Language and Meaning
(This unit assumes a knowledge of Subjects and Object, of the Finite element of the
verbal group and of the distinction between finite and non-finite clauses. These units
of meaning and categories are discussed and defined in the week 7 seminar notes –
‘Interpersonal Meanings: the language of personal interaction and positioning’)
Grammatical Foundations –
Clause Combinations 1
Clause types
In this set of two units of work, I will be describing some of the different sub-types of
clauses and the way clauses can be linked together to form more complex
grammatical structures
In this unit, I begin with a brief review of the grammar of the clause, then turn to
considering how clauses, as basic building blocks, combine to form more complex
structures. In these more complex structures (known as ‘clause complexes’), logical
relationships are set up between the propositions carried by the individual clauses.
These logical relationship include those of relative time (for example, He closed the
stable doors || after the horses had bolted), relationships of cause or of effect (He
closed the stabled doors || because the horses had bolted; He closed the door || so as
to stop the horse bolting), and so on. As well, I explore in some detail how the
grammar establishes such relationships, looking firstly at clause complexes and then
looking more generally at the grammar of conjunctions and connectives.
In the following unit, we will explore some further aspects of the structure of the noun
group. This may seem somewhat odd, given that the subject of these two units is
clause combinations. However, as you will see, a particular type of clause combining
often occurs within noun groups – what is strictly known as ‘clause embedding’,
where one clause is embedded within the structure of another clause. Accordingly we
will need to consider further details of the structure of noun group in this next unit.
We being, then, by briefly reviewing the basic building block of grammar, the main or
independent clause.
Review – identifying
main/independent clauses
The clause is a fundamental unit in the process of communication because it is the
minimal unit which can stand alone as constituting a complete message. Thus
individual words – old, man, the, goes – do not, in isolation, constitute a complete
message; nor do groups or phrases – will be going, on Monday, the old man. It is only
when words are gathered together into groups and phrases, and then these
groups/phrases are gathered together into a clause that we have a complete,
potentially free standing message – The old man cut the cake on Monday.
There are various ways of identifying clauses. Perhaps the most straightforward is to
consider the experiential configuration of Processes, Participants and Circumstances.
We can say that every clause must contain a Process. Thus when seeking to divide a
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text up into clauses, look firstly for the Processes. Once you have found the Processes,
then look for the Participants and any Circumstances which go with that Process.
Intransitive clauses
All clauses are organised around a central Process, realised by a verbal group. In some
cases, this verbal group/Process will be accompanied by just one entity/Participant.
This one Participant will always be the Subject. (See the seminar notes for week 7 –
‘Interpersonal Meanings: the language of personal interaction and positioning’ for
more on the Subject as a grammatical unit.) Intransitive clauses can be either active
(the doer, initiator, cause etc as Subject) or passive (the done-to, affected, targeted etc
as Subject). For example.
He [Subject] spoke (active)
The truth [Subject] has been spoken (passive)
The baby [Subject] burped (active)
The baby [Subject] was being burped. (passive)
Fred and Mary [Subject] yawned. (active)
The freshly washed clothes [Subject] were drying (active)
The cake [Subject] was stolen (passive)
The door to the pantry [Subject] opened. (active)
The door [Subject] had been opened. (passive)
We can say that all free-standing, independent and complete declarative clauses in
English contain at least one Participant, which will be the Subject, and a Process.
Clauses of this minimal types (with just a Process and a Participant) are termed
'intransitive'. The term 'intransitive' indicates that the action, reach or scope of the
verb does not extend to, or interact with any additional entities (Participants.)
It is common for such intransitive clauses to include Circumstances (as discussed
previously.) Circumstances (or Circumstantial Adjuncts) are frequently not central to
the action of the verb but act, rather, to add qualifying details of the type mentioned
above (information about when, where, in what manner, to what extent, for what
purpose, by what cause etc). Circumstances can often be seen as more peripheral
elements of the clause in that it is often possible to remove them and still retain a
clause which makes complete sense. These Circumstances will typically be realised as
prepositional phrases or by adverb groups. For example,
Fred yawned out of boredom (Circumstantial Adjunct - prepositional phrase
– why)
The clothes were drying in the sun (Circumstantial Adjunct – prepositional
phrase – where)
The door opened suddenly (Circumstantial Adjunct – adverb – in what
manner)
Transitive clauses.
Transitive clauses include at least two Participants (a Subject and an Object) which
are directly involved in the action, effect, scope or enactment of the Process. For
example.
p. 2
The sun (Subject) dried the freshly washed clothes (Object).
Tom (Subject) opened the door to the stables. (Object)
Mary and Fred (Subject) love the Beatles. (Object)
She (Subject) tells the truth (Object)
The noisy coughing (Subject) annoyed her. (Object)
We say that these Participants (Subject and Object) are core or central because they
can't be removed without either completely changing the meaning of the utterance or
rendering it nonsensical/ungrammatical.
For example,
?? Dried the freshly washed clothes.
?? The sun dried.
?? Tom opened.
?? Opened the door to the stables.
?? Mary and Fred love.
?? She tells.
?? The noisy coughing annoyed.
We call such clauses 'transitive' because the action, effect, scope or reach of the verb
transfers from one entity/Participant (the Subject) to another entity/Participant (the
Object).
Passivisation turns a transitive clause into an intransitive clause, since passives have a
Subject but no Object. For example
(active / transitive) The sun (Subject) dried the freshly washed clothes
(Object).
(passive / intransitive) The freshly washed clothes (Subject) were dried by
the sun (Adjunct – not the Object).
