An integrated approach to asses the PCDD/F emissions of the
coal fired stoves combining emission measurements, receptor
and dispersion modelling
B. Paradiž a, b, P. Dilara a,*, J. Horak a,c, G. De Santi a, E. Christoph a, G. Umlauf a
a
Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, Institute for Environment and
Sustainability, 20210 Ispra(VA), Italy
b
present address: Ministry of the Environment and Spatial Planning, Dunajska 48, 1000
Ljubljana, Slovenia
c
present address: Technical University of Ostrava, Energy Research Center, 17. listopadu
15, 708 33 Ostrava – Poruba, Czech Republic
*corresponding author Tel.:+39 0332 789207, Fax.: +39 0332 786328
1
Abstract
Very high emissions of PCDD/Fs up to 1300 µg TEQ per ton of coal were measured
during combustion of commercial high chlorine content coal in a stove. A pronounced
effect of the temperature profile in the chimney on PCDD/Fs emissions was identified,
suggesting formation in the chimney. Emissions of PCDD/Fs were one order of
magnitude higher with an insulated chimney than with a non-insulated one. Insulation of
the chimney did not influence the emissions of regulated pollutants and PAHs. Under
laboratory conditions, the thermal properties of the chimney usually differ from those in
residential dwellings.
For that reason it is concluded that PCDD/F emission
measurements performed under laboratory conditions may not be representative for
derivation of emission factors in emission inventory compilations. Thus the emission
factor of 1300 µg TEQ per ton of coal represents the maximum value for individual stove
emissions. Complementary air dispersion modelling and congener profile based receptor
modelling performed in the Krakow area, Poland confirm a high contribution of the
residential combustion to the ambient air PCDD/Fs levels in that area and indicate an
emission factor for coal combustion in stoves in the order of 100 µg TEQ per ton.
Key words: residential heating, formation, temperature influence, congener profile
2
1 Introduction
Emissions from solid fuel fired heating appliances in the residential sector are considered
to have a significant share in the total PCDD/F emissions into the air. In the year 2000 the
dioxin emission inventory for the European Union (15 EU Member states plus Norway
and Switzerland) attributed 21% of the total PCDD/F emissions to the residential
combustion of wood and 8% to the residential combustion of coal (Quass et al, 2000).
Similarly Pacyna et al. (2003) have estimated that in Europe the main emission sources
into air are non-industrial combustion plants having 33 % of the total emissions in the
period 1993-95. Especially in those countries, where such installations are widely used,
their share in the emissions is sure to be much higher. High uncertainty is attributed to
PCDD/F emissions from domestic solid fuel fired heating installations due to the wide
variety of small combustion installations, different operational practices and fuels.
Besides inducing the uncertainty in the PCDD/Fs emission inventories this also prevents
the correct conception and implementation of abatement measures. The gap in knowledge
was already identified within the Community Strategy for Dioxins, Furans and PCBs
(2001), which has attributed high research priority to the domestic combustion of wood
and coal.
The balance of evidence suggests that in the case of wood combustion, high PCDD/D
emissions occur when contaminated wood is used as fuel (Lavric, 2004). In the case of
coal the situation is less clear. Very high emissions of PCDD/Fs, up to 660 μg TEQ/ton
for coal combustion in stoves, were reported for the first time by Moche and
3
Thanner(1998) when sampling emissions from combustion of hard coal of Polish origin5.
The experiments later performed by Quass et al. (2000) gave values up to 133 μg TEQ/t
for coal combustion in stoves.
Additionally the extreme ambient air levels of the
PCDD/Fs in excess of 5 pg TEQ/m3 measured during heating season in Krakow, Poland
(Grochowalski and Chrząszcz, 1997), where coal fired stoves are still widely used, also
indicate possible high emissions of these combustion sources.
