Gateway to Land and Water Information
Lebanon national report
This report was compiled by
Chadi Abdallah, National Center for Remote Sensing
National Council for Scientific Research, Beirut, Lebanon
Last updated: 27 March 2002
Outline:
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8)
Country Overview
1.1 Geography and administrative units
1.2 Socio-economic features
1.3 Climate
Land resources
2.1 Physiography
2.2 Soils
2.3 Agroecological systems
2.4 Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms
2.5 Natural hazards
2.6 Land cover
2.7 Land use
2.8 Land use change
2.9 Land Productivity
2.10 Environmental Impact of land uses
Water resources (AQUASTAT)
3.1 Hydrography
3.2 Irrigation and drainage
Plant nutrient resources
4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance
Hot spots
5.0 Overview: constraints to sustainable agriculture
Bright spots
6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation
6.1 Land-related response indicators
6.2 Water-related response indicators
Challenges and viewpoints
References / Related internet links
8.1 References
8.2 Related internet links
Country Overview
1.1 Geography and administrative units
Lebanon, 10452 km2, stretches in about 60 km broad along the Mediterranean Sea for around 200 km
extent. It lies between latitudes 33°03'-34°45' and longitudes 35°05'-36°30'. It is bordered from west by the
Mediterranean Sea, from north and east with Syria and borders Palestine from south.
Administrative divisions
The country is divided administratively into 6 governorates (mohafazat, singular-mohafazah): Beirut, EchChimal (North), Ej jnoub (South), El Bekaa, Jabal Loubnane (Mount Lebanon) and Nabatieh.
[Map 1.1.1: Topographical map of Lebanon]
[Map 1.1.2: Administrative map]
1.2 Socio-economic features
Population
The population is estimated at 1998 to be 4.2 millions (within Lebanon), with a density of 400
persons/km2, while around 6 millions are abroad.
Age structure
- 0-14 years: 28% (male 508,936; female:489,122)
- 15-64 years: 65% (male 1,115,457; female: 1,226,448)
- 65 years and over: 7% (male 108,706; female: 129,367)
Birth rate
- 20.26 births/1,000 population
Death rate
- 6.42 deaths/1,000 population
Sex ration
- at birth: 1.05 male(s)/female
- under 15 years: 1.04 male(s)/female
- 15-64 years: 0.91 male(s)/female
- 65 years and over: 0.84 male(s)/female
- total population: 0.94 male(s)/female
% of rural population
- in 1961: 58.5%
- in 1970: 40.6%
- in 1980: 24.5%
- in 1984: 20.6%
- in 1990: 16.3%
[Chart 1.2.1: % of rural population]
Economy overview
The civil war (1975-91) seriously damaged Lebanon's economic infrastructure and cut national output by
half, therefore ended Lebanon's position as a Middle Eastern entrepot and banking hub. Peace has enabled
the central government to restore control in Beirut, begin collecting taxes, and regain access to key port and
government facilities. Lebanon's economy has made impressive gains since the launch of "Horizon 2000",
and many other regions in the country as well since it arises the government's $20 billion reconstruction
program in 1993. Real GDP grew 8% in 1994 and 7% in 1995. Real GDP grew at an average annual rate of
less than 3% per year for 1997 and 1998 and only 1% in 1999. During 1992-98, annual inflation fell from
more than 100% to 5% and foreign exchange reserves jumped to more than $6 billion from $ 1.4 billion.
GDP: purchasing power parity - $ 16.2 billion
GDP-real growth rate: 1%
GDP-per capita: purchasing power parity - $4,500
GDP-composition by sector (in 1998):
- agriculture: 8%
- industry: 29%
- services: 63%
Population below poverty line (in 1999): estimated to around 28%
Labor force: 1.3 million
note: in addition, there are as many as 1 million foreign workers
Labor force - by occupation: (services 62%, industry 31%, agriculture 7%)
Unemployment rate: 18%
Budget:
- revenues: $4.9 billion
- expenditures: $8.36 billion
The budget of the ministry of agriculture represents 1% only of the national budget.
