Chapter 2.2 Generation, sources and types
Notes on this chapter
This chapter provides an overview of some of the key aspects concerning the origins of
wastes and their types. This is an important subject because virtually every aspect of
waste control and management is constrained by the origins and behavioural properties of
wastes. Considerations of waste types are, however, influenced by the regulatory system
as well as by the laws of chemistry. The legal policies and practices of a country will
influence how wastes are classified and how they can be handled, and may ascribe to
generators and operators certain obligations.
Because the term ‘wastes’ spans such a range of reject and residue material, each with its
own particular considerations, it may help to have someone with field experience to
introduce this chapter. Anecdotal and historical descriptions can be a very powerful way
to bring this chapter alive, and to give the otherwise dry explanations some colour.
It is also useful to introduce students or trainees to some real examples and questions to
illustrate the complexity of the waste world.
Overheads in this chapter cover some of the major aspects of generation, sources and
types of wastes, but cannot cover all situations. The trainer is encouraged to also make
use of the reference materials shown at the end of the introductory text. Annexes,
schedules and listings often found in national and international legislation are a
particularly good source of further discussion materials.
Many of the slides lend themselves to group discussion, debates or panel sessions with
invited speakers. Trainers are encouraged to discuss the material in this chapter in greater
depth, drawing also on experts with practical experience. Further options for training
exercises are found in several of the UNEP manuals for example.
List of slides
Title slide
Slide 2 The need for information
Slide 3 Hazardous waste generators
Slide 4 Some common wastes and industrial sources
Slide 5 Waste generating industries
Slide 6 Small and medium scale industries
Slide 7 The dirty dozen
Slide 8 Small scale industries in developing economies 1: Mumbai, India
Slide 9 Small scale industries in developing economies 2: Harare, Zimbabwe
Slide 10 Small scale industries in developing economies 3: Leon, Mexico
Slide 11 Small scale industries in developing economies 4: Lima, Peru Slide
Slide 12 Some types of waste associated with different industries
Slide 13 Non-industrial waste sources
TRP Chapter 2.2
1
Slide 14 Health care wastes
Slide 15 Some typical household hazardous wastes
Slide 16 Average hazardous household waste composition
Slide 17 Stockpiles of ‘old’ hazardous wastes
Slide 18 Treatment residues
Slide 19 Estimated quantities of hazardous wastes
Slide 20 Quantifying waste generation: by measurement
Slide 21 Quantifying waste generation: waste audit
Slide 22 Quantifying waste generation: by rapid estimation 1
Slide 23 Quantifying waste generation: by rapid estimation 2
Slide 24 Hazardous waste generation in OECD countries
Slide 25 Per capita waste generation (1997)
Slide 26 Waste generation based on Gross National Product 1997
Slide 27 National surveys
Slide 28 Summary
Background notes
Waste types and sources
1 Hazardous residues ie ‘wastes’ arise from a very large number of sources in a modern
society, ranging from heavy industry to commerce, agriculture, medical care and even the
ordinary home. The earlier view that hazardous wastes are ‘industrial’ is out of date.
Although industry remains the biggest single producer of chemical residues, the other
smaller sources have the problem of being far more dispersed, thus creating a problem of
widespread low-level contamination.
2. While chemical producers can reasonably be expected to understand the nature of the
residues they produce, other generators, especially small businesses and households,
often do not know or understand the hazards of the materials they discard.
3 One of the concessions that is frequently made in order to be able to study and manage
the waste problem is to describe the wastes in terms that the generators will understand,
even if this is scientifically or legally imprecise. It thus occurs that in functioning control
systems, the same material may be referred to by several different names.
Calculating quantities
4 While listing sources and types is relatively easy, calculating the quantities generated is
extraordinarily difficult. This is because the generator either cannot or will not describe
accurately the residues produced. Because waste generation is so common there are very
many potential sources, so establishing reliable inventories is very time-consuming.