The conventional coal fired stoves have very low energy efficiency due to the incomplete
combustion and heat losses through the chimney ( Kubica et al, 2004). The temperature
of the flue gases at the stove exit can exceed 500° C and a low speed of the exhaust gases
often result in residence times of some seconds in the chimney at temperatures above
300° C. These conditions in the chimney can have an important contribution to the high
PCDD/F emissions.
In this article we present results of the emission measurements, designed to prove high
emissions of PCDD/Fs during combustion of the high chlorine coal in the stove and
check the hypothesis of the influence of the temperature profile in the chimney on the
PCDD/Fs formation. The emissions of the residential combustion of the coal were
alternatively assessed by analysing the measurements of the PCDD/Fs in ambient air
particulate matter in Krakow, Poland using dispersion modelling and congener profile
receptor modelling.
4
2 Materials and methods
2.1 Emission measurements
The experiments were performed at the emission measurement facility which was built
for this purpose at the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission, located in
Ispra, Italy. A commercial low-cost stove of Polish make was used for the combustion
experiments. The stove was of advanced construction with down-draught combustion.
After the optimisation of combustion parameters (primary air, flap controlled natural
draft) the emissions of CO, particulate matter (PM) and volatile organic compounds
(VOC) were low in comparison with the default emission factors for coal fired stoves
(Kubica, 2004). A stainless steel duct with the diameter of 136 mm and the height of 12
m served as chimney. Two PCDD/Fs sampling points were used, the bottom one at the
distance of 0.6 m and the top one at 6.3 m from the stove outlet to the chimney. Higher
temperature profile in the chimney was obtained by insulating the whole length of the
chimney with 25 mm thick mineral glass insulation in some combustion experiments. A
commercial Polish hard coal having calorific value 30.0 MJ/kg was used for combustion
experiments. The chlorine and sulphur content of the coal were 0.31 % and
0.32%,
respectively.
Each combustion cycle consisted of two phases. During the 1 h initial phase hot ash was
prepared. It served for the ignition of the main batch of 5 kg coal added at the beginning
of the operational phase. During the operational phase the complete main batch of the
coal was combusted - its duration was determined by obtaining the same amount of the
hot ash on the stove grating as there was at the beginning. The operational phase lasted
5
for 3h 45min. The PCDD/Fs sampling started together with the addition of the main batch
of coal and was performed during the whole duration of the operational phase of the
combustion cycle.
The PCDD/Fs sampling was performed according to the standard EN 1948 – cooled
probe method. Due to the low velocity of flue gases in the chimney the direct
measurements by the Prandtl-Pitot tube were not accurate. The sampling was therefore
preformed at a constant speed 1.2 m/s at the nozzle. This was the average velocity of the
flue gases in the chimney and was determined from the calculated flue gas volume based
on the elemental composition of the coal and its consumption as well as the composition
of the flue gases. Due to high PM content in the flue gases and consequent possibility of
blocking the filter the sampling volume was reduced to approximately 1 m3 per
combustion test. Extraction, clean up and analysis of PCDD/Fs was performed in line
with the EN 1948 standard. An aliquot of the extract was used also for PAH analysis. The
CO, CO2, NO, SO2 and HCl concentrations in the flue gases were measured in an
extracted stream by FTIR and VOC by FID.
During the first series of the combustion tests the chimney was not insulated. PCDD/Fs
samplings were performed at the top sampling point during the 2nd, 5th and 8th combustion
test. The second series of combustion tests, numbered from 9 to 16 was performed with
the insulated chimney. PCDD/Fs sampling was performed at the top sampling point
during the 10th, 12th and 16th test, while during the 13th and 15th test the bottom sampling
point on the chimney was used. After each series of the combustion experiments the
6
chimney was thoroughly swept with the brush. This procedure was established to identify
any possible memory effects.