Agricultural trend
The agriculture sector has played a diminishing role since the Lebanese economy in the 1960's. Its share for
the GDP has declined from 12% in 1960 to 8% at present with a corresponding decline in agricultural labor
from 38.3 to 7%. At present, Lebanon is an exporter of fruits and vegetables, self sufficient in poultry and
produces 15%, 45 and 10% of its wheat, legumes and sugar needs respectively. It also imports 78% of its
dairy and meat products.
[Table 1.2.1: Trends in Lebanese agriculture]
% of population working in agriculture:
in 1970: 19.8
in 1975: 17
in 1980: 14
in 1984: 11.8
in 1990: 9.4
in 1992: 7.8
In 1994, we estimate that the active population working in agriculture is 70000 persons (61% males and
39% females).
[Chart 1.2.2: % of population working in agriculture]
Industries
Banking, food processing, jewelry, cement, textiles, mineral and chemical products, wood and furniture
products, oil refining, metal fabricating.
The industrial sector comprises 23518 industrial firms:
69% employee under 5 persons
16% employee between 5 to 9 persons
15% employee more than 10 persons.
These firms are distributed as:
56.5% in Mount Lebanon
14% in Beirut
11.3% in North Lebanon
9.19% in South Lebanon
8.36% in Bekaa
1.3 Climate
Generally a Mediterranean climate prevails in Lebanon: dry-mild summer and wet winter. However,
because the Lebanon Mountain range faces the path of westerly winds, there is a distinct variation in
climate between its major two flanks. Average annual precipitation ranges from 200 mm near Hermel to
more than 1500 mm at the high peaks of Qurnet El-Sawda. The figure increases with elevation from 700800 mm at the coast to more than 1200 mm at the high mountains, while it decreases from south to north in
the Bekaa valley. At the higher elevations, a significant portion of the precipitation occurs as snow.
Estimates of evapotranspiration from the precipitated water ranges from 50% to 57% for the coastal and
mountainous areas, respectively. The average monthly temperature is about 18°C, where it is around 15°C
in the winter and 23°C in the summer season.
[Map 1.3.1: Rainfall map] / [in word doc format (55KB)]
Land Resources
2.1 Physiography
Lebanon is made up of four major physiographic units, that running north to south parallel to the sea, as
follows:
1. Coastal plain: it is a narrow, fertile plain with a lateral extent of less than 5 km, and contacts in
some instances with the shoreline. It dominates the foothills and peaks of the rugged Lebanon
Mountains.
2. Mount Lebanon: Mount Lebanon ranges rise east of the coastal plain. They extend, from north to
south, down most of the length of the country-a distance of about 160 km. They occupy the
country's highest peak, Qurnet el-Sawda (3083 m) above sea level.
3. Bekaa valley: it is a fertile valley that lies between Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains. The
Bekaa valley (some 900-950 m above sea level) ranges from 8 to 10 km in width. It is a natural
delineation of the Great Rift Valley of the Dead Sea.
4. Anti-Lebanon: these ranges from the eastern frontier with Syria and often considered to include
Mount Hermon (2814 m above sea level).
[Map 2.1.1: Physiographic units of Lebanon]
2.2 Soils
Studies of the Lebanese soil distribution shows that certain types of soils are preferentially or exclusively
associated with some physiographic units. In this regard, it is noticed that in landscapes with Fersialitic
soils, the soils are often lithic. In Mount Lebanon and anti-Lebanon, the red soils are eroded and often
regosols developed. On the slopes and piedmonts, on the other hand, with a landscape of Isohumic soils,
calcimagnesic and hydromorphic soils are developed.