These transitive clauses (involving at least two entities that are directly implicated in
the verbal process) often, of course, also include Circumstances. Thus,
The sun [Participant/Subject] quickly [Circumstance] dried [Process/verbal
group] the clothes.[Participant/Object]
Tom [Participant/Subject] was opening [Process/verbal group] the door
[Participant/Object] with his foot [Circumstance]
My friend from Brazil [Participant/Subject] used to love [Process/verbal
group] the Beatles [Participant/Object] with all her heart. [Circumstance]
I [Participant/Subject] will cook [Process/verbal group] breakfast
[Participant/Object] tomorrow.[Circumstance].
Processes and the verbal group
Processes (representing some action, happening or state of affairs) therefore are
central to the clause (all clauses contain a Process). Processes are realised by a verbal
group. Verbal groups have elements which indicate the type of process - that indicate
what was happening or the type of state of affairs. When the verbal group also
contains elements which indicate when the process occurred (relative to the time of
speaking) or which indicate a modal value (possibility, obligation, ability etc), then
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we say that the verbal group is ‘Finite’ and, consequently, that the clause is Finite.
Thus (verbal group underlined)
He will [Finite element indicating time] lock [experiential element indicating
nature of the happening] the stable door.
She must [Finite element indicating modal value of obligation] lock
[experiential element indicating nature of the happening] the stable door
All main clauses (also know as independent or free clauses - those which are capable
of standing on their own as free-standing sentences and of conveying a complete
proposition) thus must contain a Process realised as a Finite verbal group and at least
one Participant, which will be the Subject.
In some instances verbal groups (Processes) can contain elements additional to the
Finite element (indicating time or a modal value) and the experiential element
(indicating the nature of the happening or state of affairs.) These elements provide
additional information about the nature of the process. Thus we can simply say, ‘Mary
is working hard’ (containing Finite + experiential element) or we can complicate the
process by indicating that it was a matter of,
appearance: Mary seemed/appeared to be working hard.
initiation: Mary started/began to work hard
continuation: Mary kept working hard
completion: Mary stopped working hard / Mary ended up working hard
goal/intention: Mary tried/wanted/intended to work hard /Mary tried working hard
success: Mary managed to work hard / Mary succeeded in working hard
and so on
In such clauses, there is only one verbal group (seemed to be working; started to
work; succeeded in working etc), in that there is still only one total action, happening
or state of affairs. It is just that the process is a complex one. (The ‘seemed’ in
‘seemed to be working’ or the ‘kept’ in ‘kept on working’, does not in itself indicate
any process but acts to add additional information about the process.)
Exercise 1
Identify the Participants, Processes and Circumstances in the following clauses, and
indicate whether the clauses are transitive or intransitive. Identify the Subject of the
clause. Recall from the previous materials that the Subject is the noun
groups/Participant which has the following properties.
1 It typically comes in front of the verb
2. It typically agrees in number and person with the verb. For example, the form of
the verb varies between ‘He knows my aunt.’ and ‘They know my aunt.’ – from
‘knows’ to ‘know’. This variation is determined by whether the Subject (He or They)
is singular (just one) or plural (more than one). In the case of ‘he’ it is singular and the
verb form is ‘knows’. In the case of ‘they’ it is plural and the verb form is ‘know’. So
we can identify the Subject by identifying which Participant has the potential to
change the form of the verb in this way (if we change from singular to plural, or vice
versa)
3. Perhaps the easiest way to identify the Subject is by adding a tag question and
seeing which Participant is referenced in the tag. For example, in ‘John met Mary,
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didn’t he?’, the pronoun in the tag (‘he’) references ‘John’ and not Mary. So ‘John’
not ‘Mary’ is the Subject.
Also identify any Objects. Objects are those noun groups/Participants which are
directly being acted upon, targeted by or included in the scope of the verb. Objects are
typically the Participant/noun group which comes immediately or very soon after the
Verb. Noun groups which occur inside preposition phrases can’t be the Object. That is
to say, Objects can’t be prepositional phrases. Thus
The police (Subject) moved (Finite/Predicator) the students. (noun group =
Object) [transitive clause]
The police (Subject) moved (Finite/Predicator) towards the students (prepositional
phrase = Circumstance) [intransitive clause]
The Object is also the Participant which can be moved into the Subject position under
passivisation. For example,
(Active) Mary (Subject) baked (Finite/Predicator) the cake (Object)
(Passive) The cake (Subject) was baked (Finite/Predicator) by Mary (Adjunct)
1. His uncle Ted helps him with his maths and physics homework.
2. The head chef and his assistants rapidly cut the cake into ten equal pieces.
3. She cooks with garlic.
4. She can speak ten languages fluently
5. They destroyed the castle on the hill through magic.
6. The price of gold has fallen dramatically
7. She sings both night and day.
8. She sings 'Night and Day' with great enthusiasm.
9. The ice in the refrigerator had started to thaw
10. I have been waiting for you all my life.
(See answer key at conclusion of notes.)
Clause combinations 1: coordination
Perhaps the most straightforward way by which clauses can be combined to make
clause complexes is what is known as ‘co-ordination’. Here clauses which are
essentially equal in terms of the importance or centrality of the meanings they convey
are linked together by means of conjunctions such as and, or and but. For example
(clause divisions are indicated by double lines - ||.).
p. 5
1. Mary plays the piano extremely well || and John enthusiastically learns
origami.
2. The train had pulled into the station, || the passengers had alighted || and
his long-lost uncle finally emerged from the last carriage.
