Guidelines for the practical application of Wise Use
of peatlands for agriculture
Tomasz Brandyk
1. Introduction
2. Environmental and economical conditions for agricultural use of peatlands.
3. Meadow and pasture management of peatlands.
4.Field crops management of peatlands
5. Instruments and mechanisms of proecological agricultural use and environmental
protection of peatlands
6. Principles of good agricultural practice for peatlands.
7.Conflicts dealing with agricultural use of peatlands and methods of their solution.
8.References
1.Introduction
Wise Use of peatlands can be described as the uses of peatlands for which reasonable people
now and in the future will not attribute blame (Joosten and Clarke, 2002), and for agricultural
management the Wise Use concept has to include the presence of considerable differences
among peat soils. These differences result from the ongoing soil processes in peatlands. In
natural conditions peat-forming process takes place. According to research performed in
America, Asia, Africa and Europe the increase of peat layer was ranging from 0,42 mm to
1,67 mm per year with average value of 0,67 mm. Drainage of peatlands which is required for
agricultural use terminates the accumulation phase and causes the changes of peat organic
matter especially in upper peat layers(0-30 cm). These changes lead to degradation of
peatlands which create the difficulties in agricultural peat use. Taking into account changing
properties of peat soils caused by degradation due to drainage it is necessary to group these
peat soils into bigger units considering similarities in the changed properties. Such units
allow rational agricultural management specially with the respect to water management and
controlling the occurring changes in peat properties.
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2. Environmental and economical conditions for agricultural use of peatlands.
Agricultural production on peat soils requires more labour and more financial resources in
comparison to mineral soils. Because of that the agricultural production on peat soils was
introduced during the time of insufficient food production and appearing insufficient mineral
soil areas for agricultural use. Drainage of peatlands for agricultural use was introduced in
Holland already in XI-th century and later in XVIII-th and XIX-th centuries in many
European countries especially in Germany (Okruszko 1996; Ilnicki 2002). As the result of
drainage the mineralization of peat organic matter takes place and causes gradual subsidence
of peatland surface. This phenomenon leads to gradual decrease of the area and the thickness
of peat soils and causes their gradual transformation into mineral soils (Schothorst 1977). It is
a serious problem because peat soils ,besides production potential, play a significant role in
the environment especially with respect to water retention. Detailed measurements showed
that depending on environmental factors and on the intensity of agricultural use the
subsidence of peatlands can vary in the wide range. In some regions of Israel the subsidence
of the surface of peatlands used for agriculture was as high as 100 mm per year while in
Florida and California it was about 70 mm per year (Ilnicki 2002, 2003). In Polish conditions
the subsidence of peatlands used as permanent grasslands is about 10 mm per year. It can be
estimated that the loss of organic matter caused by subsidence is about 12 million tons from
peatlands used for agriculture in Poland. Starting from 1960s in many European countries the
purpose of limitation or resignation from agricultural production on peatlands arised. During
that time a significant increase of plant crops cultivated on mineral soils took place as a result
of general technical progress in agriculture. As a consequence of that in many countries
surpluses of food production appeared and agricultural use of peat soils became less profitable
(Ilnicki, 2002). Additionally the environmental role of peatlands became to be recognized and
it was a vital argument against agricultural use and related drainage of peatlands. Therefore,
the modern agricultural use of peatlands has to be in agreement with the rules of sustainable
development (eco-development), which connects the socio-economical and ecological aims
for the development of space occupied by agriculture and naturally valuable areas. Proper
agricultural management of peat soils has to limit negative consequences of drainage, which
can be done by turf management and maintenance of high moisture content in peat.
Agricultural field use of peat soils can be limited only to exceptional cases. Parts of peatlands
including areas where agricultural use was abandoned and naturally valuable areas should be
subject to restoration.
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3.Meadow and pasture management of peatlands.
Meadow and pasture management of peatlands should be based on proper water management
allowing effective capillary rise from ground water to the plants’ root zone. Such management
enables proper maintenance of peat moisture content which is required to cover plant water
requirements as well for limitation of peat organic matter mineralization. In practice proper
moisture content in surface peat layer is achieved by controlling ground water levels
depending on soil and habitat type (Szuniewicz 1994). A very important element of
management of grasslands on peat soils is to develop and maintain stable turf layer. Such
layer is possible to be obtained in the habitats which are properly fertilized and at which
optimal moisture content for grasses is maintained. The turf layer protects the peat soil against
drying and degradation and refills the organic matter content which from root remnants. A
change for extensive meadow use or the limitation of fertilization causes degradation of turf
layer and then peat soil. The basic element influencing grassland crops and differentiating
floristic composition and stability of grassland cover is fertilization. Fertilization of peat soils
has to include their specific chemical composition. Particularly important is Nitrogen
management which has to be adjusted to the intensity of mineralization process. Peat soils are
characterized by extremely low Potassium content which limits crops and causes plant cover
degradation. The Phosphorus content in peat soils is very variable. Because of that on some