[Map 2.2.2: General distribution of soils in Lebanon (Gèze, 1956)] / [in word doc format (357KB)]
2.3 Agroecological systems
Land suitability
It is important to note that only few areas in Lebanon could be considered agriculturally suitable for
cropping; 360-500000 ha or 50% of the country total area. The government of Lebanon has established an
institution (Green Plan) to rehabilitate agricultural lands and make it more suitable for crops. Artificial soil
is being used under protected environment. Ancient farmers have established terraces to keep soil in place
and make land more suitable for the root system. Almost all temperate fruit trees and mountain plants are
planted on some sorts of terraces. Examples on cherries, apples, pears, figs and most summer vegetables
are key crops on terraced land. Technically, areas in central and west Bekaa and the Akkar plain are most
suitable for almost all crops. However, crops are scattered all over the country and the produce is generally
of good quality and yields are high. In general, there is a traditional tendency in Lebanese agriculture to
extend practices to areas of very low suitability, e.g. apples were planted at elevations much lower than 900
m and in the Bekaa valley where they performed poor and were unrooted and replaced. Olive and pine trees
were in similar situations. More economic crops are invading land, which is not very suitable e.g. wheat is
grown in areas where barley could be more suitable.
2.4 Wetlands, mangroves and inland valley bottoms
Rather those of normal surface waters such as rivers and springs, land areas regularly saturated with water
are not commonly matched in Lebanon. Only two sorts of wetlands may be observed, but at low level in
terms of areal extent. These are:
1. Marshes on flood plain of some rivers:
These are certainly known on flood plains of rivers : they locate in soils and soft rock materials. Mainly
they are on the Litani River in the Bekaa area where it becomes as swamps of highly polluted lands in some
regions. As well as near the outlet of some coastal rivers, especially rivers of Abou Ali, Akra, el Bared,
Estwan in the north and El-Qasmieh in the south. The catchments of these marches are not well defined,
but it can be considered that the Litani river marches in the Bekaa area are larger (several square
kilometers), while in the coastal rivers do not exceed 5 km2 in most instances. The fertility in crops and
cultivation is clearly known in these marches, notably in the Bekaa area.
2. Marshes surrounded Lake Areas:
Natural lakes and man made ponds are well known in Lebanon to have considerable amounts of water. For
the natural ones, they are hydrogeologically controlled, and have considerable area extent (averaging 0.010.02 km2). While the man made ones are relatively with small area extents (< 0.05 km2 for each lake), with
the expetion of Qaraoun Lake (4-5 km2). Marshes surrounded these water-bearing reservoirs are usually in
a wet state. In dry season, some of these reservoirs are dried to create wetlands. Cultivation on such areas is
remarkable. While pollution aspects are rare if compared to those marshes on flood plains of rivers.
2.5 Inundation Land Types
Not prevailed in Lebanon.
2.6 Natural hazards
Lebanon experiences a number of natural hazard aspects, the affecting its natural and human being as well.
Mainly floods land instability, incidence of fire and a miscellany of climatic accidents is the most common.
In Lebanon, rarely year goes by without a disastrous event. In Lebanon, natural hazards event is in an
ascending trend (Shaban and Khawlie, 1998).
[Table 2.6.1: Natural Hazards in Lebanon]
2.7 Land cover
Land cover and land use
A land use map was established by the FAO (1990) at a scale of 1/50000 for the whole Lebanon. It
comprises 12 sheets.
[Table 2.7.1: Area and percentage of different types of land use in Lebanon]
2.8 Land use
Refer to Section 2.7: Land cover.
2.9 Land use change
Information not available.
2.10 Land Productivity
Due to the wide variations in climate, Lebanese agricultural production is very diversified.
[Table 2.10.1: Lebanon's major crop production]
In 1970, the official statistics indicate that 65% of the agricultural proprieties have each an area inferior to 2
ha and constitute together 10% of the arable lands; 12% exceed 10 ha and constitute together 60% of arable
land. Their productivity is as follows: 31% highly productive, 12% intermediate productivity and 57% low
productive.
[Table 2.10.2: Value of vegetal productivity in U.S. $]
The value of the vegetal production in 1993 reached to 1130 millions $. The exporting rate is 35 millions $,
while the importing is 360 millions $: the total consummation is 1455 millions $. The vegetal production
assures only 73% of the needs of the country. The cultivation, the most important according to the area, are
creals, citrus, potato, grapes ad apples. According to the production ($): wheat, sugar beet, tobacco, potato,
tomato, cucumber, citrus, apple, grape, banana and olives.