5 Many countries have launched surveys to estimate the total waste volumes being
produced. Most surveys are imprecise, have low reliability and are expensive to
TRP Chapter 2.2
2
undertake. Many waste generators do not cooperate with surveys. Nevertheless, generator
surveys have a place in a larger system of estimation.
6 In countries with good systems of public record keeping, official data may sometimes
be a good source of information. This can include data on waste received at landfill sites,
for example, or waste shipped for other forms of treatment. In some countries toxic
release inventories have been introduced to measure total releases of chemicals to the
environment, based on generators’ reporting statistics.
7 Where no information at all is yet at hand, a desk survey based on published
co-efficients of waste generation can give a first estimate. This method is useful for
pinpointing where further, more detailed surveys are needed, but it is rarely accurate
enough as a basis of control action. Some computer methods are available, based on
various co-efficients drawn from practical experience. These predict only industrial waste
generation but require minimal data gathering.
8 It is often considered that a mixture of methods should be used so as to reduce the
effects of the biases inherent in each of the individual methods. The IMO’s Global Waste
Survey gives a useful insight into waste estimation methods. Several of the UNEP
manuals also devote coverage to such techniques.
Cradle to grave concept
9 The cradle to grave concept aims to ensure that hazardous materials are controlled
throughout their life cycle, from the point of generation to their final disposal. This
concept includes an assumption that the nature, quantity and location of the waste is
known and monitored throughout, another reason for information-gathering.
Sources of further information
Barnard, R & Olivetti, G (1990) Rapid assessment of industrial waste production based
on available employment statistics Waste Management & Research Vol 8 No 2 ISSN
0734-242X
Bartone, CR & Benavides, L (1997) Local management of hazardous wastes from
small-scale and cottage industries Waste Management & Research Vol 15 No 1
Batstone, R; Smith, JE & Wilson, DC editors (1989) The safe disposal of hazardous
wastes: The special needs and problems of developing countries World Bank,
Washington, Technical paper No 93 in 3 volumes ISBN 0-8213-1144-1 (available as pdf
files from www.worldbank.org/publications/)
Dean, RB & Wilson, DC (Editors) (1990) Adapting hazardous waste management to the
needs of developing countries, Waste Management & Research Vol 8 No 2 ISSN 0734242X
TRP Chapter 2.2
3
Economopoulos, AP (1982) Rapid assessment of sources of air, water & land pollution
sources, World Health Organisation, Geneva Publication number 62
International Maritime Organisation (1995) Global Waste Survey – Final report, IMO
London ISBN 971-9014-01-6 (also held by the Secretariat of the Basel Convention,
Geneva)
ISWA (1999) International perspectives in hazardous waste management, ISWA
Working Group on Hazardous Waste ISBN 87-90402-08-1
ISWA (2000) National Hazardous Waste Management Profiles from ISWA member
countries, ISWA Working Group on Hazardous Waste ISBN 87-90402-13-8
ISWA (2000) Waste Management: the challenge for Asian cities Proceedings of the
symposium & exhibition on waste management in Asian cities
Monahan, DJ (1990) Estimation of hazardous wastes from employment statistics:
Victoria, Australia Waste Management & Research Vol 8 No 2 ISSN 0734-242X
UNEP Global Environmental Outlook United Nations Environment Programme
UNEP & UNIDO (1991) Audit and reduction manual for industrial emissions and wastes
Technical report No 7 UNEP, Paris ISBN 92-807-1303-5
UNEP (1991) Hazardous waste policies and strategies – a training manual, Technical
report No 10 UNEP Industry & Environment Programme Activity Centre &
Environmental Education & Training Unit, Paris ISBN 92-807-1311-6
Web sites
The Basel Convention www.basel.int
Handouts
1.Hazardous wastes generated in 1998 as reported by Parties to the Basel Convention
2. Some medium and small quantity generators
3. Some examples of typical hazardous wastes generated by selected US industries
4. IMO Estimated quantities of hazardous wastes
5. Methodological guide for undertaking national inventories of hazardous wastes within
the framework of the Basel Convention
TRP Chapter 2.2
4