2.2 Receptor modelling
PCDD/Fs content in the ambient air particulate samples served as an input for receptor
modelling as well as for comparison with the results of dispersion modelling of the
PCDD/Fs. Samples were taken with High Volume PM 10 samplers. They were obtained
at two permanent air monitoring sites in Krakow and Zakopane in December 2002. The
site Aleje is situated in the centre of the city, where the density of coal-heated apartments
is still substantial. The distance from Nowa Huta industrial complex, where iron ore
sinter plant and coke plant are the main sources of PCDD/F emissions,
to Aleje
monitoring site is about 8 km. The Nowa Huta air monitoring station is located in the
suburb of Krakow, less than one km from the Nowa Huta industrial complex. Buildings
in the vicinity of Nowa Huta are connected to the district heating network, and coal fired
residential heating appliances are used there very rarely. In Zakopane, small mountain
town approximately 100 km south of Krakow, the coal is still predominately used for
residential heating. In Zakopane and its vicinity there is no industry, so residential coal
combustion is considered to be by far dominant local source of PCDD/F emissions.
The PM10 was collected on the filters for 24 hours for each sample. The samples were
taken on 10th, 20th and 25th of December 2002. The average daily ambient temperature
Krakow on these days was: –12, -7 and -15 °C. The PCDD/Fs analysis of the PM10
samples was performed as described by Christoph et al (2005).
7
The US –EPA Chemical Mass Balance CMB 8.2 model (Coulter, 2004) was used to
identify and quantify the contribution of residential coal combustion emissions to the
toxic PCDD/F congener concentration in the ambient air PM and their TEQ value. This
model consists of a solution to a system of linear equations that express receptor chemical
(in our application toxic PDCC/F congener) concentration as a linear sum of products of
source profile abundances and source contributions. The model was operated in the
effective variance weighted solution mode which gives the greater influence to the
congeners determined with lower uncertainty.
Only relative analytical uncertainty was taken into account in the source and ambient
congener profiles. It was assessed considering overlap of peaks in the spectra. 30 % of
the uncertainty was attributed to 1,2,3,7,8,9-HxDF, 15 % to 1,2,3,7,8-PeCDD, 2,3,7,8TCDF: and 2,3,4,7,8-PeCDF and 10 % to the rest of toxic PCDD/F congeners.
As a source profile for residential heating the average of two ambient PM samples from
Zakopane was taken assuming a negligible contribution of other sources there. Thus
more representative sample was obtained than those from emission measurement in terms
of coal heating appliances and operational practices including possible waste cocombustion. For the industrial emissions source profile the average from three ambient
particulate samples at Nowa Huta monitoring site was taken. In this case influence of
other sources, most notably residential combustion is likely. On the other hand the
advantage of taking ambient samples as the industrial source profile is that also fugitive
emissions are accounted for, not only stack emission which are usually sampled.
8
2.3 Dispersion modelling
Dispersion simulations were performed with the use of US EPA CALMET/ CALPUFF
meteorological and air quality modelling system (Scire, 2000). CALMET/ CALPUFF
have been used at the Malopolska Inspectorate for Environment Protection for analysis of
emission abatement measures In Krakow. In this study CALMET domain was 100 x 100
km2. The input surface and upper air meteorological data were obtained from the
ALADIN model (9 sites on 9 vertical layers). The horizontal resolution of the grid was
set to 1x 1 km2. The domain of CALPUFF dispersion simulations was 50 x 50 km2 with
the grid cell of 1x 1 km2 centred in the CALMET domain. PCDD/Fs were modelled as
primary PM10 emissions from pre-selected steelwork point sources and home heating
gridded area sources. It was assumed that in the plume the majority of the PCDD/Fs
emitted in the gas phase are adsorbed on the particulate matter in the low ambient
temperature conditions. The advection of PCDD/Fs from outside of the modelling
domain was not taken into account. The degradation of the PCDD/Fs in the atmosphere
was also neglected since: (i) the reaction timescale is longer than the one for advection
thus leading to the transport of the species outside the modelling domain prior to
chemical transformation, (ii) the considered case relates to the conditions in December at
50˚ North latitude.