 US$ equivalents for the average production value per hectare per year for each land use type will
be used as a relative indicator for productivity, and for estimating trends and regional differences.
Figures for cropland will generally be easier to give than for other land uses, but if figures are
known for grazing land or forestland, they should be reported as well.
 Trends in use of major inputs: The production value for each LUT is related to inputs of materials,
equipment and labour per hectare per year. Inputs: labour (own and hired), high yielding
variety/improved seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, mechanization/hire of ox, cost of irrigation (source
of funds for inputs may include income from outside farm, income from livestock)
 The data might be affected by several factors such as shift in government policy;
subsistence/commercial farming, illiteracy, etc.
 Productivity trends: Although changes in productivity of crop and livestock LUTs can be
attributed to a wide variety of causes, they may also be an indication of soil degradation or, if
positive, of effective soil conservation and appropriate land management. Only a rough indication
of trends in productivity (change with time in the rate of growth of yield per hectare of important
crops or LUTs) is required here, but the period should be specified in view of variation in crop
types and farming practices.
Water resources
3.1 Hydrography
Rivers
Various estimates (Fawaz, 1969; Sharafuddine, 1971) put the total volume of water resulting from
precipitation in an average year at about 9,200 million m3, of which 47% is lost to the atmosphere by
evapotranspiration. The reminder finds its way in the country's 15 major rivers: 12 coastal and 3 inner
rivers. The average yearly discharge of these rivers is about 4132 Mm3/year.
The coastal rivers have relatively small catchment areas (averaging 200 km2), as well as small running
water length (< 50 km). All these rivers are ditached in a parallel orientation from east to west. The
majority of replenishment of these rivers is the precipitation as rainfall from snowmelt and from springs.
Normally a dramatic decrease in the discharge of these rivers is recorded among the last thirty years. Even
though some are becoming dried except in the heavy wet seasons.
The inner rivers are almost shared rivers with neighboring countries, but all are discharging from the
Lebanese territory. The Litani river as the biggest Lebanese river has a catchment area of about 2500 km2
and having an average discharge of 630 Mm3/year.
[Map 3.1.1: Major rivers in Lebanon]
Springs
Springs are widely distributed in Lebanon. This is a consequence of the highly fractured geologic rocks as
well as the exist of interbedding rock formations with different permeability characteristics.
About 2000 major springs are discharging in Lebanon. These have an order of 2nd to 3rd level according to
Mienzer classification (1923). Another big number of springs, but with fewer yields is known in different
areas of Lebanon.
These springs are the major source of river waters as well as playing an integral role in the agricultural
sector.
A realistic estimation of water volume from these springs is 1150 Mm3/year. Non-conventional springs are
those of the submarine type, which are widely distributed along the Lebanese littoral area.
Ground water
About 70% of Lebanon is constituted from carbonate rocks, that are ranging in age from Middle Jurassic to
Eocene. Most of them are extensively fractured and cavernous limestones. This is, in addition to the karstic
character of the land topography, enhancing the infiltration level to feed ground water reservoirs. The
presence of impermeable rock intercalation serves in restricting groundwater in aquiferous formations.
In Lebanon, 8 major aquifers can be considered. A total volume of groundwater is estimated as 1360 Mm3.
Hand-dug in Lebanon are old and generally of low capacity (less than 20 l/sec). Their number does not
exceed a few hundred with the majority being located on small private farms. The major abstraction of
ground water is secured by about 2500 wells, which tap the major regional aquifers. Other wells, estimated
to be about 1000, are scattered in the area of Beirut. The depth of these wells varies from 50 to 300 m
depending on the aquifer with an average of about 150-m. The discharge averages 35 l/sec/well with a
range of 20 to 80 l/sec. The overpumping from these wells is considered as the major reason of salt-water
intrusion. This problem has been effectively arise in the coastal area.