3. You can watch television || or you can have a swim in the pool.
4. You may have some cake || but you must clean your teeth afterwards.
5. My brother loves performing || but he hates practising.
Notice that each clause has its own complete complement of Participants, Processes
and Circumstances.
1. Mary (Participant/Subject) plays (Process) the piano (Participant/Object)
extremely well (Circumstance) || and John (Participant/Subject)
enthusiastically (Circumstance) learns (Process) origami.
(Participant/Object)
It is often (though not always) the case that the order of the clauses could be reversed,
without a significant change in meaning or any damage to the grammaticality of the
clause complex. For example,
1. John enthusiastically learns origami || and Mary plays the piano extremely
well.
We notice as well that the Processes are realised by finite verbal groups, that to say by
verb groups in which either the tense (past, present, habitual present, future) is fully
specified or in which a modal assessment is provided. (For a full discussion of the
Finite element of the verbal group, see Week 7 seminar notes, ‘Interpersonal
Meanings: the language of personal interaction and positioning’) Thus.
1. The train had pulled (verb group: Finite + Predicator – past tense
indicated by ‘had…ed’) into the station, || the passengers had alighted (verb
group: Finite + Predicator – past tense indicated by ‘had…ed’) || and his
long-lost uncle finally emerged (verb group: Finite conflated with Predicator
– past tense indicated by ‘emerged’) from the last carriage.
2. Mary plays (verb group: Finite conflated with Predicator – habitual
present indicated) the piano extremely well || and John enthusiastically
learns (verb group: Finite conflated with Predicator – habitual present
indicated) origami.
3. You can watch (verb group: Finite + Predicator – modal of
permission/obligation indicated by ‘can’ ) television || or you can have
(verb group: Finite + Predicator – modal of permission/obligation
indicated by ‘can’ ) a swim in the pool.
p. 6
Review materials (reviews and extends material
covered in the week 7 seminar notes)
Finiteness – the Verbal Group
In statements and questions, main clauses all have what is termed a ‘finite’ verbal
group. To be ‘finite’ a verb group must be associated with a specific time reference
(past, present continuous, present habitual, future etc) or must include one of the
modal auxiliaries indicating obligation/permission, ability, usuality, inclination or
probability/likelihood (may, can, will, must, might etc).
To say that a verb group must have specific time reference means that it clearly
indicates when the event happened, is happening or will happen. In cases of single
word verbal groups, the time reference (or tense) of the process will be indicated by
the form of the verb. Thus in ‘Jesus wept’, the form ‘wept’ indicates that the event
occurred in the past. Similarly the form ‘weeps’ in ‘He weeps’ indicates a habitual or
ongoing time reference. More often, however, a tense auxiliary is included to fix the
event/state of affairs in time. Thus ‘had’ in ‘Tom had left’ indicates the distant past,
‘has’ in ‘Tom has left’ indicates more recent past and ‘will’ in ‘Tom will leave’
indicates the future.
We term verbal groups with these feature ‘finite’ because they are ‘fixed’ or ‘finite’
in time. We can contrast these with non-finite or non fixed verbal groups where there
is no clear indication of the time frame in which the event/state of affairs is located.
Consider, for example,
To be or not to be,
Standing by the door,
Startled by the sound,
To finalise matters.
None of these verbal groups are finite, because none of them provide completely
specific time reference for the events/states of affairs described. Consider, for
example, ‘standing by the door’. We don’t know until we add an additional clause
with a finite verbal group when this ‘standing’ occurs. Thus is could be a past
‘standing’ – ‘Standing by the door, she saw a tall dark stranger.’ Likewise, it could be
in the present. ‘Standing by the door, he watches the boats leaving.’, or even a future
standing, ‘Standing by the door, you will be able to see the boats leaving.’, and so on.
Finiteness of this type is related to interpersonal arguability in the same way as the
Subject is. (See previous notes.) Thus it is not only the Subject which is tossed back
and forward in dialogic exchanges but the Finite element, typically indicated the
timing of the event. Thus,
A: Fred was (Finite element locating the event in a specific past) asking Tom
for money.
B: No he wasn't. (Finite element)
A: Well, sorry to disagree, but he definitely was. (Finite element)
B: Wasn't (Finite element)
A: Was. (Finite element)
B: Wasn't.(Finite element)
p. 7
etc
Thus, in a sense, the Finite element of the verbal group is even more central to
arguability than the Subject. It is the one element which necessarily remains in
unfolding negotiations of this type.
Arguability of this type can provide a useful diagnostic for determining whether a
verbal group, and hence its clause is finite. Finite clauses can provide for to-and-fro
argument of this type while non-finite clauses do not. Thus, there is no way to centre
such an exchange around, ‘Standing by the door’, for example, or ‘To be or not to be.
There is one final complication in terms of the finiteness of verb groups and hence of
clauses. It is possible to ‘fix’ a clause, not directly by reference to time, but by
reference to the speaker’s stance in terms of permission/obligation, ability or
probability. Thus ‘You must stop playing’ is fixed and hence ‘finite’ not because it is
specifically fixed in time, but because it is ‘fixed’ with reference to the speaker’s
assertion of obligation. Such a clause is, as a result, arguable.
A: You must stop playing,
B: No I mustn’t
A: Yes you must
B: mustn’t
A: must.
etc
Thus we say that the modal auxiliary (for example, ‘can’, ‘are allowed to’, ‘ought to’,
‘should’ ‘must’ etc) provides the Finite element.
Similarly, we can fix the utterance with reference to judgements of ability.
She can speak ten languages
No she can’t.
Yes she can.
Can’t.
etc
Here the Finite element is the modal auxiliary ‘can’.