The PCDD/Fs emission inventory for the residential heating was prepared on the basis of
the emission inventory for regulated pollutants that was compiled with 1x 1 km2
resolution for Krakow area of 30 x 20 km2. In the 1998/99 heating season, for which it
was prepared, the quantity of combusted hard coal was estimated to be 80,000 t for stoves
9
and 10,000 t for small residential boilers. The daily coal consumption was determined
taking into account the average daily temperature, which influences the heating demand.
Emission factor for coal combustion in stoves was taken from the new version of the
UNEP Standardized Toolkit for Identification and Quantification of Dioxin and Furan
Releases (UNEP 2005), which gives two very different values of 3 µg TEQ/ t for low
chlorine coal and 400 µg TEQ/t for high chlorine coal. Assuming that half of the
combusted coal was of high chlorine content the emission factor for PCDD/Fs was
averaged to 200 µg TEQ/t for coal combusted in the residential stoves. For small
residential boilers the emission factor was assumed to be 10 times lower than the one for
stoves. This assumption is based on results of Moche and Thanner (1998), who found
very high emissions from Polish coal fired stoves and more than ten times lower
emissions from small residential boiler, fuelled with the same coal.
The sinter plant and the coke production are the most important sources of PCDD/F
emissions in the Nowa Huta industrial complex. No data on the measurements of
PCDD/F emissions were available for the year 2002 and exact activity data are
confidential, which is why the rough, yet conservative estimation of PCDD/F emissions
was done. Yearly emissions of PCDD/Fs from the sinter plant stack were estimated to be
40 g TEQ. In addition to the stack emissions, sinter plants exhibit fugitive emissions due
to hot sieving and crushing as well as to the leakage from the sinter belt (Quass et al,
1997). These emissions, which are released close to ground, were assumed to be 8 g TEQ
per year. A rough estimation for the fugitive coke plant emission was 4 g TEQ per year.
All emissions from the Nowa Huta industrial complex were assumed constant throughout
the entire year. Other combustion sources were not taken into account in the Krakow
10
PCDD/Fs emission inventory due to lack of activity data. PCDD/Fs emission factors for
liquid and gaseous fuels combustion as well as for coal combustion in boilers in the
industry and commercial-institutional sectors are two orders of magnitude lower than the
ones selected for coal- fired stoves (UNEP, 2005). For this reason omission of other
combustion sources does not significantly affect the accuracy of the emission inventory.
The PCDD/Fs were modelled as the TEQ since reliable congener specific emission
profiles were not available for the industrial sources. The information contained in the
congener profile of the ambient air PM was taken into account within receptor modelling.
3 Results and discussion
3.1 Emission measurements
The insulation of the chimney resulted in significantly higher temperature of the flue
gases in the chimney in comparison with the non-insulated one. The maximum
temperature was reached approximately one hour after the start of the operational phase
of the combustion experiments. Measured 0.6 m from the stove outlet the maximum
temperatures were slightly below 600 °C and close to 450 °C for the insulated and non
insulated chimney respectively.
The average temperature profile during combustion
experiments is given in the Table 1. The HCl concentration in the flue gases was high
regardless of the chimney configuration. Mass balance shows that the chlorine in the coal
was mainly released as a HCl in the flue gases (Table 1).
Very high emissions of the PCDD/Fs were observed in all combustion experiments
(Figure 1). Concentrations of PCCD/Fs in flue gases were between 6 and 115 ng I11
TEQ/Nm3 recalculated to 11 % of O2. These values are comparable to those of waste
incinerators with minimal air pollution control (UNEP, 2005) and several orders of
magnitude greater than modern ones.
No significant changes or trends in PCDD/F concentrations were observed in subsequent
measurements with the same chimney configuration (tests 2, 5 and 8; tests 10, 12 and 16,
tests 12 and 14). The memory effect in this experimental set-up is therefore not
pronounced. Therefore, one preconditioning combustion cycle is enough to prevent
possible influences of the memory effect on the PCDD/Fs emission measurements when
changing the experimental configuration.
Emissions of PCDD/Fs were particularly high when the chimney was insulated – they
were one order of magnitude higher than those obtained with the non-insulated chimney.
