UNITED NATIONS
ENVIRONMENT PROGRAMME
Chemicals Branch, DTIE
STUDY ON THE POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON HUMAN
HEALTH AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN AFRICA OF THE
TRADE OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING
CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
Draft of December 2008
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
iv
1.0
INTRODUCTION
1
Background
Study objectives
Study coverage and report organization
Study methodology and sources of information
1
1
1
2
OVERVIEW OF CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY AND PRODUCTS
CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
3
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
2.0
2.1 Cadmium and products containing cadmium
2.1.1
General characteristics and occurrence of cadmium
2.1.2
Common products containing cadmium
2.2 Lead and products containing lead
2.2.1
General characteristics and occurrence of lead
2.2.2
Common products containing lead
2.3 Mercury and products containing mercury
2.3.1
General characteristic and occurrence of mercury
2.3.2
Common products containing mercury
3.0 OVERVIEW OF POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE
ENVIRONMENT FROM PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND
MERCURY
3
3
4
5
5
7
8
8
9
11
3.1 Cadmium and products containing cadmium
11
3.1.2
Potential effects of cadmium and products containing cadmium on the environment 11
3.1.2
Potential effect of cadmium and products containing cadmium on human health
13
3.2 Lead and products containing lead
14
3.2.1
Potential effects of lead, and products containing lead on the environment
14
3.2.2
Potential effects of lead and products containing lead on human health
16
3.3 Mercury and products containing mercury
17
3.3.1
Potential effects of mercury and products containing mercury on the environment 17
3.3.2
Potential effects of mercury and products containing mercury on human health
18
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
4.0
KEY ORGANIZATIONS AND DATABASES DEALING WITH TRADE
STATISTICS OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND
MERCURY
.
20
4.1 UN Comtrade and commodity classifications and codes for products containing cadmium,
lead and mercury
20
4.2 Limitations and challenges associated with trade data statistics and data analysis.
23
5.0
PRODUCTION AND TRADE PATTERN OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING
CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
5.1 Products containing cadmium
5.1.1
Global production
5.1.2
Sources and supply of cadmium
5.1.3
Global cadmium trade
5.2
Lead and products containing lead
5.2.1.
Global source and production
5.2 2 Global trade of lead
5.3 Products containing mercury
5.3.1
Global production
5.3.2
Source and supply of mercury
5.3.3
Global mercury trade
6.0
ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND INITIATIVES FOR COLLECTION,
RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF USED PRODUCTS CONTAINING
CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY IN AFRICA
6.1 National Initiatives
6.1.1 Environmental quality standards/guidelines
6.1.2 Environmental source control actions and regulations
6.1.3
Actions and regulations on products containing cadmium, lead or mercury
6.1.4 Other standards and waste management programmes
6.2
International agreements and instruments
6.2.1 Basel Convention
6.2.2 Rotterdam Convention
6.2.3
Other agreements
6.2.4 SAICM
6.3
International organizations and programmes
6.4 Sub-regional and regional initiatives
6.4.1
Bamako Convention
6.4.2
The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN)
6.4.3
The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)
6.4.4
East African Community (EAC)
6.4.5 Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities
6.4.6 The African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP)
24
24
24
25
26
43
43
46
69
69
70
70
93
93
95
97
97
99
100
100
101
102
102
103
104
104
104
105
105
105
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
7.0
7.1
7.2
7.3
8.0
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
.
LABORATORY ANALYSES RESULTS OF SELECTED PRODUCTS
CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
106
Sampling procedure
Analysis of samples in various samples at SEAMIC Laboratory
Laboratory results
106
106
107
CASE STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE
ENVIRONMENT FROM CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY AND
PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
110
Case Study No. 1: E-waste management in Kenya
Case Study No. 2: Bridging the digital gap vs. creating a digital dump
Case Study No 3 E-waste environmental contamination in Ghana
Case No 4: Lead intoxication in Thiaroye sur Mer, Senegal
Case Study No 5: Dump sites in Africa: A hazard to children and the environment
110
111
112
113
115
ANNEX 1A: TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR THE STUDY
118
ANNEX 1B : QUESTIONNAIRE
123
ANNEX 6A : SUMMARY OF RESPONSES TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE FROM
GOVERNMENTS, IGOs AND NGOs
143
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
154
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
CHAPTER 1:
INTRODUCTION
1.
This report responds to the request of the Governing Council (GC) of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), Decision 24/3 III requesting UNEP to: “provide available
information on lead and cadmium to address the data and information gaps identified in the
Interim Reviews and to compile an inventory of existing risk management measures” to be
presented to the Governing Council at its 25th session in February 2009.
2.
Based on concerns expressed by African countries, UNEP in cooperation with the Africa
Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP) conducted this study on
“the possible effects on human health and environment in Africa of the trade of products
containing cadmium, lead and mercury”. The study was financed by the Government of
Sweden.
3.
The report analyses the global flow of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury into
and from Africa. The study also identifies databases dealing with such trade statistics,
initiatives in place especially in Africa to address the negative impacts from products
containing these heavy metals. Case studies of good management of wastes from these metals
and effects of the trade to humans and environment are also given.
CHAPTER 2:
OVERVIEW OF CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY AND
PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
4.
Cadmium (Cd) in its elemental form is a soft, silver-white metal which is easily cut with knife.
It belongs to Group IIB of the Periodic Table. It is present in nature as complex oxides,
sulphides and carbonates in zinc, lead and copper ores. It is not recovered as a principal
product of any mine, but as a by-product of other non-ferrous metal extraction, mainly from
zinc-ores. About 18 percent of world consumption is sourced from recycling. Current major
uses of refined cadmium are: batteries (NiCd batteries), pigments for plastics, ceramics and
enamels; stabilizers for plastics; plating on iron and steel; and as an alloying element of some
lead, copper and tin alloys.
5.
Lead (Pb) in its elemental form is silvery-white and turns blue-grey when exposed to air. It
belongs to Group IVA of the Periodic Table. Its properties include: a low melting point, high
density, ease of casting, low strength, ease of fabrication, acid resistance, and corrosion
resistance. Naturally, lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver and copper and it is
extracted together with these metals. Mining produces more than 90 percent of current global
consumption. Recycling accounts for about 10 percent of the total global lead consumption.
About three quarters of the lead consumption is mainly used in the production of batteries
while one fifth in lead sheets for roofing and flashing, ammunition such as lead shot for
shotguns, metal alloys, cable sheathing and petrol additives.
6.
Mercury (Hg) occurs naturally in the environment in a large number of forms. Like lead or
cadmium, mercury is a constituent element of the earth, a heavy metal. There are several forms
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
of mercury occurring naturally in the environment. One of them, elemental mercury is a shiny,
silver white metal which is in liquid form at room temperature. It belongs to Group IIB of the
Periodic Table. Sources of releases of mercury to the biosphere beyond human control include
natural mobilisation of mercury and re-mobilisation of anthropogenic mercury previously
deposited in soils, sediments and water bodies. The most common natural forms found in the
environment are metallic mercury, mercuric sulphide, mercuric chloride, and methyl mercury.
Some micro-organism and natural processes can change the mercury in the environment from
one form to another. Mercury is mainly used in many domestic and office appliances and
industrial processes. Statistics have shown that in 2005 mercury uses in products (PVC,
batteries, measuring devices, switches/relays, lighting and dental use) comprised almost two
thirds of the total global mercury demand while one third of it was for industrial processes.
CHAPTER 3:
OVERVIEW OF POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
AND THE ENVIRONMENT FROM PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD
AND MERCURY
7.
Generally the three heavy metals under consideration are toxic and harmful to environment
and humans. Human activities are the major sources of these metals in the environment.
8.
Cadmium emissions to the environment migrate continually in the three main environmental
media, as a result of which the cadmium level in the environmental media (air, water and soil)
varies widely. However, its lifetime in the atmosphere is relatively short compared to other
substances such as mercury or persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
9.
Cadmium is not an essential element for plants or animals life. It is toxic to plants, animals
and micro-organisms. Excess cadmium exposure produces adverse health effects on human
beings. The main sources of human exposure to cadmium include ambient air; occupational
exposure and cigarette smoke.
10.
The primary adverse effects of cadmium include kidney damage and lung emphysema. The
population at highest risk comprises women with nutritional deficiencies or low iron content,
people with kidney disorders, and foetuses and children with low body iron stores. The World
Health Organization (WHO) has established a provisional tolerable weakly intake (PTWI) for
cadmium at 7g/kg of body weight.
11.
Lead occurs naturally in the environment. Volcanoes are the major natural sources of
emissions and mobilization of lead to air. Others are airborne soil particles, sea spray, and
biogenic material and forest fires. Most lead in the environment result from human activities
such as mining, industrial processes and energy generation. Human activities influence the
global cycle of lead significantly. In 2004, an estimated 3.15 million tonnes of lead were
extracted from the earth's crust by humans and brought into circulation.
12.
Exposure to lead can occur from breathing contaminated air (both in the workplace and
elsewhere), eating lead-based paint chips or contaminated dirt. Dust and soil are significant
lead exposure sources, especially in young children. The major source of direct lead releases to
soil is through the use of products containing lead.
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
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13.
Lead toxic even at very low exposure levels and has acute and chronic effects on human
health. It is a multi-organ system toxicant that can cause neurological, cardiovascular, renal,
gastrointestinal, haematological and reproductive effects. Short-term exposure to high levels of
lead can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, convulsions, coma or even death. Long-term (chronic)
exposure to lead in humans results in effects on the blood, central nervous system (CNS),
blood pressure, kidneys, and Vitamin D metabolism. Lead is a well-documented neurotoxicant
and lead exposure in children is linked to a lowering of their intelligence quotient (IQ).
14.
Mercury is a heavy metal that occurs naturally in the environment in different chemical forms.
Once released it can move easily between air, water and land. Natural processes can even
change mercury from one form to another. Human activity is now the main source of mercury
being released into the environment. Much is released unintentionally from processes where
mercury is unwanted impurity. Emissions into the air from fossil fuel combustion (petrol, gas
and coal power plant and incinerator), are expected to increase unless other energy sources are
used or emissions better controlled. On average, around the globe there are indications that
anthropogenic emission of mercury have resulted in deposition rates today that are 1.5 to 3
times higher than those during pre- industrial times. In and around industrial areas the
deposition rates have increased by 2 to 10 times during the last 200 years. Highly contaminated
industrial site and abandoned mining operations continue to release mercury. Also, land, water
and resource management activities such as forestry and agricultural practices and flooding can
make mercury more bio available.
15.
Mercury and its compounds are highly toxic to humans and environment. Large amounts can
be fatal to humans, but even relatively low doses can seriously affect developing nervous
systems. The toxicity to humans and other organism depends on the chemical form, the
amount, the pathway of exposure and the vulnerability of the person exposed. Some
populations are especially susceptible and vulnerable to mercury exposure, most notably the
foetus, the new-born, and young children because of the sensitivity of the developing nervous
system. Thus parents, pregnant women, and women who might become pregnant, should
particularly be aware of the potential harm of methyl mercury. Preliminary critical limits to
prevent ecological effect due to mercury in organic soil have been set at 0.07 -0.3 mg/kg for
total mercury in the soils.
CHAPTER 4:
KEY ORGANIZATIONS AND DATABASES DEALING WITH
TRADE STATISTICS OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND
MERCURY
16.
Key organizations collect and maintain databases of commercial statistics on trade of products.
These include, among others, the UN Comtrade, Eurostat, United States (US) International
Trade Commission, Trade Analysis and Information System (TRAINS) and the InterAmerican Development Bank (IDB/CTS) databases. This report focused mainly on the UN
Comtrade database because it is comprehensive and easily accessible.
17.
UN Comtrade is an acronym for “United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database,”
maintained by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). The data, which is kept in a
standard format, provides information on trade transaction for each country. This report has
used information on commodities specified by the more commonly used classifications codes
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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which are: the Standard International Trade Classification (SITC) and the Harmonized
Commodity Description and Coding System (HS)
18.
Some of the data provided in the UN Comtrade database, particularly the net weight of traded
commodities, are only estimates. Data extracted for this study from this database revealed that
some countries have not reported trade transactions and whereas one country shows an amount
it exported to another, the other country does not show that it received a similar import during
the referred time. Export figures were considered more accurate due to a common practice of
underreporting to avoid taxes for imports. A big limitation and challenge of the trade data
statistics is the unavailability of data for second hand products including those containing
cadmium, lead and mercury.
CHAPTER 5:
PRODUCTION AND TRADE
CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
19.
PATTERN
OF
PRODUCTS
The trade pattern examined and described in this report looked at the trade flow of imports and
exports for the years 2000 to 2005 and where data available to 2006, in terms of volume
/weight (Kg) of the products into and from the African countries based on the records of the
UN Comtrade. To address these issues the following information was extracted:

The major products containing cadmium, lead and mercury imported into and exported
from the African countries.

The major importing and exporting countries and their partners.

The trend of importation and exportation of these products
20.
The data downloaded was compiled in tables, and analysed to allow ranking, identification of
major players and creation of charts and maps of the trade flows.
21.
Cadmium production and trade. The worldwide primary cadmium production is
predominantly from China, Japan, Korea, United States of America, Canada, Mexico,
Australia and Kazakhstan. Primary cadmium production in Africa which was always quite
small has virtually disappeared. In the 1980s cadmium pigment and platting were the main
application areas followed by batteries and stabiliser in polymers. Generally, since 1990,
cadmium consumption for pigments, stabilizers, alloys and other uses has decreased
significantly. By 2005, batteries (NiCd batteries) share had surpassed others increasing to
account for about 82 percent of the estimated world consumption.
22.
Imports of products containing cadmium into Africa comprised mainly phosphate fertilizers
and cadmium anti oxidizing agents for rubber and plastics. Phosphatic fertilizers was the most
imported cadmium containing product comprising over 90 percent of imports. Over 700
thousand tonnes were imported during the 2000-2005.
23.
During the period 2000 to 2005, phosphatic fertilizer materials were also the most exported
product containing cadmium (99 percent). Others were plastic/rubber stabilizer and pigments.
Over 9 million tonnes of cadmium containing products were exported, equivalent to over
1300% per cent of import volumes.
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
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24.
.
The major trading partners were Tunisia, Morocco South Africa, Algeria, Brazil, Iran, Portugal
and Italy. The major importers, exporters and trading partners for above cadmium products is
given in Table i and Table ii.
Table i: Major products containing cadmium imported into Africa: 2000-2005
S/N
Product name
1
Phosphatic
fertilizer
materials SITC
1-5612
2
Quantity
(tonnes)
700,537
Cadmium anti 69,911
oxidizing preps
381230
%
Major
importers
90.15% Morocco
9.00%
Major import
partners
22% Portugal
Italy
Egypt
35%
20%
16%
Algeria
15% Turkey
France
Bulgaria
18%
17%
15%
Corte
d’Ivoire
14.% USA
Bulgaria
Morocco
44%
18%
17%
Mozambique
29% Portugal
100
%
South Africa
19% Italy
Germany
Malaysia
15% Belgium
Spain
Italy
26% China
Japan
Sweden
18% France
Spain
UK
11% South Africa
Morocco
3.
.
Cadmium
Nickel
850730
4,455
0.57%
South Africa
Algeria
Swaziland
26%
21%
16%
27%
24%
15%
26%
13%
8%
45%
42%
3%
100
%
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Table ii: Major products containing cadmium exported from Africa: 2000-2005
S/No
Name
Product
1
Phosphatic
fertilizer
materials
5612
of Quantity
(tonnes)
9,1743,81
% Total Major
Cd
Exporters
products
99.31%
Tunisia
52%
Major
Export
Partners
Brazil
Iran
UK
Morocco
35%
Iran
Brazil
UK
South Africa
35%
Netherlands
India
Japan
19%
17%
0.44%
282%
22%
18%
45%
30%
6%
25.
The total imports of products containing cadmium have increased from about 72,000 tonnes in
2000 to a maximum of 196,000 tonnes in 2004 while reported exports decreased from about
1.7 million tonnes in 2000 to about 1.6 million tonnes in 2005, an increase of about 400
percent and a decrease of about 5 percent for imports and exports respectively.
26.
By far the leading traded product containing cadmium in Africa is phosphatic fertilizer and
plastic and rubber stabilizers. Generally, further analysis of the import and export data for the
selected cadmium containing products shows that during the period 2000/5, Africa was a net
exporter of products containing cadmium which was mainly due to exports of phospahtic
fertilizers from Morocco.
27.
Lead production and trade. The total global mine production of lead has decreased slightly
during the last thirty years, from 3.6 million tonnes in 1975 to 3.1 million tonnes in 2004.
During the same period, global refined lead production and metal consumption have increased
from about 4.7 million tonnes to about 7.1 million tonnes. Globally, lead is mined in more than
40 countries, the major producers being China and Australia, which represent 30 percent and
22 percent of global lead mining production, respectively. China is also a leading world
producer of refined lead producing 27 percent of the global production followed by United
States of America and Germany producing 23 and 5 percent respectively.
28.
South Africa and Morocco are the two major countries from Africa which produce, mine and
refine lead. Between the years 2000-2005 both countries have produced one percent each of
the total world production of the refined lead.
29.
During the period 2000/5, unwrought lead, automatic data processing machines (computers)
and lead acid electric accumulators for vehicles formed over three quarters of total lead
imports to Africa amounting to about 1.6million tonnes, while automatic data processing
machines (computers) and lead ores and concentrates amounting to about 4 million tonnes
formed over 90 percent of exports from Africa.
30.
While the major product containing lead which was imported into Africa during the period
2000 – 2006 was unwrought lead, the major product containing lead that was exported from
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Africa was automatic data processing machines (computers) with more than half of the
imported products containing lead. The major exporters of this product during the same period
are Namibia and South Africa. Other major exported products include automatic data
processing machines and lead acid accumulators.
31.
The general trend seems to be increasing from the period 2000 to 2006 with the maximum
trade transaction carried out in the year 2004. The sudden increase is mainly contributed by the
major imports of unwrought lead carried out in the same year by Namibia from South Africa,
and export of lead ore concentrate in 2005 by South Africa to China, and automatic data
processing machines (computers) by Namibia to South Africa in 2004. Namibia exported to
South Africa an equivalent amount of imports into all African countries (about 1.6 million
tones)
32.
The major importers, exporters and trading partners for the above products containing lead are
given in Table iii and Table iv.
33.
China is increasingly capturing the import market share of products containing lead in Africa.
For example, the import market share of automatic data processing machines (computers) to
South Africa by China in the year 2002 was 8 percent, 12 percent in 2003 and rose to 35
percent in 2006 taking over the market from United Kingdom with the market share reduced
from 20 percent in 2002 to 5 percent in 2006. The same is for the market share of the import
of automatic data processing machines into Algeria which is the second importer of the
product. The market share of imports into Algeria has been captured by China and
increasingly yearly from 9 percent in 2002 to 30 percent in 2006 taking over the market from
United Kingdom and France whose market share dropped from 12 percent in 2000 to 5 percent
in 2006 and 26 percent in 2000 to 10 percent in 2006 respectively.
34.
Further analysis of the import and export data for the selected lead products shows that during
the period 2000/6, Africa was a net exporter of about 700 million kgs of products containing
lead equivalent to the amount of lead ores to China from South Africa
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Table iii: Major products containing lead imported to Africa: 2000-2006
Product Name
1
2
3
Unwrought lead
HS96- 7801
Automatic data
processing
machines (
computers) HS028471
Lead acid electric
accumulators for
vehicles HS96850710
Quantity
(tonnes)
1,002,009
344,142
205,579
Percent of
total
products
46
16
10
Importer
(country)
%
Partner of trade
Namibia
South Africa
76%
11%
Tunisia
4%
South Africa
22%
Algeria
14%
Morocco
12%
Algeria
14%
South Africa
11%
Ghana
10%
South Africa
Australia
China
Morocco
China
Canada
Belgium
China
United Kingdom
Ireland
USA
China
France
Indonesia
China
USA
France
France
China
Tajikistan
France
Rep. of Korea
Germany
China
Indonesia
Rep.of Korea
%
100%
71%
23%
52%
17 %
9%
9%
29%
9%
8%
8%
47%
9%
8%
26%
19%
12%
40%
24%
5%
20%%
19%
17%
30%
26%
12%
Table iv: Top most exported products of lead from Africa, major exporters and partners:2000-2006.
Product Name and
Code
1
2
3
Data processing
machines
( computers)
Lead ores &
concentrates
(SITC96-(260700
Unwrought lead HS
7801
1,701,333
Percent of
total
products
48
1,204,892
34
Quantity
( tones)
338,349
10
Major
Exporter
Major partners
of trade
Namibia
99%
South Africa
Angola
50%
50%
South
Africa
Tunisia
80%
Morocco
10%
Morocco
81%
South
Africa
8%
Namibia
7%
China
Belgium
Morocco
Germany
Italy
Bulgaria
Italy
Belgium
Spain
Belgium
Algeria
Belgium
Zimbabwe
India
Korea
China
61%
21%
27%
22%
14%
38%
24%
17%
50%
10%
8%
33%
29%
18%
73%
26%
5%
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35.
Mercury production and trade. The key players in the international mercury trade include,
among others are, Kyrgyzstan, China, South America, European Union as well as Algeria in
Africa. Kyrgyzstan and China are the two countries that continue to mine virgin mercury, and
only Kyrgyzstan mines for export, China uses all its virgin mercury for its own production.
The European Union supplies approximately 30 percent of the global mercury stock pile and is
involved in more than half the global trade in mercury, even though it accounts for only 10
percent of the world’s demand.
36.
Recycled mercury has played an important role on the global market in recent decades. In
1982, the OECD estimated that the secondary production could be as much as 40 percent of
the primary production. Masters (1997)1 stated that 700 – 900 metric tonnes of mercury are
recycled globally every year, of which some 200 – 400 metric tonnes originate from spent
mercury containing products, and the rest come mainly from chlor – alkali facilities2.
37.
Among the major mercury containing products traded globally include batteries consuming
about 300 – 600 tones per year, measuring and control (largely medical sector) consuming
150-350 tones per year, electric and electronic switches consuming 150 -300 tones per year,
lighting consuming 100- 150 tones per year and cosmetics. African and South America
countries use a large and still growing amount of mercury in small – scale gold mining,
process in which mercury is heated and released nearly in its.
38.
Radio/TV transmitters, fluorescent lamps and thermionic cold cathode make more than 80
percent of mercury containing products imported by Africa. Similarly, Radio/TV transmitters,
fluorescent lamps and mercury fluorescent lamps lamps make more than 80 percent of mercury
containing products exported by Africa.
39.
The major importers, exporters and trading partners for mercury products is given in Table v
and Table vi below
1
2
Masters, H. B. (1997): Metals & Minerals Annual review – 1997, Mercury, Mining Journal Ltd
UNEP Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002
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Table v: Major products containing mercury imported from Africa, major exporters and partners: 20002006
1
2
3
4
Product
Name
Radio/TV
transmitters(
HS92 8525)
Florescent
lamps
(HS92853931)
Thermionic
cold cathode
(HS968540)
Electric
switch/relay
(SITC 772)
Weight
(Kgs)
71,759,845
48,552,281
26,214,694
11,309,086,16
7
% of total
Products
34
28
20
**
Importer/
%
Partner
%
South.
Africa
22%
Morocco
15%
Nigeria
11%
Tunisia
11%
Sudan
19%
Finland
Rep. Korea
Germany
France
Sweden
China
UK
USA
Germany
France
Sweden
Japan
China
Indonesia
16%
14%
14%
22%
18%
11%
34%
22%
8%
33%
17%
14%
97%
2%
South Africa
13%
Morocco
12%
Nigeria
10%
Tunisia
59%
Algeria
24%
South Africa
13%
Kenya
88%
China
Germany
USA
China
Hungary
Poland
China
Other Asia
USA
China
Poland
Turkey
China
France
Rep./Korea
Korea Rep.
China,
Brazil
Denmark
Germany
Belgium
39%
16%
9%
55%
14%
13%
38%
23%
9%
28%
17%
16%
56%
16%
11%
49%
24%
24%
86%
10%
1%%
Mozambique
6%
China
Japan
Swaziland
39%
28%
27%
** Excluded in the calculations
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.
Table vi: Top major products containing mercury exported from Africa, major exporters and partners:
2000-2006
S
/
N
1
Name
of
product.
Weight
(Kgs)
Radio/TV
transmitters.
(HS928525)
4,131,578
Percent
of total
Products
45
Exporter
%
Partner
%
Mauritius
30%
United Arab
Emirates
Italy
France
64%
Australia
Denmark
USA
France
18%
7%
6%
99%
South.
Africa
Cote
Ivoire
2
3
4
5
Fluorescent
lamps.
(HS92853931)
Mercury
(HS02280540)
Mercury or
sodium
vapour
lamps
(HS92853932)
Electric
switch/relay
s
(SITC 772)
1,410,572
1,242,981
17
14
25%
d
24%
18%
4%
South
Africa
18%
Zimbabwe
Mozambique
USA
41%
21%
9%
Egypt
4%
Algeria
83%
South
Africa
8%
Syria
Iraq
Zambia
Belgium
India
Netherlands
Saudi Arabia
Zimbabwe
Netherlands
63%
16%
7%
49%
21%
13%
47%
22%
21%
Swaziland
4%
South Africa
100%
181,697
14
Tunisia
91%
Libya
Areas nes
France
88%
5%
4%
124,890,004
**
Tunisia
49%
France
Italy
Germany
51%
23%
16%
South
Africa
26%
Morocco
20%
Mozambique
Zambia
Zimbabwe
France
Germany
Switzerland
15%
14%
7%
67%
7%
7%
** Excluded in the calculations
40.
The key trader in Africa of the products containing cadmium, lead or mercury is South Africa.
The north western African countries of Tunisia, Morocco and Algeria are the next group of key
traders. Overseas partners are mainly EU countries, Australia and China. The African named
countries are also the richest and most technologically advanced countries in the continent.
Map i illustrates the trade movements of the products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
into and from Africa.
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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Map i: Summary of trade flow of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa
Total Heavy Metal Imports
Total Heavy Metal Exports
Cadmium
Lead
Mercury
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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CHAPTER 6:
ENVIRONMENTALLY
SOUND
INITIATIVES
FOR
COLLECTION, RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF USED PRODUCTS CONTAINING
CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY IN AFRICA
41.
National initiatives. Very few African countries have reported initiatives and future plans
aiming at the prevention or control of emissions of cadmium, lead and mercury to the
environment and the effects on human health and the environment. However, available
information has shown that the environmental authorities in a number of countries consider the
three heavy metals to be high-priority substances with recognised adverse effects. They are
aware of the potential problems caused by use and release of these metals and their
compounds.
42.
Globally also, no country has developed a comprehensive legislation specifically covering the
whole life-cycle stages of cadmium, lead or mercury. Many countries, particularly the OECD
countries, have a number of actions and regulations covering specific uses and releases, as well
as more general legislation on releases and disposal of waste products. Such legislation
normally includes other heavy metals, particulate matter (PM) and/or specific inorganic and
organic pollutants, rather than being specific to products containing cadmium, lead or mercury.
43.
Reported initiatives aim to reduce or prevent the release of cadmium, lead or mercury to the
environment and avoid direct or indirect impact on human health and the environment. The
initiatives can be grouped into four general groups:
a) Environmental quality standards or guidelines, specifying maximum acceptable
concentration of cadmium, lead or mercury for different concentrations (such as drinking
water, surface water, air, soil, and for food stuffs and feeds);
b) Environmental source actions and regulations that control cadmium, lead or mercury
release available technologies into the environment, including limits on air and water point
sources and promoting use of best available technologies and waste treatment and waste
disposal restrictions;
c) Product control actions and regulations for products containing cadmium, lead or
mercury; and
d) Other standards, actions and programmes, such as regulations or guidance on exposure
to lead in the workplace, requirements for information and reporting on use and releases of
cadmium, lead or mercury in industry and consumer safety measures.
44.
Below are some of the actions taken by some African countries to regulate products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury as extracted from the Draft final review of scientific information
on lead and cadmium, and Global Mercury Assessment report:
45.
Ghana, Mauritius, Morocco, Niger, Nigeria have established standards setting maximum
acceptable concentrations limits for heavy metals (including cadmium, lead and mercury) in a
number of media, such as water, air, soil and foodstuffs.
46.
Mauritius, Morocco and Niger have reported to have regulations prescribing maximum
allowable releases of heavy metals and other pollutants from various types of point sources to
air, water and soil.
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47.
Mauritius has reported to have stopped the use of mercury in paints, reduced lead content in
petrol from 0.84 g/L to a maximum of 0.4 g/l, introduced the use of unleaded petrol , phased
out mercury batteries replacing them with Ni/Cd batteries and has launched a sensitization
programme for collection of mercury buttons. .
48.
Burundi has prohibited import and use of mercury and mercury compound as pesticides in
agriculture and has applied proposed norm for mercury in air.
49.
Cameroon has banned the importation, commercialization and use of cosmetic products
containing more than 2% of mercury, whereas fertilizers containing cadmium must be
registered by the committee for pesticide registration.
50.
Gambia has banned since 1997 the importation of mercury into the country.
51.
Ghana has restricted the importation and distribution of mercury. A phasing out plan for use
of the leaded gasoline to unleaded gasoline has been drawn.
52.
Guinea has two regulations prohibiting the production, import and all forms of use of mercury
and mercury compounds within industry and agriculture.
53.
Kenya has banned the importation, production and use of any cosmetic products containing
mercury. In Kenya, an NGO called Computers For Schools Kenya (CFSK) has opened East
Africa's first e-waste management plant in Embakasi, Kenya, to handle the region's electronic
recycling needs.
54.
Lesotho has phased out the use of mercury based pesticides
55.
Madagascar has a decree to phase out leaded gasoline by end of 2005.
56.
Nigeria has banned mercury in batteries and mercury iodide in cosmetics. The allowed
mercury in dental amalgam capsule is 0.3g.
57.
South Africa is also one of the countries which have a strategy to deal with e-waste..
58.
Tanzania has enacted the Environmental Management Act of 2004 (EMA, 2004), which
among other issues, provides for the management of hazardous waste and chemicals. Other
relevant legislations in Tanzania include the Consumer and Industrial Chemicals (Control and
Management) Act of 2003.
59.
Cameroon and Senegal have established lead batteries recycling facilities.
60.
Other environmentally sound initiatives in Africa include the National Cleaner Production
Centers aimed promoting and building capacity in cleaner production concepts. African
countries which have established National Cleaner Production Centres include Ethiopia, Egypt,
Kenya, Mozambique, South Africa, Uganda and Tanzania. The major activities of NCPCs
include awareness creation, capacity building, assessments and policy advice in cleaner
production. Cleaner production concept strives for optimal efficiency at every stage of the
product life while preventing pollution at source and protecting the human health.
61.
The Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) with its secretariat at UNEP supports
countries to eliminate the use of leaded gasoline, reduce sulphur levels in fuels concurrent with
the adoption of cleaner vehicle technologies. At the beginning of 2008, 19 countries worldwide
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.
were still using leaded gasoline. Morocco and Tunisia are expected to stop using leaded
gasoline at the end of 2008, while Egypt is expected to stop using leaded gasoline by the end
of 2010. The goal of the PCFV is the global elimination of leaded gasoline.
62.
International agreements and instruments. The relevant international agreements relevant to
cadmium, lead and mercury to which most of the African countries are Parties to include the
Basel Convention and the Rotterdam Convention.
63.
The Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous
Wastes and their Disposal which was adopted in March 1989 and came into force in 1992
provides a global legal framework for controlling the transboundary movements of hazardous
wastes and establishes obligations for its Parties to ensure the environmentally sound
management of hazardous waste.
64.
The Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade of September 1998 has two
objectives:

To promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international
trade of certain hazardous chemicals