Or, we can fix (and hence make finite) by reference to judgements of probability.
A: That may be Fred now.
B: It might not be .
A: No it must be.
B: Well I suppose it could be.
Here the negotiation is carried out by the exchange of modal auxiliaries of probability
such as may, might, must, could.
Thus we can say that all of the verb groups in clauses of this type are finite – their
p. 8
verbal group contains elements which either fix the event/state of affairs specifically
in time or in terms of a judgement by the speaker about obligation/permission, ability
or probability/likelihood.
Clause combinations and the Imperative
(commands)
It is perhaps necessary to note that this ‘finiteness’ requirement for clauses which are
‘co-ordinated’ in this way only applies for statements and questions, and not for direct
commands (imperatives). For example.
Leave at once || and take your rubbish with you.
Here neither of the clauses which have been linked together has a Finite element (nor
a Subject for that matter) as a result of being imperatives. (Imperative structures,
which realise commands, typically don’t have either a Subject or a Finite.)
Co-ordinated clause combinations – summary
The clauses linked together in such co-ordinated structures have the following
features.
1. Each separate clause could, in principle stand alone as a free-standing sentence.
For example, Mary plays the piano extremely well. John enthusiastically learns
origami.
2. The man verbal group (Process) of each clause is fully specified for tense or for
modality – it is finite.
3. The linked clauses are essentially equal in terms of their informational importance
or centrality. Thus in, Mary plays the piano extremely well and John
enthusiastically learns origami., we are equally interested in what Mary does
(clause 1) and what John does (clause 2).
A complication in co-ordination: some apparently
missing elements.
One complication in these co-ordinated clause combinations arises as a result of what
is known as ‘ellipsis’. This is a process by which some element of the clause is left
out as a result of being carried over or ‘understood’ from a previous clause in the
current co-ordinated clause complex . For example.
Albert pulled off his shoes, || said a quick prayer || and slipped silently into
the water.
Here only the first clause in the complex has an explicit Subject, Albert. This is
because, since this Subject remains the same across the following co-ordinated
clauses, it can be left unstated – it is the ‘understood’ Subject of all the clauses. This
‘ellipsis’ (leaving understood) can also include the Finite element as well as the
Subject. For example,
Natasha was writing her essay || and watching television.
Here not only the Subject (Natasha) but also the Finite element was has been left
understood in the second, co-ordinated clause.
p. 9
Subordination – combining a
‘main’ clause with one or more
dependent clauses
Clauses may also be combined in a process which is known as ‘subordination’. Here
there will be a central or main clause, and then attached clauses which are dependent
on that main clause in that they provide information which is in some way subsidiary
to the information provided in the main clause. We term these attached, subsidiary
clauses, ‘dependent’ or ‘subordinate’ clauses. These subordinate/dependent clauses
typically can’t stand on their own as free-standing sentences and they act to supply
supportive, background or modifying information for the main clause, or act to
elaborate or extend those main clauses in some way. There are three main types of
subordinate/dependent clauses.
Circumstantials: those which supply circumstantial or background information
(similar in their functionality to Circumstances within the clause) such as
information about how, when, where, why, for how long, who with, and so on.
Elaborating: those which act to elaborate the main clause by adding details.
Projecting: clauses which are framed (that is to say ‘projected’) by some verb of
communication or human cognition (Verbal and Mental Processes). These framed
or ‘projected’ clauses provide the content of some act of saying or thinking. For
example, (projected clause underlined) - He said || that he didn’t believe in
miracles. / He believes || we’ll never make it. He asked || whether he could leave.
He ordered|| them to leave.
Subordination with circumstantial dependent
clauses.
As indicated above, circumstantial dependent clauses supply background information
of the type supplied by clausal Circumstances – they tell when, where, why, to what
extent, for what purpose, in what manner, under what condition. They may also act to
indicate that the main clause is in some way anomalous or contrary to expectation.
Circumstantial dependent clauses can be Finite (their verbal group contains an
element which either locates the verbal process in time or indicates its modality – see
discussion above). For example,
The revellers scattered || when the bull charged across the field.
(main)
(subordinate) – finite)
If the nights are very warm, || we like to sleep outside.
(subordinate – finite)
(main)
James won't be home tomorrow || because the BBC called || and offered
him a job interview tomorrow morning.
(main clause + two finite subordinate clauses, linked by and, and featuring
Subject ellipsis)
p. 10
Finite circumstantial of this type begin with a subordinating conjunction such as
when, while, until, if, because, although etc. We notice that the order of the main
clause and the subordinate clause in such structures can be readily reversed:
The revellers scattered || when the bull charged across the field.
When the bull charged across the field, || the revellers scattered.
We notice however, that these re-orderings are very different from those which are
possible with co-ordinated clause complexes. In the case of such subordinated
structures, the conjunction stays with the main clause. Thus the ‘when’ in the above
clause complex remained in place as the first word of the clause, ‘when the bull
charged across the field’. This is not the case when we re-order co-ordinated clauses.
Here the conjunction remains in place as a link between the clauses, regardless of
their position in the clause complex. Thus, .
John laughed and Mary cried. (Mary cried and John laughed.)
?? And Mary cried, John laughed.
This behaviour follows directly from the different nature of the relationship between
co-ordinated and subordinated clauses and the different functionality of co-ordinating
versus subordinating conjunctions. The co-ordinating conjunction (for example, and,
or, but) simply acts to link the two clauses which have equal status. Strictly speaking
it can’t be said to be part of either clause - it’s simply operates to provide a link
between the two. Accordingly this linking element does not move under reordering.