On the average the temperatures of the flue gases in the insulated chimney were
approximately 100° C higher than in the non-insulated chimney (Table 1). The emissions
of other pollutants including PAHs were not affected by the different temperature profile
in the chimney. Therefore the temperature in the chimney did not influence the
combustion processes in the stove. These results provide significant evidence that the
formation in the chimney at higher temperatures can contribute to very high emissions of
PCDD/Fs.
The average residence time of the flue gases in the chimney is estimated to be
approximately 0.5 and 5 seconds when the sampling was performed at the bottom and top
sampling point respectively. The concentration of the PCDD/Fs at the bottom sampling
point of insulated chimney was an order of magnitude higher than PCDD/Fs
12
concentration at the top sampling point of the non-insulated chimney. On the other hand
the concentrations of the PCDD/Fs in the insulated chimney at the bottom sampling point
were only approximately one third lower than at the top sampling point. This implies that
in the given experimental conditions the higher temperature of the flue gases has a more
pronounced effect on the PCDD/Fs formation than the residence time in the chimney.
Emission measurements presented in this paper were not aimed to provide representative
emission factors for coal combustion in the stoves. Taking into account: (i) the low
thermal conductivity of the insulated chimney, which corresponds to approximately 50
cm thick brick one, (ii) very high chlorine content of the coal; the value of 1300 µg TEQ
per ton of coal represents the upper margin of the emissions of individual stoves.
3.2 Receptor modelling
Results of the receptor modelling of the toxic PCDD/F congeners at the Aleje site are
summarised in the Table 2. On both days the residential emissions clearly dominate with
the share of around 90 % in the total ambient PM concentration of toxic congeners. The
uncertainty of the contribution of residential emissions is low, accounting for only around
5 % of the attributed concentration. On the other hand the calculated contribution of the
industrial emissions is much smaller, accounting for less than 5 % of the ambient
concentration. the toxic PCDD/F congeners.
An R-square value
greater than 0.8
indicates satisfactory explanation of the measured concentrations by source profiles,
mainly due to good match with the due to residential emissions profile. A high Chisquare value for the sample obtained on 25.12.2002 indicates that some congeners are not
well explained by the source contribution ( Figure 2). The TEQ values attributed to
13
residential and industrial emissions (Table 3) differ due to weighting of the congeners,
however contribution of the residential emissions is also dominant in this metrics. The
difference is somewhat higher on 25.12.2005 where significant share of 2,3,7,8-TCDD
and 2,3,7,8-TCDF congeners was not explained by the given source profiles (Figure 2).
The reason for the attributed very low contribution of industrial emissions at the Aleje
site could also be industrial source profile, which was derived from the ambient profile at
the Nowa Huta site. The profile of the industrial emissions is composed of fugitive
emissions of coke plant and sinter plant as well as the sinter plant stack emissions, which
might differ. As discussed in the section 3.3 the ratio of fugitive to stack emissions
contribution to the ambient levels is greater at the Nowa Huta site than at the Aleje site.
Despite this fact we could conclude that the contribution of the industrial emissions at the
Aleje site is approximately one order of magnitude lower that residential emissions due to
the coal combustion.
The unexplained share of ambient levels at the Aleje site is on both days below 10 % in
terms of congener concentration. The missing sources could be coal combustion in
medium size boilers, nearby cement industry and hospital waste incineration.
3.3 Dispersion modelling
Air dispersion modelling shows an influence of the industrial emissions on both
monitoring sites (Fig. 4 and Fig. 5). At the Nowa Huta monitoring site the fugitive
emissions released close to the ground have greater share due to the vicinity of the
industrial complex while the height of the stack produces long distance dispersion and a
14
reduced effect on the nearby monitoring site. The effect of the stack is in fact more
evident at the Aleje site in the Krakow downtown. On average the simulations performed
for December 2002 show that levels of PCDD/Fs are 4 times higher at Nowa Huta
monitoring site than at Aleje site due to Nowa Huta industrial complex activities.