To contribute to the environmentally sound use of those chemicals by facilitating
information exchange.
65.
The Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals is one of the eight protocols to the United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Long - Range Transboundary
Air Pollution (LRTAP). The Aarhus Protocol adopted in June 1998 entered into force in
December 2003. The Protocol targets three harmful metals namely cadmium, lead and
mercury.
66.
The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) is a policy
framework to foster the sound management of chemicals3. SAICM was developed by a multistakeholder and multi-sectoral Preparatory Committee and supports the achievement of the
goal agreed at the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on Sustainable Development of ensuring
that, by the year 2020, chemicals are produced and used in ways that minimize significant
adverse impacts on the environment and human health.
67.
International organizations and programmes which have activities in Africa and other parts
of the world aiming at addressing the adverse impacts of cadmium, lead and mercury on
human health and the environment include the International Agency for Research on Cancer
(IARC), International Labour Organization (ILO), International Programme on Chemical
Safety (IPCS), World Health Organization (WHO), United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO) and the World Bank
(WB). Other relevant programmes include the Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety
(IFCS) and the Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of Chemicals
(IOMC).
3
SAICM, http://www.saicm.org/index.php?ql=h&content=home
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68.
Sub-regional and regional initiatives includes the Bamako Convention, the African
Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN), the New Partnership for Africa’s
Development (NEPAD), the East African Community (EAC), the Clean Air Initiative in SubSaharan African Cities and the African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and
Production (ARSCP).
69.
The African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP) is a nongovernmental, not for profit regional association of sustainable consumption and production
(SCP) practitioners in Africa. The pioneers of the association are the National Cleaner
Production Centres. Current membership comprises individuals and institutions engaged in
SCP activities. The mission of ARSCP is to promote the development of national and regional
capacities for the effective promotion and implementation of principles of sustainable
consumption and production principles and to serve as the regional clearinghouse for these
issues. Currently, it is implementing the African Ten Year Framework of Programmes on
sustainable consumption and production (10YFP on SCP) which incorporates sound
management of chemicals.
CHAPTER 7:
LABORATORY
CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY.
53.
TESTS
OF
PRODUCTS
CONTAINING
Fifteen selected products containing cadmium, lead and mercury including paints, plastics,
toys, gasoline, switches and cosmetics were randomly picked from the general market in Dar
es Salaam, Tanzania and tested for presence of cadmium, lead or mercury at an accredited
laboratory facility in Tanzania. Tanzania follows a free market and most of its products are
mainly imported from Asia and Europe. The tests were carried out using an Inductively
Coupled Plasma (ICP) optical spectrometry, fully automated machine (ULTIMA2, HORIBA
JY, France). In all the 35 tested samples from 15 different products, the results revealed that
compositions of cadmium and lead in the products were less than 0.01 ppm while mercury
content was less than 0.01 ppb. Soil samples from a lead recycling facility in Dar es Salaam
and its neighborhood were found to contain an average of about 0.6 ppm cadmium, 115 ppm
lead and 0.5 ppm mercury which are within the acceptable levels.
CHAPTER 8: CASE STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH AND THE
ENVIRONMENT FROM CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY AND PRODUCTS
CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
70.
Below is an overview of case studies showing good and bad management of wastes from
products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa as well as their impacts to human
health and the environment.
71.
E-waste management in Kenya. The electronic and information technology industry is
currently the largest and fastest manufacturing industry in the world. Electronic equipment
contains a number of toxic materials including cadmium, lead and mercury Thus e-waste is
now recognized as the fastest growing waste stream in developed countries. In order to
prevent significant environmental problems associated with the growing waste stream of exix
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
waste, the Computers for Schools Kenya (CFSK) has opened East Africa's first e-waste
management plant in Embakasi, Kenya, to handle the region's electronic recycling needs. .
This case study demonstrates one way of a good method for waste management
72.
Bridging the Digital Gap Vs Creating a Digital Dump in Nigeria The demand of information
technology in developing countries is increasing very fast due to the natural hunger among the
populace to stay abreast technological developments in order to communicate and compete in
this globalized world. This has been contributed to a larger extend by importation of used or
second-hand products from developed countries. These e-wastes often end up dumped in
countries with little or no regulation of its recycling or disposal. In Nigeria alone .an estimated
500 containers of computers and other electronic equipment come there every month all of
which ends up in computer markets. The Nigerian government is thus working to abolish the
importation of second-hand goods. From above it is obvious that trade of used electronics
equipment is actually a trade of hazardous wastes which should be controlled by the Basel
Convention. What we are seeing in Nigeria is unfortunately a harbinger of things to come; it is
soon to be the future in the entire developing world.
73.
Outbreak of lead intoxication from recycling of lead batteries in Senegal. Some countries
have established facilities for recycling lead waste as away of handling lead waste from
batteries. However, it is well known that exposure to lead can occur from breathing
contaminated workplace air or house dust. This therefore requires good management to avoid
causing problems to workers and people who live near such facilities, particularly the
vulnerable group such as children. A lead recycling facility at NGagne Diaw quarter of
Thiaroye sur Mer, Dakar, Senegal was recently the source of cluster of deaths of children in its
vicinity. WHO found the dead children to have extremely high blood lead concentrations, in
many cases above 1000 μg/l. It is obvious therefore that recycling is not always a full proof
waste management solution as it can transform one problem into another when not well
managed.
74.
E-waste environmental contamination in Ghana. Greenpeace study at two e- waste recycling
sites in Ghana in 2008 found soil samples from the two sites to contain numerous hazardous
substances including very high levels of lead, phthalates and chlorinated dioxins. Therefore
recycling of e-waste pollutes the environment if not well properly managed. In addition, the
work of dismantling the electronic equipment is done by children (boys) aged between 11 and
18, but some were as young as 5 who are more vulnerable to the exposure of these hazardous
chemicals.
75.
High lead concentration in children living near dump sites. A UNEP study in Kenya in 2007
found 328 children aged 2-18 living around the Dandora waste dump site in Nairobi to have
concentrations of lead in their blood exceeding internationally accepted levels. When they
examined and analysed soil samples from the dump site they found that 42 % of soil samples
recorded lead levels almost 10 times higher than what is considered unpolluted soil (over 400
parts per million (ppm) compared to 50 ppm).
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
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.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
1.1
Background
1.
The United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) Governing Council Decision 24/3 III
requested UNEP to: “provide available information on lead and cadmium to address the data
and information gaps identified in the Interim Reviews and to compile an inventory of existing
risk management measures”.4
2.
Based on concerns expressed by African countries, UNEP in cooperation with the Africa
Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production (ARSCP) conducted this study on
“the possible effects on human health and environment in Africa of the trade of products
containing cadmium, lead and mercury”. The study was financed by the Government of
Sweden. The Terms of Reference for the study are given as Annex 1A
1.2
3.
Study objectives
The main objective of this study is to fill the data and information gaps identified in the
‘Interim reviews of scientific information on lead and cadmium’ and for mercury information
gaps identified in the ‘Global Mercury Assessment Report’ and in particular to address the
global flow of cadmium, lead and mercury in products.
1.3
Study coverage and report organization
4.
The study focused mainly on the analysis of trade, use and disposal of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa in order to assess how this can lead to adverse human
and environmental effects due to release of these toxic heavy metals. This was done by
sourcing data and information from published articles and authorized databases as well as
country submissions.
5.
This report is divided into eight chapters. Chapter one gives the background, objectives, scope
and methodology of the study. Chapter two provides an overview of the three heavy metals
including their characteristics and applications in various products while chapter three gives an
overview of their potential effects to humans and the environment. Chapter four provides a
description of the main organizations and databases dealing with trade statistics which were
used in the study. The shortfalls of these databases are highlighted. Chapter five gives an
overview of the type, quantities and movements in trade (countries and routes) of major traded
products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa for the period 2000 to 2006. The
major African importers and exporters of the products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
in Africa are shown including their global trade partners. Chapter six describes the existing
4
UNEP Governing Council, Decision24/3 III, http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pb_and_Cd/GC-24-3-III-lead-andcadmium.htm
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
environmentally sound initiatives within the African region in terms of awareness and
regulations for management of wastes from used traded products containing the three heavy
metals while chapter seven describes the methods used and the results thereof in the analysis of
selected traded products in Africa containing cadmium, lead and mercury.
6.
The final chapter presents a few case studies in Africa on the management of waste products
containing cadmium, lead and mercury, demonstrating good practices as well as lessons
learned for purposes of showing their effects on human health and the environment in Africa.
1.4
Study methodology and sources of information
7.
The methodology applied in carrying out this study includes data collection and analysis,
literature review, peer review and laboratory analysis of selected products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
8.
Trade data was drawn from authorized trade statistical databases, mainly the United Nations
Commodity Trade Statistics Database (UN Comtrade) as well as other databases recommended
by individual countries and organizations including the International Trade Commission (ITC)
recommended by the United States of America, the Nordic on-line database, EU database and
the WHO databases.
9.
A questionnaire (Annex 1B) was also designed and distributed electronically to different
countries in Africa and outside Africa, as well as Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs),
non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and individual experts dealing with cadmium, lead
and mercury for purposes of collecting additional information and data, particularly on the
existing waste management strategies and initiatives.
10.
The major sources of information for the study comprised the Draft final reviews of scientific
information on lead and cadmium and the Global Mercury Assessment report and other
relevant publications, articles and reports including reports of the International Lead and Zinc
Study Group (ILZSG) and the International Cadmium Association (ICdA); presentations and
resolutions made at regional and international fora on chemicals including the SAICM meeting
held in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania in July 2008 and the 6th IFCS meeting held in Dakar, Senegal
in September 2008.
11.
The UN Comtrade database played a major role in providing data for this report. Data for each
of the products containing cadmium, lead and mercury from the selected list was downloaded
from the database for the period 2000-2006 for each African country whose data was available.
The downloaded data for each product/commodity was then summarized to get the totals for
export and import trade for each commodity and each country in the period indicated and
partner country of trade for each product. These provided information on the top most traded
products in Africa and the flow of these products in terms of trade trend, volume, and market
share.
12.
Laboratory testing of selected products were carried out at the sub-regional Laboratory Centre
in Tanzania known as the Southern and Eastern Africa Mineral Centre (SEAMIC) using
standard methods for analyzing cadmium, lead and mercury. All tested products were sampled
from the market in Tanzania which practices a free market economy.
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
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2.0
OVERVIEW OF CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
AND PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND
MERCURY
2.1
Cadmium and products containing cadmium
2.1.1 General characteristics and occurrence of cadmium
13.
Cadmium (molecular formula - Cd) in its elemental form is a soft, silver-white metal which is
easily cut with knife.5 It belongs to Group IIB of the Periodic Table and it has the following
physical properties6:








Atomic weight
112.411
Atomic number
48
Melting Point
321.070 C
Boiling Point
7670C
Specific gravity
8.65 (at 200C)
Oxidation state
2
Readily soluble in acid and ammonium nitrate
The electrical conductivity of cadmium is less than that of silver or copper, but
greater than that of iron.
14.
Cadmium is present in nature as complex oxides, sulphides and carbonates in zinc, lead and
copper ores. It is not recovered as a principal product of any mine, but as a by-product of other
non-ferrous metal extraction, mainly from zinc-ores7.
15.
Recycled cadmium accounts for about 18 percent of total global supply. Countries with
significant collection and recycling activities include France, Germany, Japan, the Republic of
Korea, Sweden and the United States of America8.
16.
The main sources and releases of cadmium to the environment can be grouped into three major
categories:

natural releases due to natural mobilization of naturally occurring cadmium from the earth
crest and mantle, such as volcanic activity and weathering of rocks;
5
UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on cadmium, version of November 2008
Hand book of Chemistry and Physics, 78th Ed.
7
UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on cadmium, version of November 2008
8
Ibid.
6
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
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17.
.