With this in mind, it would actually be more accurate to represent such coordinated
clause combinations. not as,
John laughed || and Mary cried
but as,
John laughed | and | Mary cried
In contrast, the function of the subordinating conjunction is to indicate the way in
which the subordinate clause provides background information for the main clause.
Accordingly it can truly be said to be a part of that clause and therefore moves with
the clause under re-ordering.
Circumstantial clauses may also be non-finite. Non-finite clauses (as you will recall)
are those with verb groups (Processes) where there is no Finite element and hence
where there is no definitive fixing of the Process either in terms of time or in term of a
modal assessment. The verb group in non-finite clauses is typically comprised of
1. the present participle –ing form (e.g. marching, disturbing, knowing, proving), or
2. the present participle of have plus the –ed/en past participle form (e.g. having
marched, having proven), or
3. just the past participle –ed/en form (e.g. marched, proven), or
4. the infinitive, citation form (e.g. to march, to prove.
For example (non-finite verbal groups underlined).
1. Deeply disturbed by the news, || Natasha resolved never again to knit
with the lights off.
(non-finite subordinate clause)
(main clause)
p. 11
2. Having known her all my life, || I was convinced she was innocent..
(non-finite subordinate clause)
(main clause)
3. Despite standing on tippy-toe, || she couldn’t reach the biscuit jar.
(non-finite subordinate clause)
(main clause)
4. Realising that he had to do something, || Alphonse eased the revolver
out of the holster || and began counting to a hundred.
(non-finite subordinate + 2 main clauses linked by and, and involving
Subject ellipsis.)
5. We wash our hands thoroughly || in order to avoid infection.
(main )
(non-finite subordinate clause)
Notice that non-finite circumstantial clauses may or may not begin with a
conjunction. Thus examples 1, 2 and 4 above do not include a conjunction while
examples 3 and5 include the conjunctions1 despite and in order, respectively.
Circumstantial subordinate clauses perform the following functions.
1. Provide background information about time (temporal)
(finite) Since I arrived, || I’ve been well cared for
(non-finite) Since arriving, || I’ve been well cared for
(finite) When he swims, || he breathes on both sides
(non-finite) When swimming, || he breathes on both sides.
Other temporal subordinating conjunctions include while, until, before, after,
whenever, the moment, every time, as soon as, now that, once etc.
Notice that the Subject of these non-finite clauses is supplied by reference to the main
clause - the non-finite subordinate clause is ‘understood’ to have the same Subject as
the main clause.
2. Provide background information about the means, cause, condition or
purpose.
She succeeded || by studying hard. (means – non finite)
She succeeded || because she studied hard (reason/cause – finite)
If you study hard, (condition – finite) )|| you will succeed.
Unless you study hard, (condition – finite) || you won’t succeed.
She studied hard || so as to succeed (purpose – non-finite)
She studied hard || in order to succeed. (purpose – non-finite)
He studies hard || to please his mother. (purpose – non finite)
In order for him to succeed, (purpose – non finite) || he had to study hard.
Note well. Clauses in indicating purpose such as ‘to please his mother’ often simply
begin with the infinitive to form of the verb – eg, to please. Consequently they are
1
Strictly speaking, despite and in order to are prepositions rather than conjunctions. That is to say their
formal grammatical properties are more those of a preposition than a conjunction. They function here,
however to link clauses and hence function as conjunctions. Accordingly, giving preference to function
over form, we either simply label them as conjunctions or (to accommodate more traditional
perspectives) term them ‘conjunctive prepositions’.
p. 12
often overlooked in grammatical analysis. They also pose a problem because there is
the possibility of confusion between clause complexes of the type illustrated above –
eg He studied hard || to please his mother - and single clauses containing complex
verbal groups with elaborating verbal elements such as try, start, stop, happen,
managed etc. Thus
He studied hard || to please his mother.
is two clauses, while
He tried to please his mother.
He managed to please his mother
He stopped pleasing his mother
etc
are single clauses with a complex verbal group. The difference, of course, is that
verbal elements such as try, manage, stop etc don’t make sense in isolation, they don’t
reference a particular verbal Process, they don’t of themselves indicate which Process
occurred. Thus there is just the one Process referenced by ‘try to please’, ‘managed to
please’ etc. In contrast, the clauses from the clause complex do have their own
independent referential meaning - each verb references a clearly separate Process.
Thus in ‘He studied hard to please his mother’, there are clearly two separate
Processes - ‘studying’ and ‘pleasing’.
3. Indicate that the main clause is in someway unexpected, contrary to
the norm.
(finite) He failed even though he studied hard
(finite) Although he studied hard, he failed.
(non-finite) Despite studying hard, he failed.
Exercise 2
(answers provided in the Appendix) In the following, underline Processes (the verbal
groups) and break up into clauses. Indicate whether the clauses are finite or non-finite.
Determine whether the clauses are main or subordinate, For example,
You should come right in, unless grandpa is sleeping.
You should come right in, || unless grandpa is sleeping. (main, finite / subordinate,
finite)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Nero fiddled while Rome burnt.
Keeping as still as possible, I slowly opened by eyes.
I’ll stay by the phone until you call.
He climbs without a safety harness because he’s crazy.
You won’t achieve anything by shouting at me.
He stood up, took a couple of steps and then promptly fell down again.
You’ll have to get up a lot earlier to fool me.
As soon as you get rid of one tyrant, another one pops up.
