The Current Development Of Instructional And Regulatory
Framework For Environmental Management In Southern Sudan.
Introduction.
Until recently, the people of Southern Sudan coexisted in balance with their
physical environment. Using traditional methods, they obtained their needs
from the surrounding environment by consulting and use of local institution
knowledge. Actions of such institutions like the rain making, hunting
groups, fishing communities and others were being guided by ancestral
rules. Sedentary groups for example may cultivate a piece of land
consecutively for only given period of time and had to move to another new
area to let the soil and vegetation rejuvenate and regenerate respectively.
Therefore, environment conservation optimal utilization of resources and
achievement of sustainable development are among high priority issues and
challenges facing not only the Southern Sudan, but the whole world. By and
large, environmental problems are no longer local, national, or regional; but
transcend across political and geographical borders. In most cases they are
beyond the capability and ability of individual efforts. Meaning they require
international collaboration.
This paper is intended to:Briefly overview and high lights the historical perspective of
environmental distitational development in the South.
Examine present institutional framework.
Plan a process for development of GOSS Environmental policy and
forward moving environmental impact and sectorial guidelines.
Before the CPA need for energy for the people of Southern Sudan were no
longer satisfied , food production and collection of wood fuel from war by
frusts, that affected the ecological balance .The exposure of surface soil due
to annual bash, bush fire, deforestation increased soil erosion resulting into
deterioration of agriculture land. Development of gullies increased siltation
blocking water causing subsequently affecting aquatic vegetation and
animals.
Rural urban population drift created un wanted environmental situation
especially in the town. Meaning, more conflicts.
The situation as described above become and still a threat to our existence
and the future prosperity for the people of Southern Sudan who also have
every right to benefit from the wholesome environment. However, although
they may exist government unites established earlier such as forest law ,
wild life and park conservation regulations, town council local orders to
address environmental problems ; yet, experiences indicate that not much is
expected in the near future despite the peace deal. It is because the
government of southern Sudan surfers from multi socio-economic
development, and political problem. Budgetary constraints and poor
privatization arrangements. Others may include the bureaucratic red tape of
government system.
Last but not least, lack of understanding of the consequences of our actions
and expenses.
The physical Environment.
Geographically southern Sudan is located between latitude 3% 45 and 12%
31 minutes north and extend from 31% 31 minutes to 32% 00 minutes East
covering an area of 676300 miles square (Lotombe 1986) thus a mounting to
one third of Sudan.
The outstanding points of high altitudes are: - Juba town 460 meters, Mt
Koro 744 meters and Imatongo Mountain 1930 meters above sea levels. The
Nile straddles longitudinally at South north transepts diving the country into
nearly east – west half. This together with its topographic features has great
influence in the regions environmental and ecological system.
Climate and vegetation
As indicated FAO/UNISCO soil map of the world volume iv 1977 “ South
Sudan is generally considered to be having unreliable and eratic rainfalls
with an agevege wet seasonal length of 180-200 days. Being effective
around November. Four climatic reasons:
Hot tropical.
Semi arid tropical.
Humid terra templata.
Dry terra templata (Hid ore 1984)
Classification with periodic moisture pattern, wet and dry seasonality,
extreme varied atmospheric humidity and soil moisture. The environment
quite frequently becomes marginal or transitional to East African/Zaire rain
forest to tropical desert to the North. Total average precipitation is about 970
mm per year with peak between May and August. Mean temperatures of
21.7 in Juba as compared to Yei 1300 mm/year and 21.4. However,
temperatures tend to decrease south wards whereas prespitation increases.
There is almost zero water surpluses and a high deficit of 728 mm per year.
The SDIT 1951 MEFIT 1975 maps indicate Southern Sudan falls within six
ecological zones:Central clay plain.
Flood plain.
Iron stone plateau.
Central Hills.
Green belt and
Hilly and Hills slope.
Here again climate and vegetation are characterized by combination of
factors like flora and fauna, Soils and biota where environmental implication
are most visible.
The general and according to FAO/ UNISCO legend, the vegetation of
Southern Sudan is classified as ever green, deciduous and savanna forest, it
has a mixture of plant and perennial grass on mountain slopes and river
courses .
PHYSIOGRAPHY AND HYDROLOGY.
Geomorphic, geologic, litho logic and hydrologic situations are like in many
other aspects have limited and superficial information. However, one is
tempted to say the area is influence by the White Nile and the Blue Nile
basins. Ethiopian highlands and East African plateau. The Equatorial
African geomorphism and the central African basement complex. The Sudd
basin and inter rift valley geological regions.