current anthropogenic releases from the mobilization of cadmium impurities in raw
materials such as phosphate minerals, fossil fuel and other extracted, treated and recycled
metals particularly zinc and copper; and

current anthropogenic release of cadmium resulting from cadmium used intentionally in
products and processes, releases by manufacturing, use, disposal, recycling, open burning
and unofficial dumpsites or incineration of products.
Other sources include remobilization of historical anthropogenic cadmium releases previously
deposited in soils, sediments, land fills and waste or tailings piles.9
2.1.2 Common products containing cadmium
18.
Cadmium is intentionally used in various products including batteries, pigments, stabilizers,
coatings, alloys and electronic components, such as semiconductors, and in the control rods of
nuclear reactors.
19.
The general trend in global cadmium consumption over the last two decades has been a steep
increase in the use of cadmium for batteries and a decrease in the use for nearly all other
applications. In 1980, cadmium pigment and plating were the main application areas followed
by batteries which accounted for 23 percent of total global consumption while stabilisers in
polymers accounted for 12 percent of the total. In 2005, the batteries (NiCd batteries)
accounted for about 82 percent of the estimated world consumption. Other major uses of
refined cadmium are: pigments for plastics, ceramics and enamels; stabilizers for plastics;
plating on iron and steel; and as an alloying element of some lead, copper and tin alloys. Since
1990, consumption for pigments, stabilizers, alloys and other uses has decreased significantly.
Figure 2.1 shows the end-uses of primary cadmium in 1990 and 2005.
Figure 2.1: Consumption of primary cadmium by end-users in 1990 and 2005 (data compiled by
ICdA, 2005)
9
Ibid
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
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20.
The use of cadmium in some major products is explained below:
21.
Batteries - The market of rechargeable NiCd batteries covers small, sealed-type batteries for
cordless power tools, telecommunications, emergency lighting and security, and portable
household applications. The sealed batteries account for about 80 percent of the cadmium
consumption in the battery market. The remaining 20 percent is consumed in large industrial
NiCd batteries for railroad, aero-space, electric vehicles and standby power, and other
applications.
22.
Pigments - Cadmium pigments have been used in plastics, enamels, ceramics, paints, and
possible other materials, although the use in paints and dyes may be obsolete today.
23.
Plating - Plating of iron, steel or other materials with coatings of cadmium or cadmium alloys
is used for applications requiring a high degree of safety or durability in aerospace, industrial
fasteners, electrical parts, automotive systems, military equipment and marine/offshore
installations.
24.
Stabilizers - Organic cadmium compounds, generally cadmium laurates or stearates, used in
combination with barium sulphate, have historically been widely used as a stabilizer in PVC
and other polymers or copolymers of vinyl chloride.
25.
Alloy uses - The use of cadmium in alloys includes: soldering alloys, alloys with zinc
(sacrificial anodes for corrosion protection of iron and steel), alloys with lead and copper (lead
cable sheaths, copper wires etc.), alloys with a low melting point for fire alarm systems and
safety circuit breakers, alloys for switch contacts where arching occurs, such as high current
relays made of silver-cadmium oxide, and silver-cadmium alloys as a partial replacement for
silver (jewellery). The consumption in alloys has decreased significantly and is included in
"other" applications accounting for about 0.5 percent of the total global consumption in 2005.
26.
Other uses - Other uses include cadmium semiconductors that can have opto-electronic
effects, which means their electrical properties are responsive to light.
27.
Cadmium is also found unintentionally (as an impurity) in other products such as non-ferrous
metals (zinc, lead and copper), iron and steel, fossil fuels, coal, oil, gas peat, wood, cement and
phosphate fertilizers. Fertilizers produced from phosphate ores may constitute a major source
of cadmium pollution in soil. In Australia, for example, phosphate fertilizers have been a major
source of cadmium additions to agricultural soil. This could also be the case in African
countries which use phosphate fertilizers though specific examples are not included in this
report.
2.2
Lead and products containing lead
2.2.1 General characteristics and occurrence of lead
28.
Lead (Pb) in its elemental form is silvery-white and turns blue-grey when exposed to air. It
belongs to Group IVA of the Periodic Table. Its properties include, among others, a low
melting point, high density, ease of casting, low strength, ease of fabrication, acid resistance,
corrosion resistance, electrochemical reaction with sulphuric acid and the ability to attenuate
sound waves, ionizing radiation and mechanical vibration. It is soft enough to be scratched
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with a fingernail. It is hardened by alloying it with small amounts of other metals such as
arsenic, copper and antimony. Other characteristics include:






Oxidation state
Atomic number
Atomic mass
Density
Melting point
Boiling point
1.8
82
207.2 g.mol -1
11.34 g.cm-3 at 20°C
327 °C
1755 °C
Because of these properties, lead has been one of the most widely used metals in the history of
mankind in manufacturing various products10.
29.
Pure lead is rare in nature. Currently lead is usually found in ore with zinc, silver and copper
and it is extracted together with these metals. The main lead mineral is galena (PbS) and there
are also deposits of cerrussite and anglesite which are mined. Galena is mined in Australia,
which produces 19 percent of the world's new lead, followed by the United States of America,
China, Peru and Canada. Some is also mined in Mexico and West Germany. World production
of new lead is about 6 million tonnes a year and total workable reserves are estimated at 85
million tonnes.
30.
Lead is chemically stable in air, water and soil. In the atmosphere, lead will deposit on surfaces
or exist as a component of atmospheric particles. In the atmosphere, lead exists primarily as
lead compounds. The residence time and transport of atmospheric lead ranges from hours to
weeks, thus linked to the characteristics of aerosols11.
31.
In the aquatic environment, lead can occur in ionic form (highly mobile and bio-available),
organic complexes with dissolved humus materials (binding is rather strong and limits
availability), attached to colloidal particles such as iron oxide (strongly bound and less mobile
when available in this form than as free ions) or attached to solid particles of clay or dead
remains of organisms (very limited mobility and availability)12.
32.
The speciation of lead in water is controlled by a number of factors including pH, salinity,
sorption and biotransformation processes13. In fresh water, lead primarily exists as the divalent
cation (Pb2+) under acidic conditions, and forms PbCO3 and Pb(OH)2 under alkaline
conditions. Lead speciation in seawater is a function of chloride concentration and the primary
species are PbCl3 - > PbCO3 > PbCl2 > PbCl+ > and Pb(OH)+. In surface waters, average
residence times of biological particles containing lead have been estimated at two to five years.
33.
In soil, lead is generally not very mobile14. The downward movement of elemental lead and
inorganic lead compounds from soil to groundwater by leaching is very slow under most
natural conditions. Clays, silts, iron and manganese oxides, and soil organic matter can bind
lead and other metals electrostatically (cation exchange) as well as chemically (specific
10
Ibid
Ibid
12
Ibid
13
Ibid
14
Ibid
11
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adsorption). Soil pH, content of humic acids and amount of organic matter influence the
content and mobility of lead in soils. Though lead is not very mobile in soil, lead may enter
surface waters as a result of erosion of lead-containing soil particles.
2.2.2 Common products containing lead
34.
Lead is mainly used in the production of batteries which accounts for 78 percent of the
reported global consumption in 200315. Other applications of lead are in lead compounds (8
percent), lead sheets for roofing and flashing (5 percent), ammunition such as lead shot for
shotguns (2 percent), metal alloys (2 percent) and cable sheathing (1.2 percent), and petrol
additives and others 9.2 percent. Figure 2.2-a shows the intentional lead consumption by enduses in 2003.
Petrol additives
Miscellaneous
Lead compounds
Alloys
Ammunition
Rolled/extruded lead
Cable sheathing
Batteries
Figure 2.2-a:
Intentional lead consumption by end-uses in 2003 as reported by member countries
of the International Lead and Zinc Study group (ILZSG) representing about 86
percent of the total global consumption of lead. (ILZSG, 2006)
35.
The major types of lead batteries include starter batteries for vehicles, traction batteries for
electric trucks, and stationary batteries for back-up power supply.
36.
Lead compounds are mainly used in the production of red lead for corrosion resistance,
pigments, cathode ray tubes, crystal glass, PVC stabilizers, ceramics and enamels (glazing),
and petrol additives. Figure 2.2-b below shows the consumption of lead compounds by end
uses in 2001.
37.
Lead and its compounds are also used in various products including, among others, traditional
base metal for organ pipes, solders for electronics, electrodes for electrolysis, glass for
15
Ibid
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computer and television screens, and in X-ray rooms where it shields the viewer from
radiation16.
Paints
Ceramics
Glazes
Cathode ray
tubes
Plastic
additives
Light bulbs
Speciality
glass/optical
glass
Crystal glass
Figure 2.2-b: Consumption of lead compounds by end uses in 2001 as reported by "Western World"
member countries of the International Lead and Zinc Study group (ILZSG, 2005). Blue
colours indicate the use of lead in glass. (Lead compounds in batteries and petrol
additives are not included).
2.3
Mercury and products containing mercury
2.3.1 General characteristic and occurrence of mercury
38.
Elemental mercury is shiny, silver white metal that is a liquid at room temperature. It belongs
to Group IIB of the Periodic Table. Other characteristics include the following:






Oxidation state:
Atomic weight:
Atomic number:
Boiling point:
Melting point:
Density:
1.2
200.5g
80
3570C
38.40C
13.6 at 200C
39.
Mercury is mined as mercuric sulphide (cinnabar ore). Through history deposits of cinnabar
have been the source of ores for commercial mining of metallic mercury. The metallic mercury
is recovered by heating the ore at a temperature of 5400C. The vaporized mercury in the ore is
then captured and cooled to form liquid mercury17.
40.
Mercury is rarely found in nature as the pure, liquid metal but rather as compounds and in
organic salts.
16
17
Ibid
UNEP Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002
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41.
There are several forms of mercury occurring naturally in the environment. The most common
natural forms found in the environment are metallic mercury, mercuric sulphide, mercuric
chloride, and methyl mercury. Some micro-organism and natural processes can change the
mercury in the environment from one form to another.
42.
The main sources of release of mercury to the atmosphere are divided into four categories,
namely;