[Table 3.1.1: Ground water in Lebanon according to region, aquifer, pumping and area irrigated]
Non-conventional water sources
A principal aspect of non-conventional water sources in Lebanon is known. The submarine springs on the
littoral zone have an important role in the Lebanese water budget. Along the coastal stretch, there are
around 60 submarine springs, 15 of them are offshore springs while the rest are littoral ones.
Mostly are feed along karstic conduit that extend several kilometers on land, while others are due to the
direct laying of aquifers on the shoreline.
Estimations of water volume of these non-conventional sources are still a matter of debate. 250, 600 and
1000 Mm3/year are numbers registrated by Jaber (1995), Shaban (2001) and Khawlie (2000). Averaging of
these numbers (i.e. around 600 Mm3/year) reveals an important portion of water.
Major water basins
1. Surface water badins (watersheds): Two major orientations of watersheds in Lebanon can be considered.
They are related mainly to the river orientations (i.e. coastal and inner rivers). Major watersheds can be
ditached in Lebanon. The coastal ones are almost E-W directed while the inner ones are relatively in a NESW direction. The most frequent catchment area is about 200-250 km2.
[Map 3.1.2: Classification of the Lebanese catchments with their hydrologic characteristics]
2. Subsurface water basins: Although of some attempts to build a dependable scheme of the Lebanese
subsurface basins, yet no realistic measure has been known. The exclusively tectonic framework in
Lebanon makes it difficult to presume the subsurface water collectors. Anticlines and synclines, the major
ground base for ground water restriction, are majority disturbed and damaged by fracturing systems. This
leads to study these systems, hereby classify them into fracturing zones. The utility of remote sensing
proved to be a powerful tool in this concern. Subsurface water collector's couls be defined via interpretable
of satellite images. This study is still on-going project done by Lebanese National Center of Remote
Sensing since 2000.
Water balance and shared waters
[Table 3.1.2: Annual water balance]
Dams and flood controls
Except the Qaraoun dam along the Litani River which restrict about 300 Mm3/year, no major water dams
have been reported. All constructed dams are small enough and old to cope with their objectives. Almost
these dams are built on the coastal rivers, certainly on watercourses along the coastal plain.
The rugged topography and narrow flood plains constrain building dams on the mountainous areas.
Accordingly, flood protection practices are not at an acceptable level. Only local retaining walls have been
executed on some rivers. They are done to prevent collapsing of river walls rather than to mitigate from
floods.
Water demand
Estimates of water needs have been discussed by many concerned workers. Merely it is different between
urbanized and rural areas. Domestic exploitation as well as industrial uses are more increased than in rural
ones, while the case is reversible for the agricultural purposes. In urban areas, a 205 l/day/capita is
considered for Lebanon (Jaber, 1995). At which 70, 20, 10 are for agriculture, domestic use and industrial,
respectively.
Jaber (1995) has plotted a conceptual figure of water demand in Lebanon. Projected figures are again
plotted. METAP (1997) subjected a scenario for the year 2015 and the expected shortages annually and in
the dry season.
[Table 3.1.3: Projected water demands by year 2015 in Lebanon]
Waste water
An unfortunate and seemingly inevitable outcome of modernization and industrialization is pollution. The
contamination of water resources is being a major concern of the Lebanese environmentalists. While
wastewater could potentially augment supplies for irrigation, indeed it could also add plant nutrients such
as nitrogen and phosphate.
The majority of wastewater outlets is in rivers, intermittent streams and black holes. All are contaminating
the ground water quality. A big portion is discharged into the sea.
3.2 Irrigation and drainage
Previous FAO (1983) estimates report that only 67000 ha of the cultivated 240 000 ha are now under
perennial irrigation, 42000 ha of which are irrigated by surface water and 25000 ha by groundwater. In
addition, 20000 ha are seasonally irrigated. Unfortunately, the increase in irrigated area during the last three
decades followed as slow trend.