Hydro logically, a part from numerous streams crossing the area, it is the
white Nile with its major distributaries that are the sources of surface water,
but neither fluctuation nor the volume of water discharges or used are
properly recorded expect for may be on the Jonglei channel project by the
investigation team 1957, whose work was limited to the area between Bor
down stream.
By inference and implications ground water movement like the surface
hydrology are from the Ethiopians highlands, East African plateau and the
Nile Congo divide pouring into the Sudd through. Saturating soil of the
flood plain and keeping water table high in the highland areas. This situation
however, reverses during dry season making some plants and animals surfer
from aridity and subjected to wither.
Soils formations
Result from mechanical weathering of different parent rock types. The same
rock may give rise to different soils because of different environmental
factors.
The factors that determine the type of soil are:
Parent rock
Climate
Biological Activity
Topography and
Time scale.
Soil constituents are organized into horizons from profiles. Therefore
although no detailed studies have been conducted through out Southern
Sudan, some reconnaissance work was carried out by the Wad Medani Soil
Administration and Dr. Dino Ricci (1976)and exploratory work by the
department of Land use Planning, Conservation Extension and Irrigation in
the Regional Ministry of Agriculture 1976, the world Bank and Norwegian
church aid. These works only cover small part of the region just as Ricci’s
work is limited to kondokoro in Juba District. The results are not good
enough for overall District Development Planning for example, yet they are
good enough for an overall and general understanding of soil formation in
the area. However the field analyses do indicate that the soils of the area are
predominantly sandy, clay and red loams with reasonable amount of fertile
silts (alluvial or colluvials) along the flood plain. They are ideal soils and
can be more receptive to irrigation because of their good infiltration rate
except the flood plain. They are very productive demanding no application
of fertilizers the moment.
Applying the United States Department of Agriculture soil taxonomy
(1975), South Sudan is occupied mainly by Latosols catena, with massive
ironstone on the surface, underlined by a number of solid series whose sandy
and clay contents change from place to another at different depths especially
on west bank. In Ricci (1976), Physical analysis shows high percentage of
sand and low clay content with an exchangeable rich layer at certain places.
PH ranges from 6.70 – 6.95. Not good.
On the other hand, the chemical analysis points out they are somehow poor
soils with low phosphorous at (o.80 – 1.35) and potassium nor good at 4%.
This may indicate careful use of fertilizers in future and a well designed land
management system. (LoTombe 1986). Naturally gentle elevation has
reduced the erosion risk to between low and medium in the flat flood plain
area.
It can be realized from soil auger pit that the soil arrangements here consist
of grey top soil, red/brawn sub-soil Band both are permeable layers. The less
permeable layer C towards the marshy land is predominated by vertic, flu
vic and gleyic sols where as the iron stone plateau is concentrated with
Ferric, gieyic and flinthic luvisols and immature dysteric regosols (LoTombe
1990). These can also be shallow soils, locally classified by Medani Soil
Administration 1975 as Lado and Kafuri Series, Khors beds, the flood plain
alluvial/colluvial soils.
The small extension of the east African plateau into south Sudan has very
complex situation with volcanic Andosols, Humic nitosols, lithosols or Euric
Combisols on the ridges, the vertisols ans solentz in the dry valleys.
Best water sheds depressions are occupied by Humic Gleysols and Euric
Flucisols in dry parts (Catena 1978).
THE BASIC ENVIROMENTAL PROBLEMS IN SOUTH SUDAN
In this section of the paper an attempt is being made to shade some lights on
the actual and major environmental issues and problems that eventually
would lead us to try to explore the historical development of environmental
institutions to address these problems.
War mull–practices; the war in the south has negatives impact on the
environment. It affected vegetation and soil, destabilized population,
encourage mull practices especially by the government armies then.
Land degradation; rendering soil barren course less evaporation and
climatic changes because of low rainfall, poor agricultural and
fisheries production.
Population displacement; there had been massive political and
environmental displacement of the people of south Sudan. According
to 1983 population census in Juba urban population was 85,000. But
during the 1991 UN head count, it rose to 300,000 of which 215,000
were displaced. An increase of 25.3% without resource planning.
“While politicians are making strenuous efforts to restore human
dignity…development can proceed without harming the
environment” (Agnes Poni Lokudu’s opening speech in the first
environmental protection agency workshop 1993.
LAND DEGRADATION.
Due to wind and water erosion, fertile agricultural land is now left un
productive. Crop yield dropped, tree debunking, uprooting and cutting
became a tradition. The able groups pursued the disappearing distant forest,
the weak of the poor and old; remain to uprooting the vegetations cleared
earlier by the former groups.