We were sitting for our analytical chemistry exam and it was the final exams and
they have sort of like bench desks where there’s three to a bench normally and
they had the middle seat empty and two sat either side and I was sitting there.
p. 13
10. Writers cramp and tennis elbow are two colloquialisms for RSI and the symptoms
can range from stiffness or pain in the hand to severe pain throughout the body.
11. If you use a mouse, joypad or keyboard for long periods, it can cause damage to
both wrists, lower arms and the rest of your body.
12. Although the Microsoft Natural Keyboard is an excellent piece of industrial
design, it is not convenient if you are a hunt-and-peck two finger typist.
13. To prevent or reduce the effects of RSI, you should take frequent breaks.
14. There are a number of alternatives to the mouse such as trackballs and trackpads,
but I prefer graphic tablets.
15. The pens are light and the graphics tablets responsive, and the price makes them
great value for money .
16. These use a pen-like input device on a pressure sensitive tablet to determine the
position of the cursor.
17. They are extremely comfortable and can offer a much better degree of control.
18. Pens and tablets come in a number of sizes and at the smallest size take up no
more space than a mouse mat.
19. You can improve the responsiveness of your mouse by changing the mouse
settings.
20. Select Mouse from the Control Panel on Windows 95 and you will be able to
change the tracking speed, enabling you to select a comfortable degree of arm
movement.
21. Of all the programs, I like BreakTime best because it is unobtrusive and doesn’t
take up many system resources.
22. Also take a look at my ‘Total Hand Neck, Eyes and Back Workout’ section for
some suitable exercises and check out the links sections for some good resources.
Subordination with elaborating dependent clauses
The function of the subordinate elaborating clause (another type of subordinate
clause) is to specify the meaning of the main clause in some way - by clarifying it,
giving more detail, restating it is different terms or providing an example.
Elaboration is the primary function of what traditional grammar terms ‘non-defining’
relative clauses. These are typically clauses beginning with the relative pronoun
which. For example.
He was mowing his front lawn, || which had grown rapidly over the summer.
We say that which had grown rapidly over the summer is a clause because it has its
own verbal Process with an associated set of Participants and Circumstances.
Process = had grown
Participant = which (standing in for his front lawn – also the Subject of the
clause)
Circumstantial Adjunct = rapidly; over the summer
Here we see that the which-clause acts to elaborate the main clause - ‘He was
mowing his front’ lawn by providing additional information about the lawn.
These elaborating relative clauses can also begin with where or when.
p. 14
I come from Adelaide, || where all the murders took place.
[Here the where-clause elaborates by providing additional details about one
element of the main clause, about the place ‘Adelaide’. We say this is a
separate clause because it contains its own verbal Process – took place – and
associated Participants and Circumstances – Participant/Subject = all the
murders; Circumstance = where (standing in for Adelaide)]
I’ll catch up with him on Saturday, || when he should have finished the
chapter.
[The when-clause gives specifying information about ‘Saturday’ – verbal
Process = should have finished; Participants = he / the chapter; Circumstance
= when (standing in for Saturday)]
In some instances, the elaborating clause can break up the main clause to which it is
attached.
John, who loves a good drink, was getting stuck into the champagne.
Here the main/Free clause is ‘John was getting stuck into the champagne’. The
elaborating subordinate clause ‘who loves a good drink’ has been placed, however, so
as to break up that clause. The main clause is now, in a sense, discontinuous. Once
again, the function of the subordinate clause is to provide specification by giving
additional details of one element of the main clause. Some clauses (where the main
clause is interrupted) are termed ‘inserted’ clauses.
In the above examples, all the elaborating clauses have been finite – the verbal group
contained a Finite element indicating time or modality. There is, however, a second
category of elaborating dependent clause with non-finite verbal groups. For example,
Little Jack Horner sat in the corner, || eating his curds and whey.
Here we have two separate verbal Processes – ‘sat’ and ‘eating’ - and hence two
clauses. The second clause has the non-finite verbal group ‘eating’. The function of
this second clause is once again to provide additional details to the main clause – it
tells us more specifically what Jack’s sitting in the corner involved. Its function
therefore is to elaborate.
Similarly,
I was a member of the Westbourne Park symphony orchestra, || playing the
drums. [The elaborating subordinate clause gives more details of what I did
as a member of the orchestra].
It’s my own invention, || to sharpen pencils more efficiently. [Here the
subordinate clause once again provides details about some element of the
main clause.]
Notice that in such instances, one of the Participants associated with the verbal
Process is carried over or understood from the main, finite clause.
Little Jack Horner sat in the corner, || eating his curds and whey.
verbal Process = eating
Participants = (1) Little Jack Horner, carried over from the first clause; (2)
his curds and whey.
p. 15
Projecting/reporting dependent
clauses
Under the functional grammatical approach, structures such as He said that he was
leaving; ‘I’m leaving’, he said; He demanded that we leave; He thinks they left
already; He fears that they have left already; He asked whether they had left already,
are treated as involving a main clause and a subordinate clause. Here we are
concerned with verbs of communication (say, declare, report etc) and verbs of
cognition (think, believe, fear). These verbs typically act to frame, report or 'project'
some saying, thought or feeling. The proposition that is framed or projected in this
way will be treated as a subordinate clause, linked to the clause with the verb of
communication or cognition. That is to say, the clause with the verbal or mental
process (the reporting verb) is analysed as main and the clause which was said or
thought (the framed or projected clause) is analysed as subordinate.
He said [main], || “I’m leaving”. [subordinate]
He asked [main] || whether they had left already. [subordinate]
“Have they left already”, [subordinate] || he wondered. [main]
He said [main] || that he was leaving [subordinate]
He demanded [main] || that we leave [subordinate]
He fears [main] || that they have left already. [subordinate]
He thinks [main] || they left already [subordinate]
Summary
Clauses frequently combine to form combinations known as clause complexes.