Usually, irrigation is done by furrow while new pressurized techniques (sprinkler, trickle and drip) are
being adopted in private farms and greenhouses, especially where groundwater is available. 95% of
potatoes are sprinkler irrigated and cereals are usually given supplementary sprinkler irrigation during the
fall and late spring seasons. In addition, most fruit trees (grapevines, citrus, and banana) planted areas are
using drip techniques. [Table 3.2.1: Development of irrigated area]
In the irrigation projects operated by the public sector, the poorly maintained distribution canals and ditches
suffer from high water losses and low irrigation efficiency (about 40%). This poor efficiency is also due to
poor land leveling. However, the government has plans to implement large-scale irrigation projects and to
modernize the traditional irrigation networks, which will allow the irrigation of additional 74000 ha.
[Table 3.2.2: Distribution of irrigated land in Lebanon]
[Table 3.2.3: Planned irrigation projects in Lebanon]
Plant Nutrient
4.1 Plant nutrient use and nutrient balance
The arable area of 325 000 ha is mainly distributed along the coastal plains, the Bekaa high plateau and the
terraced slopes of the western mountain chain. Recent figures of Lebanon's potential arable land as
estimated by the Agricultural Research Institute exceeds by far the previously mentioned figures to reach a
total arable area of 530000 ha representing 52% of Lebanon's total area (Khazaka, 1991).
[Table 4.1.1: Distribution of agricultural lands in Lebanon]
Major plant nutrients
Nitrogen: One of the earliest studies highlighted its importance in Lebanese soils (Adams and Sayegh,
1955).
Phosphorous (P): early reports showed that most unfertilized soils in Lebanon and the region were
deficient in P. And lower P fertilization efficiency would occur in soils where significant amounts of this
form of iron occued (Ryan et al., 1985).
Potassium (K): the evidence gathered over many years, mainly from the Bekaa valley, indicates little or no
growth response from using K in Lebanese soils (Ryan et al., 1980).
In Lebanese soils, there has been no evidence of Calcium (Ca) deficiency. Similarly, Magnesium (Mg)
tends to be adequate in calcareous soils. The studies reviewed by Ryan et al. (1980) reveal little evidence of
a response to Mg or Sulfur (S). However, symptoms of Mg deficiency have been identified in some citrus
groves on sandy soils on the southern coast.
In contrast to secondary nutrients (Ca, Mg and sulfur), some micronutirents, notably Fe, Mn and Zn pose
major problems for crops grown in calcareous soils. Studies indicate deficiencies of Fe and Zn but not Mn
or Cu and also Zn deficiency as a possible factor at high plant population density.
Agro-chemicals
Modern farming is dependent on the technology developed during the past centuries. Starting with the
proper planting material and the right environment the farmer has to use:
A- fertilizers
B- fungicide
C- insecticides
D- herbicides
These farm chemicals are becoming major requirements for producing a marketable and economic crop.
There is a general feeling that the Lebanese farmer is using excessive fertilizers and pesticides, which
constitute a threat to humans and to the quality of the Lebanese environment. These products have become
expensive during the past decade and the extent of use became more restricted. As irrigation water is scare
and run off could be repumped an increase in water salinity was detected recently. The presence of nitrate
in water pumped from drill wells is becoming an alarming issue as it indicates excessive use of nitrogen
fertilizers. In sugar beet production very low levels of sugar 10-12% instead of 18% are obtained as a result
of high levels of nitrogen fertilizers.
The use of herbicides is not very extensive in farming. Mostly winter cereals, potatoes and sugar beets are
chemically needed. This may not constitute a big risk on the national scale for the time being.
Fongicides and insecticides are becoming more questionable with time. These are generously applied under
intensive cropping systems as drip-irrigated vegetables and greenhouse crops.
Hot Spots
5.0 Overview
Hot spots in Lebanon are mainly natural, and to a certain range man-made consequences. Although of the
relatively small area of Lebanon, areas susceptible to risk are tremendous to cover vast regions. The
dynamic behavior of the risk processes are subject to either sudden time effect or through a long time
period. Land, water and other related constraints of hot spots in Lebanon can be classified into:
1. Natural: which are principally due to climate, tectonic setting and surface materials. Examples are
flood areas, sites subjected to avalanches, earthquakes, landslides, etc.
