnerable areas and
prevents the need for erosion control structures.
•Voluntary tools such as Transfer of Development Rights (TRD) and Rolling Easements
(RE) keep land in private ownership but restricts development in specific areas.
•Existing development in vulnerable areas presents a particular challenge. Grandfathering
existing uses but encouraging retrofitting is a common approach. Limits on rebuilding
following major damage from a coastal-hazard can be included in grandfathering
policies.
Citizens and communities also have a role in preparing for climate change by
participating in climate change vulnerability assessments, helping identify and value
coastal features and attributes that should be protected, and ultimately in deciding to
modifying their own practices to adapt to changing conditions along the coast (EC,
2006).
The Climate Change impacts facing Nova Scotia and Atlantic Canada will require
coordination and action beyond municipal and community level. Comprehensive
provincial coastal policies, such as the New Brunswick Coastal Area Protection Policy
are critical in restricting new developments in vulnerable coastal areas (EC, 2006). The
lack of a comprehensive coastal policy in Nova Scotia makes adaptation planning
difficult at a provincial level (NRCAN, 2008). Thus far, LIDAR mapping and modeling
at a regional level (southeast New Brunswick, Prince Edward Islands, Halifax Regional
Municiapality) have required joint federal, provincial, and municipal funding.
The Ecology Action Centre’s (2008) submission to the provincial Department of Energy
as part of consultations around Nova Scotia’s climate change action plan suggested
moving forward on a provincial coastal management policy as priority for provincial
climate change adaptation. The Department of Environment is now the lead agency
tasked with developing a climate change action strategy for Nova Scotia. This plan is
expected to be released in Fall 2008. It is unclear whether adaptation efforts will be
included in this plan, however, the Spring 2008 provincial budget announced
$250,000,00 for climate change adaptation in Nova Scotia. The provincial Minister of
Environment has also publicly stated the need for federal funds to protect dykes and
transportation infrastructure from rising seal levels (CBC, 2008).
Resources
Reports about climate change impacts in Atlantic Canada and Nova Scotia
C-CIARN (2005) Adapting to Climate Change: An introduction for Canadian
Municipalities http://www.c-ciarn.ca/pdf/adaptation
Environment Canada. 2006. Impacts of Sea-Level Rise and Climate Change on the
Coastal Zone of Southeastern New Brunswick.
Natural Resources Canada (2004) Climate Change Impacts and Adaptation: A Canadian
Perspective. http://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/perspective/profile_e.php
Natural Resources Canada (2008) From Impacts to Adaptation. Canada in a Changing
Climate. http://adaptation.nrcan.gc.ca/impacts_to_adaptation
NS Department of Energy (2005) Adapting to a Changing Climate in Nova Scotia:
Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation Options. www.gov.ns.ca/nsde
Smith and Lenhart, 1996
Local Studies and projects
Clean Annapolis River Project (2005).
Clean Nova Scotia (ongoing). Vulnerability of Pictou Harbour to climate change.
Kolowski, A.2007. Planning for Climate Change and Coastal Management. Unpublished
Masters Project. Dalhousie University, School of Planning. Available at
http://ccns.chebucto.org/publications.htm (This thesis contains case studies of
vulnerability assessment and potential adaptation strategies for the Municipality of
Chester and the Municipality of Cumberland County)
Nicol, A. 2006. Planning for Coastal Area in the Context of Changing Climate
Conditions in Antigonish County. Dalhousie University, School of Planning. Available
at http://ccns.chebucto.org/publications.htm
Ecology Action Centre. 2007. Nova Scotia climate action plan and energy strategy: A
contract for a low-carbon future in Nova Scotia. Submitted to the Department of Energy,
December 18th, 2007.
http://www.ecologyaction.ca/energy_issues/publications/2007/071218_Submission_EAC
.pdf
Municipality of the District of Lunenburg. Secondary Municipal Planning Strategy.
http://wwww.modl.ca. Planning documents (contains maps based on LIDAR mapping
done by College of Geographic Sciences _
Region of Queens Municipality (2005). Municipal Planning Strategy. First Draft.
http//www.regionofqueens.com/documents/1st%
HRM Climate Smart (http://www.halifax.ca/climate/index.html),
Adaptation resources
Coastal Wetlands Institute and Rural and Small Town program. 2006. Workshop Report:
Salt Marsh Restoration as a Community Adaptation to Climate Change and Sea Level
Rise in Nova Scotia. http://www.mtaca/rstp/pdfRSTP_June06.final.pdf
Nicol, A. (Spring 2008). Adapting to Climate Change in Coastal Areas. Plan Canada
48.1: 17-20.
Ecology Action Centre. 2007. Changing Climate, Changing Coasts.workshop proceeding
on coastal municipalities and climate change.
HRM. 2007. Climate Change Adaptation. A Guide for Developpers.
http://www.halifax.ca/climate/index.html
National Oceanographic Atmospheric Association. (more information at
http://coastalmanagement.noaa.gov/ > initiatives > shoreline management)
Additional References listed in this summary
CBC (2008) Nova Scotia-New Brunswick border: Sea levels on the rise
March 14, 2008. http://www.cbc.ca/ns/features/goingcoastal
Delusca et al.
ICCP, 2001
Shaw, R., R.B.Taylor, D.L Forbes, M-H.Ruz, and S. Solomon.1998. Geological Survey
of Canada Bulletin 505 Sensitivity of the Coasts of Canada to Sea Level Rise. Ottawa,
Ontario, Natural Resources Canada.