Not surprisingly the residential heating emissions give always higher levels at the Aleje
than at Nowa Huta site. The modelled concentrations at the Aleje site were less
influenced by the wind direction, since residential areas, where coal stoves are used,
encircle this site. At the Nowa Huta site significant discrepancies are found between the
modelled and measured PCDD/F levels (Table 4). The residential heating dominates for
instance on the 20th Dec. This contradicts the congener profile as discussed in section 2.2.
The reason of these results can be attributed to the wind field for Dec. 20th, which didn’t
reflect the actual wind field thus leading to the transport of the industrial emissions away
and the residential emissions toward the sampling site.
At Aleje site the influence of residential heating clearly dominates (Table 4). This agrees
with the conclusions of the receptor modelling (section 3.2) Modelling results for
residential heating emission for Aleje site surpass the measured PCDD/F levels. Two
reasons for the model to measurement results discrepancies could be inadequate
modelling of the atmospheric conditions in the low wind speed conditions and the 4- year
time lag of the activity data for residential heating emission inventory, especially taking
into consideration that the fuel switching program from coal to gas in Krakow is going
on.
15
Despite the discrepancies between the results of air dispersion modelling and measured
values, we conclude that the low emission factor (3 µg TEQ/ t of coal) from Standardised
Toolkit for Identification and Quantification of Dioxin and Furan Releases (UNEP 2005)
is not applicable in the Krakow specific circumstances. Our results indicate that the
PCDD/Fs emissions factor for coal combustion in the stoves in the Krakow area is
approximately in the order of 100 µg TEQ per ton of coal. This is consistent with the
results obtained from the emission measurements ( section 3.1) , where the highest
emission factor of 1300 µg TEQ per ton of coal represents maximum values for
individual stoves.
4 Conclusions
Our emission measurements confirmed that the coal combustion in stoves can result in
very high emissions of the PCDD/Fs in the air. This is in line also with the results of the
receptor and dispersion modelling in the Krakow, Poland area.
Furthermore this investigation proves that the formation of PDCC/Fs in the chimney, due
to the high temperature and residence time, significantly contribute to the observed high
emissions of these substances from coal combustion in residential stoves. It is expected
that the use of the same quality of coal in larger plants, where the flue gases are quenched
at the exit of the combustion chamber will not lead to such high emissions of these
activities.
16
Emission measurements of the small combustion appliances are often preformed in
laboratory conditions with a chimney, which does not have the same thermal capacity nor
conductivity as the chimneys used in residential dwellings. If PCDD/F measurements are
intended to provide emission factors to be used for emission inventory compilation,
particular attention should be given to use the chimneys and stove connections to it that
are representative for residential dwellings. In this respect PCDD/Fs samplings performed
in the chimneys of residential dwellings have a clear advantage. The literature used to
derive emission factors should be reviewed for this aspect.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank Ms. Krystyna Kubica for her assistance in arranging for
the stove and the coal as well as for her overseeing the construction and initial operation
of the experimental combustion facility. We would like to acknowledge Dominique
Lesueur, Andrea Brunella and Denis Fachinetti for constructing the combustion facility.
In addition Denis Fachinetti is further acknowledged for his assistance in performing the
combustion experiments. The PCDD/Fs and PAHs analysis of emission samples was
performed by Roman Grabic and Tomás Tomšej from Institute of Public Health, Ostrava,
Czech Republic. We would like to thank Malopolska Inspectorate for Environment
Protection for providing us with residential heating emission inventory. We also express
our thanks to Jerzy Burzynski for the support at the preparation of meteorological data
and Joanna Niedzialek for running the CALMET/CALPUF code. Dr Stefano Galmarini
and Dr Bo Larsen are acknowledged for their comments on the manuscript and on the
interpretation of the modelling results.