2. Man-made: which are tightly interacted with the above natural constraints, such as spots of high
pollution, chaotic excavating process and damaging natural aspects.
[Table 5.0.1: Natural predicated hot spots, the related risk type, causes and the size of effect]
Bright Spots
6.0 Overview: society's response to ameliorate the situation
The exist of the bright spots is inversely proportional with the occurrence of hot spots within a certain
region. Discussion of the vast geographic distribution of the risk sites in Lebanon obviously minimizes the
availability of areas with suitable situation for the human being.
Unfortunately, bright spots in Lebanon are merely uncommon, though of their bright nature. These spots
are existing, principally, as human implements, while natural spots are rare.
6.1 Land-related response indicators
A- Terraced lands, especially on slopping areas.
B- Rehabilitated rocky lands, that are subjected to excavation of rugged rocks, then covered by fertilized
soils for agriculture.
C- Natural protected sites, especially for the rare plant species, such as Cedra in Bcharri and Barouk
regions.
6.2 Water-related response indicators
A- Inaccessible water springs, streams and lakes which are almost far from human effect, such as those in
the remote mountainous regions- Inaccessible water springs, streams and lakes which are almost far from
human effect, such as those in the remote mountainous regions- Inaccessible water springs, streams and
lakes which are almost far from human effect, such as those in the remote mountainous regions.
B- Man-made water ponds for water reservation. These are usually in agricultural mountainous slopes.
C- Irrigation systems for proper water supply from their sources to the cultivated lands through drainage
systems.
This
is
well
developed
in
the
Bekaa
region.
D- Cavernous water, which occurred in different mountainous areas and became tourist sites such as Jieta
and Kferhim caves.
References and related Internet links
8.1 References
Adams, F., Sayegh, A., 1995. Plant response to nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium in soils of Lebanon
as indicated by greenhouse pot experiments. A.U.B. Fac. Agric. Publ. No 1.
Atlas climatique du Liban, 1988. Ministère des travaux publics, 52 p., Liban.
FAO, 1983. Etude de reconstruction et de développement de l'agriculture. Projet LEB79/013. FAO, Rome,
Italie.
FAO, 1990. Conservation des sols et des eaux dans les zones semi-arides. Bulletin pédologique 57, 182 p.
Gèze B., 1956. Carte de reconnaissance des sols du Liban au 1/200000. Ministrère de l'agriculture, Liban.
Notice explicative, 56 p.
Guerre A., Nahhas N., Odeurs J.P., Villaret M., Visser J.H., 1981. Etude de reconstruction et de
développement de l'agriculture, Liban, Annexe 10. UNDP, FAO, Beyrouth.
Jaber, 1995. Water problems of Lebanon. National Congress on Water. Strategic Studies Center, Beirut ( in
arabic).
Khawlie M., 2000. L'environment du Liban: une source perdue (en arabe). Menvikh edi., 372 p.
Khazaka, K., 1991. Utilisation actuelle et extension possible des terres arables au Liban. Note technique,
Institut de Recherches Agronomiques, Tel Amara, Liban.
Mienzer O.E., 1923. Outline of groundwater hydrology with definitions: U.S. Geol. Survey, Water supply
paper 494, 71 p.
Ministry of Agriculture, 1995. Rapports annuels et bilans mensuels.
National Center for Remote sensing, 2000. Hydrogeological assessment of water resources in coastal
Lebanon. Project NCRS, Lebanon, in-progress.
Plassard J., 1971. Carte pluviometrique du Liban à l'échelle de 1/200000. République Libanaise.
Ryan, J., Musharafieh, G., Barsumian, A., 1980. Soil fertility characterization of the Agricultural Education
and Research Center of the American University of Beirut Faculty of Agriculture Bloc no. 64.
Ryan, J., Hasan, H., Maasiri, M., Tabbara, M., 1985. Availability and transformation of applied
phosphorous with time in calcareous Lebanese soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49, 1215-1220.