Under coordination, clauses of the same informational value or centrality are linked
together by co-ordinating conjunctions such as and, or and but – e.g Mary likes
jazz || and I like rock and roll (or more accurately Mary likes jazz | and | I like
rock and roll.)
Coordinated clauses may sometimes involve ‘ellipsis’ by which either the Subject or
the Subject plus the Finite are left understood (and hence not explicitly stated) in
the linked clause (or clauses) – e.g. I was blowing as hard as I could || and
making a dreadful row. (I and was here left understood in the coordinated second
clause)
The verbal groups in these co-ordinated structures are always finite, that is they
always contain a Subject and a Finite, even if, in cases of ellipsis, that Subject and
Finite is ‘understood’ from a previous clause. This means that all clauses in these
coordinated structures are either fully fixed in time or in terms of a modal
assessment and hence are directly arguable.
Under subordinating, one or more ‘main’ clauses (those capable of standing on their
own as a free-standing sentence) are linked to one or more subordinate or
dependent clauses (those not capable of operating on their own as a free-standing
sentence.)
p. 16
Subordinate clauses are linked by means of subordinating conjunctions such as when,
while, after, before, because, so as, unless, despite, and in order
Subordinate clauses may be finite and hence fully specified for time or modality (e.g.
When Mary was working at the factory…; Because Mary may have been working
at the factory…) or non-finite and hence not fully specified for time or modality
(e.g. Working in the factory…; Having worked in the factor…)
Subordinate clauses perform three broad functions:
(a) providing circumstantial information to the main clause (in this they are
similar to, but not to be confused with, Circumstantials within the clause) - e.g. I
left (main clause) || when Mary arrived. (subordinate clause); I left (main clause)
|| because Mary arrived. (subordinate); I left (main clause) || to avoid Mary
(subordinate).
(b) elaborating on the main clause – e.g. I bought a new car last week, (main) ||
which will probably surprise you in light of my current financial difficulties
(subordinate).
(c) setting out the statement, question or command which is being projected by
the main clause – e.g. She asked (main) || whether I was exhausted.
(subordinate); They declared (main) || that the fight was over (subordinate); He
believes (main) || that the government is corrupt. (subordinate); He ordered
(main) || me to smile (subordinate)
Coming up
In the next set of grammar foundation notes, we will be exploring the process of
clause embedding. Here it is not a matter of clauses being linked together in
sequential chains but of one clause being inserted within the structure of another
clause. In such cases clauses provide part or all of the structure of noun groups.
Feedback/Answer Keys
Exercise 1
Identify the Participants, Processes and Circumstances in the following
clauses, and indicate whether they are transitive or intransitive.
1. His uncle Ted [Participant/Subject] helps [Process/Object] him
[Participant/Object] with his maths and physics homework.
[Circumstance] - transitive
2. The head chef and his assistants [Participant/Subject] rapidly
[Circumstance] cut [Process] the cake [Participant/Object] into ten equal
pieces. [Circumstance] - transitive
3. She [Participant/Subject] cooks [Process] with garlic. [Circumstance] intransitive
4. She [Participant/Subject] can speak [Process] ten languages
[Participant/Object] fluently. [Circumstance] - transitive
p. 17
5. They [Participant/Subject] destroyed [Process] the castle on the hill
[Participant/Object] through magic. [Circumstance] - transitive
6. The price of gold [Participant/Subject] has fallen [Process]
dramatically[Circumstance] - intransitive
7. She [Participant/Subject] sings [Process] both night and day.
[Circumstance – indicating when] - intransitive
8. She [Participant/Subject] sings [Process] 'Night and Day'
[Participant/Object] with great enthusiasm. [Circumstance] - transitive
9. The ice in the refrigerator [Participant/Subject] had started to thaw.
[Process] - intransitive
10. I [Participant] have been waiting [Process] for you [Circumstance] all my
life. [Circumstance] – intransitive
Exercise 2
1. Nero fiddled (main/finite) || while Rome burnt. (subordinate / finite)
2. Keeping as still as possible, (subordinate/non-finite) || I slowly opened my eyes.
(main/finite) The verbal Process here is ‘keeping’ while ‘still as possible’ is an
adjective which is being attributed to ‘I’ – eg ‘I was still’ / ‘I kept still’. There is
no verb ‘to be still/to keep still’
3. I’ll stay by the phone (main/finite) || until you call. (subordinate/ finite)
4. He climbs without a safety harness (main/finite) || because he’s crazy.
(subordinate/ finite) – Here the time/tense indicated by the verb is that of the
habitual present. In clause 2, the verb is simply ‘is’ - reduced to “’s” – ‘crazy’ is
an adjective attributed to ‘he’)
5. You won’t achieve anything (main/finite) || by shouting at me (subordinate/ nonfinite) – In clause 1, the verbal group includes the negative element combined with
the future auxiliary – will + not = won’t)
6. He stood up, (main/finite) || took a couple of steps (main/finite) || and then
promptly fell down again. (main/finite) Here we see the phenomenon of ‘Subject
ellipsis’ where the Subject is understood or carried over from the first clause. All
the clauses, however are finite in that they clearly indicate the timing of the
Processes.)
p. 18
7. You’ll have to get up a lot earlier (main/finite) || to fool me. (subordinate nonfinit) – Clause 2 is an example of one of those tricky purpose clauses. The verbal
group of clause 1 contains a modal element, ‘have to’ indicating obligation.)