areas fertilization with this component in not required on the other hand significant areas
require relatively high doses of Phosphorus. Peat soils are usually very poor in chemical
microelements contents such as: Copper, Molibdenium, Cobalt, Mangan, Magnesium, Bore
and Zinc. Pasture management of peat soils is possible and advisable especially on fen soils in
temporary dry habitats. Properly managed and fertilized pastures on fens are characterized by
high productivity and stability of crops. In order to develop stronger turf layer changeable
meadow-pasture management can be applied.
4.Field crops management of peatlands
The Basic advantage of peat soils with respect to field crops management is their high
Nitrogen and water contents which give the possibility of developing relatively high
crops. However, there are many hazards making the development of crops difficult. First
of all, plough cultivation of peat soils by requiring low ground water levels maintenance
stimulates the mineralization of organic matter and finally leads to peat soils degradation.
Additional important hazards are: wind erosion, excess drying of the soil, high
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susceptibility to weeds growth, plant lodging and others. Agrotechnical measures used in
field crops management on peat soils have to limit: excessive mineralization of organic
matter, excessive drying of upper peat soil layer and other hazards. The important measure
is rolling which limits peat soil loosening. It is also very important to leave peat soil
without plant cover as short as possible. It is a very difficult problem to eliminate the
weeds which appear in large quantities in some peat soil habitats. The difficulties with
peat soils cultivation, especially related with field management, resulted in development
and application of both agrotechnical and land reclamation measures improving the
properties of these soils. In this respect it is worth to mention deep sand-adding ploughing
used on shallow peat soils and such activities transform soil profile significantly
increasing carrying capacity of the soil and improving soil water conditions( Kuntze et.al.
1994). Vegetable production on peat soils, as an agrotechnical measure, because of the
possibility of achieving much higher yields is developed in many countries especially in
the USA, Canada and UK. The most frequently cultivated vegetables are: carrots,
beetroots, celery, parsley, onion, garlic, leek, cabbage, cauliflowers, kohlrabi, lettuce and
spinach (Lucas 1982, Rumpel 1979). During the cultivation of vegetables on peat soils the
difficulties resulting from specific nature of peat soils have to be taken into account. Acid
peat soils of raised bogs and transitional peatlands are suitable for cultivation of berry
plants such as high-bush cranberry, cowberry and cranberry. These plants require high soil
moisture content and because of that their cultivation doesn’t require peatlands drainage.
The cultivation of these plants can be recommended as a way of the improvement of overexploited peatlands.
5. Instruments and mechanisms of proecological agricultural use and environmental
protection of peatlands
In the case of peatlands so far undrained (in accumulation phase) the basic protection measure
is providing appropriately high soil moisture content allowing constant increase of organic
matter which guarantees maintaining peatlands natural state. Another problem is the
management of natural meadows existing on peatlands. Such management is only limited to
plant mowing in order to prevent trees and bushes expansion. The abandonment of meadow
management leads to degradation of plant cover as well as soil degradation. Actually, the
proper meadow management on peatlands should fulfill at least two goals: to protect natural
resources (flora and fauna species) and to product forage. Previously drained and not
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managed areas should be included in restoration programmes which can again introduce peat
accumulation processes in every case where it is possible, taking into account natural,
technical and economical conditions. The basic form of management should be the
extensively used grasslands with optimum soil moisture content in the root zone which
prevents organic matter mineralization. Allowable ground water levels should be adjusted to
the soil properties. Fertilization should be also limited and applied fertilizer doses should be
adequate to contents of soil chemicals. The fulfillment of natural resources protection can lead
to the increase of expenses on agricultural production or crop decrease. Because of that such
areas should be included in special agro-environmental schemes.
Practical implementation of pro-ecological agricultural use of peat soils requires
application of a range of instruments and implementation mechanisms. The important role for
proper management on peat soils is to execute the Code of good agricultural practice. This
code was developed according to requirements of directive no. 91/676/EEC issued in 1991 by
EU which is practically called Nitrogen Directive. The code recommendations cover in a
large degree wetlands where peatlands are the most important part. It is recommended that
peatlnds should be used as extensive grasslands or completely excluded from agricultural use.
Peatlands should not be subject of drainage. A very important recommended activity is to
restore peatlands to their natural state ( The Code of good agricultural practice, 2004). The
economical instruments involve the introduction of tax exemption and credits for proecological activities which are aimed at the improvement of peatland habitats moisture
content and achieving appropriate turf layer for the areas included in different environmental
protection forms. Numerous possibilities of economical support for agricultural management
of peat soils are given by regulations of EU in the area of Joint Agricultural Policy. Directive
EU 2078/92 found as necessary to introduce the integrated agricultural system friendly for
environmental protection. The framework of agri-environmental schemes was implemented
and within the framework the farmers receive financial compensations for agricultural
production in agreement with environmental protection. The next document was Agenda 2000
which was the base for important rules for agriculture. Directive 1257/99 includes financial
support for the implementation of the following aims:

Management of agricultural areas favorable for restoring environmental values,
protection of soils quality, preservation of biodiversity,

Extensification of agriculture including pasture management,

Protection of threatened agricultural areas
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
Preservation of agricultural landscapes

Development of the environmental protection plans for agriculture acivities.
Above mentioned activities concern peat soils management in a large extent. The next
group of activities in the pro-ecological management of peat soils are educational and
informational instruments. The most important of them are:

Implementation of knowledge about peat soils and related habitats in all kinds of
schools.

Practical implementation of the scientific research results.

Extension of teaching programmes related to peatlands in universities.

Organization of post diploma studies.

Specialist trainings for agricultural service and farmers.

Increase of the number of different publications and informative materials related to
peatlands.

Development and dissemination of the threats status assessments arising from peat
soils drainage in the context of habitat variety.
6. Principles of good agricultural practice for peatlands.
Principles of good agricultural practice for peatlands include:

The assessment of proper management appropriate to local conditions

Minimization of drainage impacts

Preference of turf type management

Application of the proper field management and tools for mowing, rolling and
fertilization

Elimination of bushes and trees invasion by providing continuous grassland
management

Adjustment of the grassland management intensity to the required biodiversity status.
7.Conflicts dealing with agricultural use of peatlands and methods of their solution.
The following types of conflicts are:

Arising from the level of peatlands management intensity

Between agricultural use and environmental protection

Between agricultural use and other type of management (forestry, peat extraction,
infrastructure, urbanization)
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
Arising from the change of the owner and the method of management
The examples of the range of the decision making for the solution of the problems:

Regarding the present status of use:
-
for peatlands so far undrained, in natural status it is important to establish
proper
-
direction of management
for degraded peatlands it is important to establish the proper direction of
recultivation
-
for agriculturally used peatlands it is very important to properly change the
level of management intensity

Regarding the changes of the previous character of peatlands management:
-
establishment of the ownership and the status of the area
-
establishment if the peatland is undrained, transformed or degraded
-
establishment if the peatland is unique regarding environmental values and
whether it should be protected.
-
establishment if the change of management can cause changes in
hydrographical scheme within peatland itself and on surrounding areas.
-
establishment of the optimal management level for preservation of the present
peatland status.
-
Examination if the system of the assessment of the peatland status and the level
of its moisture content functions.
-
Examination if the system of the assessment of the management intensity
measures such as fertilization level and elements release from peat functions.
8.References
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IMUZ, 77: 59-77.
Ilnicki P. (2002). Torfowiska i torf. Wyd. AR Poznań.
Ilnicki P. (2003). Agricultural production systems for organic soil conservation. In: Organic soils and
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Ilnicki P., Zeitz J. (2003). Irreversible loss of organic soil functions after reclamation. In: Organic soils
and peat materials for sustainable agriculture. L-E. Parent, Ilnicki P. (Eds), CRC Press, pp.
15-32.
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framework for decision-making. International Mire Conservation Group, International Peat Society.
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Kuntze H., Roeschmann G., Schwerdtfeger G. (1994). Bodenkunde. Ulmer, Stuttgart.
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Schothorst C.J. (1977). Subsidence of lowmoor peat soils in the Western Netherlands. Geoderma 17: 265291.
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