Natural sources – release due to natural mobilization of naturally occurring mercury from
the earth crust, such as volcanic activity and weathering of rock.
Current anthropogenic (associated with human activity) releases from the mobilization of
mercury impurities, in raw materials such as fossil fuels particularly coal, and to a lesser
extent gas and oil and other extracted, treated and recycled minerals.
Current anthropogenic release resulting from mercury used intentionally in products and
processes, releases during manufacturing, leaks, and disposal or in incineration of spent
products etc.
Re-mobilization of historic anthropogenic mercury releases previously deposited in soils
sediments, water bodies, land fills and waste/tailing piles.
2.3.2 Common products containing mercury
43.
Mercury is used in many domestic and office appliances. The major source categories of
products containing mercury include batteries, measuring and control devices (mainly in the
medical sector), electric and electronic switches, lighting and cosmetics. Typical products
containing mercury include thermometers, thermostats, energy efficient lamps, high intensity
discharge lamps, and button batteries. Other products are electric switches and relays, flame
sensors, and dental amalgam.
44.
Statistics have shown that in 2005 mercury uses in products (PVC, batteries, measuring
devices, switches/relays, lighting and dental use) comprised almost two thirds of the total
global mercury demand while one third of it was for industrial processes as shown in the
diagram below (Figure 2.3).
9
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Global mercury demand
( 2005)
Other
Batteries
PVC
Measuring
Devi ces
Switches/
Rel ays
Lighting
Dental
Small-scale
gol d m
i ni ng
Chloro-
Al kal i
Figure 2.3: Global mercury demand (2005)18
18
UNEP: Summary of Supply, Trade and Demand Information on Mercury, Nov. 2006
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
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3.0 OVERVIEW OF POSSIBLE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
AND THE ENVIRONMENT FROM PRODUCTS CONTAINING
CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
3.1
Cadmium and products containing cadmium
3.1.2 Potential effects of cadmium and products containing cadmium
on the environment
45.
Cadmium levels in the environmental media (air, water and soil) vary widely. Cadmium
emissions to the environment are normally migrating continually in the three main
environmental media as explained further below:
Cadmium in the atmosphere
46. The lifetime of cadmium in the atmosphere is relatively short compared to other substances
such as mercury or persistent organic pollutants (POPs). Most of the cadmium in air is bound
to small-size particulate matter of below 1m. In the atmosphere the particulate matter
increases in size due to interaction between particles of different sizes, condensation of water
vapour and other gases. Elemental cadmium and many of its compounds have relatively low
vapour pressure, and thus are not particularly volatile. However, high heat processes can
volatize cadmium which is then emitted as a vapour. Cadmium vapours quickly condense on
aerosols as they exit the stacks and enter the environment. Thus, most cadmium in the
atmosphere is in the form of particulate matter; which may consist of very small particles
especially if it is produced by combustion processes19.
47.
A study on the occurrence of cadmium species in ambient aerosols have shown that cadmium
chloride, cadmium sulphate and cadmium oxide appear to be the predominant species in
ambient air and its atmospheric transport is governed by aerosol transport mechanism20.
48.
There are three distinct sources of human exposure to cadmium in the atmosphere:



49.
19
20
cadmium in ambient air;
cadmium in occupational exposure; and
cadmium in air from the smoking of tobacco.
Cadmium in ambient air represents, by far the majority of total air borne cadmium. Input from
all three categories may affect human cadmium intake and human health, but the level and the
transfer mechanism to human are substantially different for the three categories. Where as
cadmium from occupational environments and cadmium from cigarette smoke are transferred
UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on cadmium, version of November 2008
Ibid
11
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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directly to human, cadmium in ambient air is generally, deposited into water or soil, then
eventually transferred to plants and animals and finally enters the human body through the
food chain.
Cadmium in water
50. Cadmium is a natural minor constituent of surface and ground water. It may exist in water as
hydrated ion; inorganic complexes such as carbonates, hydroxides, chlorides or sulphates; or as
organic complexes with harmonic acids. Cadmium may enter aquatic system through
weathering and erosion of soils and bedrock atmospheric deposition; direct discharge from
industrial operations; leakage from landfills and contaminated sites; and the dispersive use of
sludge and fertilizers in agriculture. Most cadmium entering fresh water from industrial
sources may be rapidly adsorbed by particulate matters and thus sediments may be significant
sinks for cadmium emitted to the aquatic environment.
51.
Rivers containing excess cadmium can contaminate surrounding land, either through irrigation
for agricultural purposes, dumping of dredged sediments or flooding. It has also been
demonstrated that rivers can transport cadmium for considerable distances up to 50km from
the source. Nonetheless, studies of cadmium contamination in major river systems over the
past twenty to thirty years have conclusively demonstrated that cadmium levels in these rivers
have decreased significantly since 1960’s and 1970’s.
52.
The average cadmium in the world’s oceans has variously been reported to be as low as
5.20mg/l. High cadmium levels have been noted around certain coastal areas and cadmium
levels vary with ocean depths, presumably due to pattern of nutrient concentrations.
Cadmium in soil
53. Cadmium in soil originates from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Natural source
includes underlying bedrocks or transported parent material such as glacial till and alluvium.
Anthropogenic input of cadmium to soil occurs by carried deposition and sewage sludge,
manure and phosphate fertilizer application. Cadmium is less mobile in soil than in air and
water. The major factors governing cadmium speciation, adsorption and distribution in soil are
pH, contents of soluble organic matter, hydrous metal oxide, clay, and type of organic and
inorganic matter present as well as competition from other metal ions. The use of cadmium
containing fertilizer and sewerages sludge is often quoted as the primary reason for the
increase of cadmium content in soil.
54.
The average level of cadmium in soil has been reported between 0.1 – 0.5 ppm, but much
higher and lower levels have been reported depending on a large number of factors. Igneous
and metamorphic rocks tend to show lower values from 0.02 to 0.2 ppm where as sedimentary
rocks have much higher value from 0.1 – 25 ppm. Zinc, lead and copper ores, which are
mainly sulphides and oxides, contain even higher levels of 200-14,000 ppm for zinc ores; and
around 500 ppm for typical lead and copper ores.
55.
Cadmium in soil must be distinctly classified in three separate areas with regard to their
relative effects on human health and the environment, namely:
 agricultural soils;
 non-agricultural soils; and
 controlled land fills.
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56.
Cadmium in controlled land fills is virtually immobile and is unlikely to have any effect on
human health or the environment simply because it is so well contained. Cadmium in nonagricultural soil will generally not affect human heath as it does not enter the food chain
readily or may do so only indirectly by transfer from non-agricultural soil to agricultural soils
via air bone or water transport. Cadmium in agricultural soil is relatively immobile under
normal conditions, but could become more mobile under certain conditions such as increased
soil acidity. Cadmium levels may be enhanced by the usage of phosphate fertilizer, manure or
sewage sludge.
57.
Cadmium occurs naturally in all soils and is taken up in all food stuffs and therefore all
humans are exposed to natural level of cadmium. Although much attention has been focused
upon the cadmium content in agricultural soils, it is important to recognize that the cadmium
content in food items varies more as a function of the nature of the crop grown, atmospheric
cadmium deposition from natural or anthropogenic source and the agricultural practices in the
particular area such as use of phosphate fertilizers, sewage sludge and manure application.
58.
In plants, cadmium accumulates mainly in the leaves. For plants grown in the same soil,
cadmium accumulation decreases in the order of leafy vegetables > root vegetable > grain
crops. Leafy vegetables such as lettuce and spinach and certain staples such as potatoes and
grain food exhibit relatively high values from 30-150 ppb. Peanuts, soya beans and sunflower
seeds also exhibit naturally high values of cadmium with seemingly no adverse heath effects.
59.
Meat and fish normally contain lower cadmium contents, from 5-40 ppb. Animal offal such as
kidney and liver can exhibit extraordinarily high cadmium value up to 1,000 ppb as these are
the organs in animals where cadmium concentrates.
60.
In terrestrial ecosystems, soil micro-organisms and plants are more sensitive to cadmium than
soil invertebrates. However, both invertebrates and plants can accumulate cadmium. Predators
feeding on such soil invertebrates can introduce cadmium into the food which leads to
secondary poisoning through the food chain. The accumulation of cadmium by plants results
in this contaminant entering the human food chain.
3.1.2 Potential effect of cadmium and products containing cadmium on
human health
61.
Cadmium is not an essential element for plants or animals life. It is toxic to plants, animals
and micro-organisms. However, as explained above, cadmium bio-accumulates in the liver
and kidneys of vertebrates and also accumulates in all levels of food chain. The accumulation
of cadmium has been reported in food crops and grasses, earthworms, domestic animals such
as poultry, cattle and horses as well as in wild animals. Thus food is the major source of
cadmium exposure to humans.
62.
Humans normally absorb cadmium into the body either by ingestion or inhalation. Dermal
exposure is generally not regarded to be of significance. It is widely accepted that
approximately 2 to 6 percent of the cadmium ingested is actually taken up into the body.
Factors influencing cadmium absorption in the body are the forms in which cadmium is
present in the food and the iron status of the exposed individual.
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63.
It has been estimated that 98 percent of the ingested cadmium come from terrestrial foods (i.e.
from plants grown in soil or meat from animals which have ingested plants grown in soil
containing cadmium), while only 1 percent come from aquatic food such as fish, and 1 percent
from drinking water.
64.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has established a provisional tolerable weekly intake
(PTWI) for cadmium at 7 g/kg of body weight21.
65.
Tobacco is another source of cadmium uptake in smokers which my equal or exceed that from
food. The cadmium concentrations in cigarettes vary in different brands depending mainly on
the origin of the tobacco, and may range from 0.19 to 3.0 microgram per gram of dry weight.
The amount of cadmium inhaled from smoking one cigarette containing about 1.7 g cadmium
has been estimated to be 0.14 to 0.19 g, which corresponds to about 10 percent of the total
content in the cigarette22 .
66.
It has been well established that excess cadmium exposure produces adverse health effects on
human beings. The primary effects of high cadmium in the body include kidney damage and
lung emphysema23. The population at highest risk comprises women with nutritional
deficiencies or low iron content, people with kidney disorders, as well as fetuses and children
with low body iron stores. Maternal exposure of cadmium is associated with low birth weight
and spontaneous abortion24.
3.2
Lead and products containing lead
3.2.1 Potential effects of lead, and products containing lead on the
environment
67.
Lead occurs naturally in the environment. However, most lead concentrations that are found in
the environment are a result of human activities such as mining, industrial processes and
energy generation.
68.
Due to the use of lead in gasoline an unnatural lead-cycle has been established. In car engines
lead is heated, resulting in lead salts (chlorines, bromines, and oxides). These lead salts enter
the environment through car exhausts. The larger particles will drop to the ground immediately
and pollute soils or surface waters, while the smaller particles will travel long distances
through air and remain in the atmosphere. Some of this lead will be deposited when it rains.
This lead-cycle caused by human production is much more extended than the natural leadcycle. It has caused lead pollution to be a worldwide issue.
21
UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on cadmium, version of November 2008
Ibid
23
Ibid
24
Ibid
22
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Lead in the atmosphere
69. The major natural sources of emissions of lead to air are volcanoes, airborne soil particles, sea
spray, biogenic material and forest fires. Human activities significantly influence the global
cycle of lead. In 2004, an estimated 3.15 million tonnes of lead were extracted from the earth's
crust by humans and brought into circulation. Besides this, a significant amount of lead ended
up in metal extraction residues or was mobilized as impurity by extraction of other minerals
like coal and lime. Lead release into air is mainly through industrial emissions, smelters and
metal/oil refineries.
70.
With the introduction of unleaded gasoline in many developed countries, lead concentrations
in the air have declined significantly25.
Lead in water
71. The major natural sources for mobilizations of lead from the Earth's lithosphere to the
biosphere are volcanoes and weathering of rocks. In addition, insignificant amounts of lead
enter the biosphere by meteoritic dust. The weathering of rocks from volcanic eruptions
releases lead to soils and aquatic systems. This process plays a significant role in the global
lead cycle, but estimates of the total amount released by weathering of rocks have not been
available.
Lead in soil
72. The major source of direct lead releases to soil is through the use of products containing lead
such as ammunition, paints with lead pigments, lead balancing weights for vehicles, lead
sheathing of cables left in the ground and lead batteries (loss by breakage and recycling). Lead
in soil can also originate from the air or from erosion of lead-bearing rocks.
73.
Lead dust can be found in our homes, especially homes that used lead-based paints or lead
solder or carried indoors as dust from air. Dust and soil can be significant lead exposure
sources at home, especially for young children.
74.
Studies from Denmark and the Netherlands indicate that about 10 percent of the total flow of
products containing lead ends up in landfills26. Since lead compounds (which in most
countries are hardly recycled) account for about 10 percent of the total global lead
consumption, it is highly probable that at least 10 percent of consumption is accumulated in
landfills. The concern in some countries in this regard is the potential fate of the disposed lead
over the long term. If not managed in an environmentally sound fashion, the large amounts of
lead ending up in tailings and other residues from mining and base metal production represent
a substantial threat to local water resources and soil and hence potential health risks to humans.
25
US Environmental Protection Agency:
http://www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/
26
Technology
Transfer
Network
Air
Toxics
website
UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on lead, version of November 2008
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3.2.2 Potential effects of lead and products containing lead on human