8. As soon as you get rid of one tyrant, (subordinate/ finite)|| another one pops up.
(main/finite) (- examples of phrasal verbs)
9. We were sitting for our analytical chemistry exam (main/finite) || and it was the
final exams (main/finite) || and they have sort of like bench desks (main/finite) ||
where there’s three to a bench normally (subordinate/finite) || and they had the
middle seat empty (main/finite) || and two sat either side (main/finite) || and I was
sitting there (main/finite). (A long chain of co-coordinated clauses typical of
casual conversation.)
10. Writers cramp and tennis elbow are two colloquialisms for RSI (main/finite) || and
the symptoms can range from stiffness or pain in the hand to severe pain
throughout the body. (main/finite) - 2nd clause verbal group = ‘can range’)
11. If you use a mouse, joypad or keyboard for long periods, (subordinate/ finite)|| it
can cause damage to both wrists, lower arms and the rest of your body.
(main/finite) – Note that in clause 2 we have a ‘causative’ verb which does act
mainly of any other verbal elements as the clause’s central Process. This is
possible because the verb ‘to damage’ has been turned into the noun ‘damage’ –
thus what might have been expresses as [cause you to damage both wrists’ has
here been expressed as ‘cause damage to’. This process of turning verbs into
nouns will be discussed in a later unit.)
12. Although the Microsoft Natural Keyboard is an excellent piece of industrial
design, (subordinate/ finite) || it is not convenient (main/finite) || if you are a huntand-peck two finger typist. (subordinate/ finite)
13. To prevent or reduce the effects of RSI, || you should take frequent breaks.
(Subordinate, non-finite / Main, finite – Technically speaking, the Process in
clause 1 is a compound one, made up of two verbs, ‘to prevent’, ‘to reduce’,
linked by ‘or’. Although there are two verbs here, there is only one verbal group
and hence only one clause since the verbs are so tightly integrated – they both take
the same Participant, ‘the effects of RSI’. Here are some other examples of single
clauses with compound verbal groups made up of multiple verbs – ‘I tossed and
turned all night’ / ‘He topped and tailed the beans’ / ‘I’ll water and generally
care for the plants’. It is generally safe to treat multiple verbs as constituting a
single verbal group and hence being part of the same clause when they share the
same Subject and Object. Thus in, ‘I’ll water and generally care for the plants’,
both verbs have the Subject ‘I’ and the Object ‘the plants’.)
p. 19
14. There are a number of alternatives to the mouse such as trackballs and trackpads, ||
but I prefer graphic tablets. (main, finite /main, finite)
15. The pens are light || and the graphics tablets responsive, || and the price makes
them great value for money. (main, finite / main, finite / and, finite) or The pens
are light and the graphics tablets responsive, || and the price makes them great
value for money. (main, finite /main, finite – A slightly problematic clause
complex because there is an understood or carried-over verb ‘to be’ in ‘the
graphics tablets responsive’. This might have been expressed as ‘The pens are
light and the graphic tablets are responsive’. The simplest analysis is to treat the
verbal group here as understood and hence to treat ‘the graphics tablets
responsive’ as a clause in its own right. You might argue, alternatively, that ‘the
graphics tablet responsive’ isn’t a clause in it’s own right because it doesn’t
contain an explicit verbal group/Process.)
16. These use a pen-like input device on a pressure sensitive tablet || to determine the
position of the cursor. (main, finite / subordinate, non-finite - another non-finite
clause of purpose)
17. They are extremely comfortable || and can offer a much better degree of control.
(main finite /main finite - Another case of Subject ellipsis - the Subject ‘they’ is
carried over to the second clause)
18. Pens and tablets come in a number of sizes || and at the smallest size take up no
more space than a mouse mat. (main, finite / main, finite – more Subject ellipsis)
19. You can improve the responsiveness of your mouse || by changing the mouse
settings. (main, finite / subordinate, non-finite)
20. Select Mouse from the Control Panel on Windows 95 || and you will be able to
change the tracking speed, || enabling… you …to select a comfortable degree of
arm movement. (subordinate, non-finite / main, finite / main, non-finite – Note that
the verbal group in clause 1 is subordinate because it’s a special form of the
conditional with a meaning similar to ‘If you select….’ It might, alternatively, be
analysed as a an imperative (a command), in which case you could analyse it as a
main clause, though this seems more difficult to argue for. The 2nd clause
contains a modal element ‘be able to’. The verbal group in clause three is
complex, containing the causative element ‘enabling’.)
21. Of all the programs, I like BreakTime best || because it is unobtrusive || and
doesn’t take up many system resources. (main, finite / subordinate, finite /
subordinate, finite – Clause 3 involves Subject ellipsis, the Subject ‘it’ is carried
over from he previous clause. ‘Take up’ is another phrasal verb.) Clause 3 is
‘subordinate’ with respect to clause 1, since the subordinating conjunction
‘because’ carries over to it. We could rephrase this as, ‘Of all the programs, I like
BreakTime best || because it is unobtrusive || and because it doesn’t take up many
system resources. The internal relationship between this clause and clause 2 is,
however, one of co-ordination rather than subordination.
22. Also take a look at my ‘Total Hand Neck, Eyes and Back Workout’ section for
some suitable exercises and || check out the links sections for some good resources.
(main, non-finite/main, non-finite – Both clauses are imperatives and hence non-
p. 20
finite. It’s probably simplest to treat ‘take a look at’ as a phrasal verb although it
could be broken down into smaller constituent parts.)
p. 21