17
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19
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20
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F
2,
,9
3,
-H
4,
x
6,
D
1,
7,
F
2,
83,
H
4,
p
7,
D
8,
F
9H
pD
F
O
C
D
F
4
3
1.5
1
Unexplained
Residential
Industrial
2
1
0
-1
Unexplained
Residential
Industrial
0.5
0
-0.5
Figure 2 . Modelled congener specific contribution of residential and industrial emissions
to PCDD/Fs ambient levels at Aleje site for the 20.12 (A) and 25.12.2002 (B).
21
1.0
Industrial - fugitive
Industrial - stack
[pg TEQ/m3]
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0.0
December 2002
Figure 3. Modelled average daily PCDD/F concentrations at Nowa Huta site resulting
from emissions from Nowa Huta industrial complex.
0.20
Industrial - fugitive
Industrial - stack
[pg TEQ/m3]
0.15
0.10
0.05
30
28
26
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0.00
December 2002
Figure 4. Modelled average daily PCDD/F concentrations at Aleje site resulting from
emissions from Nowa Huta industrial complex.
22
Table 1. Average emission factors and temperatures of flue gases in the
chimney
non-insulated
insulated chimney
chimney
top sampling
bottom
point
sampling point
(3 samples)
(2 samples)
top sampling point
(3 samples)
PCDD/F (I-TEQ)
µg/t
126
1326
820
Sum PAH (16-EPA)
g/t
63
55
64
Benzo[a]pyrene
g/t
1.3
1.5
1.7
CO
kg/t
14.2
16.3
13.1
NOx (as NO2)
kg/t
3.6
3.4
3.6
SO2
kg/t
3.2
3.0
2.6
VOC
kg/t
4.8
9.3
6.1
PM
kg/t
3.1
3.8
4.1
HCl
kg/t
2.7
2.6
2.5
T1 – d=0.6 m *,**
°C
332
419
397
T2 – d=1.8 m*
°C
260
385
367
T3 – d=3.0 m*
°C
228
353
333
T4 – d=4.1 m*
°C
193
317
302
T5 – d=5.3 m*
°C
166
288
277
T6– d=6.3 m*,***
°C
146
264
252
*distance from the stove flue gases exit
**bottom PCDD/Fs sampling point
*** top PCDD/Fs sampling point
23
1
Table 2. Measured sum of toxic PCDD/F congeners and modelled source apportionment to residential and industrial emissions at Aleje
2
site.
Date
Calculated
Measured
Residential
Model performance
Industrial
parameters
Unexplained
conc.
Conc.
Uncertainty
Share
Conc.
Uncertainty
share
Conc.
Share
R square
Chi square
pg/m3
pg/m3
pg/m3
%
pg/m3
pg/m3
%
pg/m3
%
20.12.2002
18.32
16.40
0.84
89.5
0.88
0.84
4.8
1.04
5.70
0.96
1.90
25.12.2002
6.18
5.64
0.28
91.2
0.02
0.28
0.4
0.52
8.40
0.85
7.97
3
4
Table 3. Measured TEQ of PCC/Fs and modelled source apportionment of TEQ values to residential and industrial emissions at Aleje
5
site.
Date
Calculated
Measured
Residential
Industrial
Unexplained
conc.
Conc.
Share
Conc.
Share
Conc.
Share
pg/m3
pg/m3
%
pg/m3
%
pg/m3
%
20.12
1.60
1.46
91.5
0.05
3.0
0.09
5.6
25.12
0.71
0.50
71.1
0.00
0.2
0.20
28.7
24
1
Table 4. Comparison of the of the measured and modelled PCDD/F levels (pg TEQ/m3)
Nowa Huta site
Aleje site
modelled
measured
modelled
industrial industrial measured
residential
industrial industrial
residential
fugitive
stack
fugitive
stack
10.12.
1.6
0.07
0.28
0.00
-
2.77
0.06
0.01
20.12.
2.2
0.67
0.00
0.00
1.6
3.46
0.00
0.00
25.12.
0.8
0.09
0.37
0.03
0.71
3.70
0.10
0.03
2
25