Shaban A., Khawlie M., 1998. Geoenvironmental assessment of riparian zones under external climatic
events: a case study of representative rivers in Lebanon. In: Proc. Symp. On Mediterranean Rivers and their
management, Zaragosa, 21 Sept-2 Oct 1998.
Shaban, A., 2001. Etude de l'hydrologie du Liban occidental: Utilisation de la téldétection. Ph.D. Thesis (
under preparation).
Yachoui E., 1995. Economie du Liban, 122 p.
8.2 Related internet links
Lebanon country profile and Land resources in general
Ministry of Agriculture
http://www.agriculture.gov.lb/
annotation: "Home page of the Ministry of Agriculture of Lebanon" [editor's note, 13march2003]
Lebanon Geography 2000
http://www.photius.com/wfb2000/countries/lebanon/lebanon_geography.html
annotation: "Basic country figures." [editor's note, 27march2002]
LEBANON: The land of ceaders
http://web.cyberia.net.lb/lebscuba/English/lebanon.html
annotation: "Basic in formation on land and climate of Lebanon. More links to information for travelling."
[editor's note, 27march2002]
Atlas of Lebanon - hrw.com
http://go.hrw.com/atlas/norm_htm/lebanon.htm
annotation: "Clear outline map and some basic figures of Lebanon." [editor's note, 27march2002]
Country profile - AASA
http://www.aasa.00go.com/lebanon.html
annotation: "Brief description on Lebanon's land, water, environmental resources." [editor's note,
27march2002]
Country profile - SESRTCIC
http://www.sesrtcic.org/members/leb/lebhome.shtml
annotation: "Demography, economy, statistical resources for Lebanon." [editor's note, 27march2002]
UNDP Environmental Outlook: West Asia
http://www.unep.org/geo2000/english/0105.htm
annotation: "The State of the Environment report for West Asia region, including socio-economic
conditions and land and food conditions." [editor's note, 27march2002]
Hot spots
SPNL
http://www.spnl.org/Env__in_Lebanon/Protection_of_Land_Resources/protection_of_land_resources.html
annotation: "Concise, useful summary on land/soil related problem issues and some protection measures."
[editor's note, 27march2002]
Journal of Developing Societies: Challenging Environmental Issues: Middle Eastern Perspectives
by Joseph G. Jabbra and Nancy W. Jabbra Loyola, Marymount University
http://www.yorku.ca/faculty/academic/ishwaran/jdsabstr.htm
annotation: "Journal of Developing Societies, A Forum for Developmental Issues in Developing and
Developed Societies, Volume XIII - fasc.1 June 1997" [extract from the Homepage, 27march2002]
Environmental Degradation of Lebanon
http://www.geocities.com/CapitolHill/Parliament/2587/env.html
annotation: "Brief description on a number of key environmental degradation issues in Lebanon, e.g. water
pollution, agrochemicals, solid waste, air pollution, soil erosion, etc." [editor's note, 27march2002]
Bright spots
DOCUMENTATION AND CONSERVATION OF PLANT GENETIC RESOURCES IN LEBANON
by Hassan MACHLAB
http://apps3.fao.org/wiews/Morocco/Paper5.htm
Appendix:
[Chart 1.2.1: % of rural population]
Table 1.2.1: Trends in Lebanese agriculture
[Chart 1.2.2: % of population working in agriculture]
Table 2.6.1: Natural Hazards in Lebanon
Table 2.7.1: Area and percentage of different types of land use in Lebanon
Table 2.10.1: Lebanon's major crop production
Table 2.10.2: Value of vegetal productivity in U.S. $
Table 3.1.1: Ground water in Lebanon according to region, aquifer, pumping and area irrigated
Table 3.1.2: Annual water balance
Table 3.1.3: Projected water demands by year 2015 in Lebanon
Table 3.2.1: Development of irrigated area
Table 3.2.2: Distribution of irrigated land in Lebanon
Table 3.2.3: Planned irrigation projects in Lebanon
Table 4.1.1: Distribution of agricultural lands in Lebanon
Table 5.0.1: Natural predicated hot spots, the related risk type, causes and the size of effect