health
75.
Lead is toxic at very low exposure levels and has acute and chronic effects on human health. It
is a multi-organ system toxicant that can cause neurological, cardiovascular, renal,
gastrointestinal, haematological and reproductive effects. The type and severity of effects
depend on the level, duration and timing of exposure. Everyone is exposed to trace amounts of
lead through air, soil, household dust, food, drinking water and various consumer products27 .
It is estimated that 65 percent of lead entering human body is through uptake of food, whereas
through water is 20 percent and air 15 percent.
76.
Short-term exposure to high levels of lead can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, convulsions, coma or
even death. However, even small amounts of lead can be harmful, especially to infants, young
children and pregnant women. Symptoms of long-term exposure to lower lead levels may be
less noticeable but are still serious. Anaemia is common and damage to the nervous system
may cause impaired mental function. Other symptoms are appetite loss, abdominal pain,
constipation, fatigue, sleeplessness, irritability and headache. Continued excessive exposure, as
in an industrial setting, can affect the kidneys28 .
77.
Long-term (chronic) exposure to lead in humans results in effects on the blood, central nervous
system (CNS), blood pressure, kidneys, and Vitamin D metabolism. Children are particularly
sensitive to the chronic effects of lead leading to among others slowed cognitive development
and reduced growth. Reproductive effects, such as decreased sperm count in men and
spontaneous abortions in women, have been associated with high lead exposure. The
developing fetus is at particularly high risk from maternal lead exposure, with low birth weight
and slowed postnatal neurobehavioral development noted. Human studies regarding lead
exposure and cancer are still inconclusive29 .
78.
Lead exposure is most serious for young children because they absorb lead more easily than
adults and are more susceptible to its harmful effects. Even low level exposure may harm the
intellectual development, behaviour, size and hearing of infants. During pregnancy, especially
in the last trimester, lead can cross the placenta and affect the unborn child. Female workers
exposed to high levels of lead have experienced more miscarriages and stillbirths.
79.
Exposure to lead can occur from breathing contaminated workplace air or house dust, eating
lead-based paint chips or contaminated dirt. Dust and soil can be significant lead exposure
sources, especially for young children. Lead dust can also be generated within the home,
especially older homes that used lead-based paints or lead solder. Lead dust is especially
dangerous for babies and young children, because they tend to put things in their mouths and
their breathing zone is closer to floor level.
80.
Lead is a well-documented neurotoxicant and lead exposure in children is linked to a lowering
of their intelligence quotient (IQ). Epidemiological studies consistently find adverse effects in
27
Health Canada-www.hc.sc.gc.ca
Ibid
29
EPA's Integrated Risk Information System (IRIS) website : www.epa.gov/ttn/atw/hlthef/lead.
28
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children at blood lead levels down to 10 μg/dl30. Recent studies reported lead-induced IQ
decrements in children with blood lead levels below 10 μg/dl31. There is presently no known
threshold for the effect of lead. A growing number of studies suggest that exposure to lead may
cause behavioural deficits and lower functional skills during childhood and later in life32. Other
vulnerable population groups include socially and economically disadvantaged populations
and the malnourished, whose diets are deficient in proteins and calcium.
81.
Lead exposures occur in almost all countries of the world33. Available data suggest that, on the
global scale, the highest blood lead levels occur in Latin America, the Middle East, Asia, parts
of Eastern Europe and the Commonwealth of Independent States. Available data indicate a
substantial falling trend in environmental lead exposure in many developed countries mainly
due to the elimination of lead from petrol, but also to reductions in other sources of exposure
(e.g., lead in paint, lead in drinking water and lead in soldered cans).
82.
Lead remains an environmental health problem. A growing number of countries (mainly
developing countries and countries with economies in transition) are recognizing and reporting
the problem of environmental lead exposure in some population groups. For instance in Cape
Peninsula, South Africa, epidemiological studies for children recorded blood levels of 0.836g/l
of lead in the 1980’s and 90’s and down to 10mg/l in 2002 after banning leaded petrol. The IQ
in children of same age also recorded tremendous improvements.34
83.
In many parts of the world, for many decades, there was very little public awareness of and
policies relating to the potential of lead contamination and its public health effects. As a result
of its health effects and impact on development, lead may cause significant economic losses
for society.
3.3
Mercury and products containing mercury
3.3.1 Potential effects of mercury and products containing mercury on
the environment
84.
Mercury is a heavy metal that occurs naturally in the environment in different chemical forms.
The pure form, elemental mercury, is liquid at room temperature and slowly forms a vapour in
the air. Forms more commonly found in nature are inorganic mercury such as mercuric
sulphide, mercury oxide, mercury chloride and organic mercury such as dimethyl mercury,
phenyl mercury, ethyl mercury and methyl-mercury. However, the most common organic
mercury compound in the environmental is methyl-mercury.
85.
Natural events (e.g. volcanic activity and weathering of rocks), human activities (e.g. mining,
processes and use of fossil fuels and products) can cause mercury release into the environment.
30
UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on lead, version of November 2008
Ibid
32
Ibid
31
33
34
Ibid
Ibid
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Once released it can move easily between air, water and land. Natural processes can even
change mercury from one form to another.
86.
Human activity is now the main source of mercury being released into the environment. Much
is released unintentionally from processes where mercury is unwanted impurity. Emission into
the air mainly from fossil fuel (petrol, gas and coal power plant and incinerator), are expected
to increase unless other energy sources are used or emissions better controlled.
87.
Today’s emissions of mercury from soil and water surface are composed of both natural source
and re-emission of previous deposition of mercury from both anthropogenic and natural
resources. This makes it very difficult to determine the actual natural mercury emission.
88.
On average, around the globe there are indications that anthropogenic emission of mercury
have resulted in deposition rates today that are 1.5 to 3 times higher than those during preindustrial times. In and around industrial areas the deposition rates have increased by 2 to 10
times during the last 200 years.35
89.
A good percent of mercury in the environment is from anthropogenic emission though it’s
difficult to estimate.
90.
Highly contaminated industrial sites and abandoned mining operations continue to release
mercury. Also, land, water and resource management activities such as forestry and
agricultural practices and flooding can make mercury more bioavailable.
91.
In addition, frequent extreme weather event can contribute to release of mercury through
flooding and soil erosion.
3.3.2 Potential effects of mercury and products containing mercury on
human health
92.
Mercury and its compounds are highly toxic to humans and the environment. Large amounts
can be fatal to humans, but even relatively low doses can seriously affect developing nervous
systems. The toxicity to humans and other organism depends on the chemical form, the
amount, the pathway of exposure and the vulnerability of the person exposed.
93.
Mercury can change in the environment into a more complex and harmful compound called
methyl-mercury. Methyl-mercury passes both the placental barrier and the blood brain barrier,
and so can inhibit children potential mental development even before birth. Studies have
shown that methyl mercury in pregnant women’s diets can have subtle, persistent adverse
effects on children development as observed at about the start of school age. Moreover, some
studies suggest that small increases in methyl mercury exposure may cause adverse effects on
the cardiovascular system. Many people (and wildlife) are currently exposed at the levels that
pose these risks, and possibly other adverse effects36 .
35
UNEP Global Mercury Assessment report, December 2002
36
Ibid
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94.
Some populations are especially susceptible and vulnerable to mercury exposure, most notably
the fetus, the new-born, and young children because of the sensitivity of the developing
nervous system. Thus parents, pregnant women, and women who might become pregnant,
should particularly be aware of the potential harm of methyl mercury.
95.
However, moderate consumption of fish (with low mercury levels) is not likely to result in
exposures of concern. On the other hand, indigenous populations and others who consume
high amounts of contaminated fish or marine mammals, as well as workers who are exposed to
mercury such as small scale gold and silver mining, may be highly exposed to mercury and are
therefore at risk.
96.
There are also ecosystems and wildlife populations which are particularly vulnerable to methyl
mercury. These include top predators in aquatic food webs (such as fish eating birds and
mammals), artic ecosystem, wetlands, tropical ecosystems and soil microbial communities37.
97.
Recent evidence suggest that mercury is responsible for reduction of micro-biological activity
vital to the terrestrial human food chain in soil over large part of Europe and potentially in
many other places in the world with similar soils characteristics. Preliminary critical limits to
prevent ecological effect due to mercury in organic soil have been set at 0.07 -0.3 mg/kg for
total mercury in the soils.
98.
Rising water levels associated with global climate changes may also have implication for the
methylation of mercury and its accumulation in fish.38
37
38
Ibid
Ibid
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4.0 KEY ORGANIZATIONS AND DATABASES DEALING WITH
TRADE STATISTICS OF PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM,
LEAD AND MERCURY
99.
This section provides description of the main key organizations and databases dealing with
trade statistics of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury. Also other sub-topics are
included in this section describing the commodity classification and codes and the limitations
of the trade data.
100. Key
organizations collecting and maintaining databases of commercial statistics on trade of
products are available. These include, among others, the UN Comtrade, Eurostat, United
States (US) International Trade Commission, Trade Analysis and Information System
(TRAINS) database and the Inter-American Development Bank (IDB/CTS) databases.
101. This
report focuses mainly on the commodity statistics available through the UN Comtrade
database, since it is the most comprehensive and easily accessible. Hence a brief description
of it is given below.
4.1 UN Comtrade and commodity classifications and codes for
products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
102. UN
Comtrade is an acronym for “United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database,”
maintained by the United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD). The data which is kept in a
standard format provides information on trade transaction for each country for a specified
commodity and code, a partner country, value of trade, net weight or number of items for a
specific year. For many countries the data coverage starts as far back as 1962 and goes up to
the most recent completed year 2007.
103. Commodities
are classified primarily according to SITC (Rev.1 from 1962, Rev.2 from 1976
and Rev.3 from 1988) and the Harmonized System (HS from 1988 with revisions in 1996 and
2002), as well as some more specialised systems. Currently most data are reported according
to HS-2002, and automatically converted and stored in all of the other classifications.
104. This
report has used information on commodities specified by the more commonly used
classification codes which are:

Standard International Trade Classification (SITC)

Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System (HS).
105. The selected
commodities and their codes are shown in Table 4.1 to Table 4.3. However, in the
cause of extracting data from the databases, it was found that some codes had missing data,
some had different names for the same group categories and others were repeated. Therefore
the data downloaded and analyzed in this study was from the codes give in Table 4.4 only.
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Table 4.1: Commodity codes for products containing cadmium
CODE
PRODUCT DECRIPTION
HS02- 283030
Cadmium sulphide (Electroplating)
SITC3-53313
Pigments and preparations based on cadmium compounds
HS 92- 850730
Nickel-cadmium electric accumulators
SITC3 -68982
Cadmium, unwrought; cadmium waste and scrap; powders
HS96 -381230
Anti-oxidizing preps. & other compound stabilizers for rubber/plastics
SITC4 -5622
Mineral or chemical fertilizers, phosphatic
SITC1-5612
Phosphatic fertilizers and materials
Ash & residues (excl. from the manufacture
antimony/beryllium/cadmium/chromium/their mixtures
HS07-262091
of
iron/steel)
containing
Table 4.2: Commodity codes for products containing lead
CODE
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
HS1992-850710
HS1992-850720
HS96-26070
HS96 - 262020
HS92 - 2824
HS92 - 282410
HS96- 381111
HS96-7801
HS96-7802
HS96-7803
HS96-7804
HS92-7805
HS96-7806
HS02-960920
SITC 3-6852
SITC 3 - 52375
SITC 1 - 71421
Lead-acid electric accumulators (vehicle)
Lead-acid electric accumulators except for vehicles
Lead Ore& concentrate
Ash or residues containing mainly lead
Lead oxides, red lead, orange lead
Lead monoxide (litharge, massicot)
Anti-knock preparations based on lead comps.
Lead and Lead alloys unwrought
Lead waste and scraps
Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire.
Lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead powders and flakes.
Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings (for example, couplings, elbows, sleeves).
Articles of Lead
Pencils lead, black/coloured
Lead and lead alloys, worked
Lead carbonates
Electronic computers
Table 4.3: Commodity codes for mercury and products containing mercury
CODE
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
HS92 -853931
Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode
HS92-9025
Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers, etc
HS02-853932
Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultraviolet lamps), mercury/sodium vapour ...
HS02-850630
Primary cells & primary batteries, mercuric oxide
SITC3-772
Electric switch relay/circuit
Input/output units (of auto. data processing machines), whether or not cont. storage units
in the same housing
HS02-847160
HS92-8525
H02-854012
HS96-8540
SITC.2-51551 and
SITC.1-51283
Radio and TV transmitters, television cameras
Cathode-ray television picture tubes, incl. video monitor cathode-ray tubes, black &
white/other. monochrome
Thermionic and cold cathode valves and tubes
Organo- mercury compounds
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Table 4.4: Commodity codes for the analyzed data
Products containing cadmium
Code
HS02- 283030
Description
Cadmium sulphide (Electroplating)
SITC3-53313
HS 92- 850730
Pigments and preparations based on cadmium compounds
Nickel-cadmium electric accumulators
SITC3 -68982
HS96 -381230
Cadmium, unwrought; cadmium waste and scrap; powders
Anti-oxidizing preps. & other compound stabilizers for rubber/plastics
SITC1-5612
Mineral or chemical fertilizers, phosphatic/ phosphatic fertilizers and materials
Products containing lead
Code
Description
HS1992-850710
Lead-acid electric accumulators (vehicle)
HS1992-850720
Lead-acid electric accumulators except for vehicles
HS96-260700
Lead ore& concentrate
HS96-381111
Anti-knock preparations based on lead comps.
HS96-7801
Lead and Lead alloys unwrought
HS96-7802
Lead waste and scraps
HS96-7803
Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire.
HS96-7804
Lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead powders and flakes.
HS92-7805
Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings (for example, couplings, elbows,
sleeves)
HS96-7806
Articles of Lead, not elsewhere specified (nes)
HS02-9606
Pencils lead, black/coloured
HS 02-8471
Automatic data processing machines (Computers)
HS92 - 2824
Lead oxides, red lead, orange lead
SITC 3-6852
Lead and lead alloys, worked
SITC 3 - 52375
Lead carbonates
HS96 - 262020
Ash or residues containing mainly lead
Products containing mercury
Code
Description
HS92 -853931
Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode
HS92-9025
Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers, etc
HS02-853932
HS02-850630
SITC3-772
HS92-8525
H02-854012/
SITC.4-776/HS968540
Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultraviolet lamps), mercury/sodium vapour ...
Primary cells & primary batteries, mercuric oxide
Electric switch relay/circuit
Radio and TV transmitters, television cameras
Cathode-ray television picture tubes, incl. video monitor cathode-ray tubes,
black & white/other. monochrome
Thermionic, cold cathode or photo-cathode valves and tubes (e.g., vacuum or
vapour or gas-filled valves and tubes, mercury arc rectifying valves and tubes,
cathode-ray tubes, television camera tubes); diodes, transistor.s
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cadmium, lead and mercury
HS02-262060
SITC.4-776
.
Ash & residues (excl. from the manufacture of iron/steel) cont. mainly
arsenic/mercury/thallium/their mix.
Thermionic, cold cathode or photo-cathode valves and tubes (e.g., vacuum or vapour or
gas-filled valves and tubes, mercury arc rectifying valves and tubes, cathode-ray tubes,
television camera tubes); diodes, transistors and similar semiconductor devices.
4.2 Limitations and challenges associated with trade data statistics
and data analysis.
106. Some
of the data provided in the UN Comtrade database, particularly the net weight of traded
commodities, are estimated. Data analyzed was that downloaded from the database where in
most cases many countries have not reported the trade transactions. For example, where one
country will indicated that it has imported from a certain country in a certain year or certain
amount, at the same time that certain country will not show that particular trade transaction.
The data does not tally between countries that have traded as partners. This created difficulties
in deciding which data to include/take for the analysis. A very prominent example is the data
for Unwrought Lead where Namibia showed in the year 2004 to have imported from South
Africa almost 99 percent of the total import of the product for the period 2000-2006, while in
the same year the data from South Africa did not show any export of such product to Namibia.
The same for lead alloys and Data processing machines (computers). The assumption is that
import data is more likely to be correct than export data since it is tied up with import taxes.
107. Many
countries have not reported trade transactions. This is shown in most cases when one
country has exported or imported from a certain country while that country does not show any
such trade transactions. Therefore the data becomes unreliable.
108. Another
limitation and challenge of the trade data statistics is the unavailability of data for
second hand products containing cadmium, lead and mercury. The trade data available in the
databases does not show whether it includes second hand products or not. It is well known
that the trade of second hand computers, TVs, radios, cell phones and other electrical and
electronic products containing cadmium, lead and mercury are a booming business in Africa.
Thus the actual figures on the trade of electrical and electronic products could be more than
what has been presented in this report.
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5.0 PRODUCTION AND TRADE PATTERN OF PRODUCTS
CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
109. This
section provides the global production and the trade flow of the most traded products
containing cadmium, lead and mercury to the African countries for the period covering 20002006. The information has been derived from the data collected from UN Comtrade and UN
Database websites. However, in gathering the data several gaps were experienced which will
be mentioned herewith. Data analysis was done bearing in mind the gaps identified and the
data available.
110. Responses
for the questionnaires in respect of the study were received from governments,
intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The
relevant responses to the questions which were included in the questionnaire are compiled in
Annex 5A. The countries which responded are Australia, Burkina Faso, Chad, Czech Republic,
Finland, Jamaica, Mexico, Norway, Togo, United Kingdom, United States of America,
Sweden, and Switzerland while the IGOs include the European Commission and the World
Health Organization (WHO). The only NGO which responded to the questionnaires is Toxic
Link.
111. The
trade pattern described here looks at the trade flow of imports and exports in terms of
volume /weight (kg) of the products to and from the African countries based on the records of
the UN Comtrade. Data analysis using tables and charts have been used to provide information
to address the following:
 The major products containing cadmium, lead and mercury imported into and exported from
the African countries.
 The major importing and exporting countries and their partners.
 The trend of importation and exportation of these products.
These aspects are covered in details below:
5.1
Products containing cadmium
5.1.1 Global production
is produced mainly as a by – product of mining, smelting and refining of zinc and, to
a lesser degree as a by – product of lead and copper production. It is therefore primarily a
function of zinc production rather than cadmium demand. Global cadmium production almost
doubled between 1950 and 1990. Since 1990 global consumption has remained constant, at
about 20,000 tonnes per year, although many changes have occurred with the geographical
distribution of this production. Until 1997, production in Europe, the Americas and Asia
remained constant. Since 1997, however, production in Asia has increased sharply; whereas
the production in Europe has decreased.
112. Cadmium
113. Depending on
world production of zinc, the production of cadmium has been estimated and are
given in Table 5.1-a below.
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Table 5.1-a: Global cadmium production
Country
United States
Australia
Canada
China
India
Japan
Kazakhstan
Mexico
Peru
Russia
Other countries
World Total
Quantity
(tonnes)
90,000
53,000
55,000
90,000
3,000
10,000
50,000
35,000
12,000
16,000
120,000
540,000
Source: U.S Geological survey, mineral commodity summaries January 2007
5.1.2 Sources and supply of cadmium
114. There
are two main sources of cadmium namely primary cadmium recovered from smelting of
Zinc and secondary cadmium derived from recycling of Nickel-Cadmium batteries, CopperCadmium alloys, and other iron – ferrous alloys, as well as Cadmium – containing dust from
the recycling of iron and recycled (secondary) cadmium. In 2004 recycled cadmium accounted
for 3,500 tonnes corresponding to about 17.5 percent of a total global supply of about 20,000
tonnes39.
115. There
are three major industry programs in the world which organize and promote the
collection and recycling of NiCd batteries i.e. Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation
(RBRC) in the United States of America and Canada, Battery Association of Japan (BAJ) in
Japan and RECHARGE in Europe.
leading producers of primary cadmium from 2003 – 2006 and their production are
summarized in Table 5.1-b.
116. The
117. Worldwide
primary cadmium production continues to originate predominantly from Asia
(China, Japan and Korea) and the Americas (Canada and Mexico) with only small production
from Europe and Australia. Cadmium production in Africa which was always quite small has
virtually disappeared.
39
Cadmium Markets and Trends September 2005
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Table 5.1-b: Leading producers of primary cadmium metal (in tonnes)
Country
Korea
China
Japan
Canada
Mexico
Kazakhstan
United States
Russia
Germany
Netherlands
India
Peru
Australia
2003
2379
2705
2490
1759
1606
930
700
650
640
495
477
529
673
Quantity (tonnes)
2004
2005
2633
2782
2900
3000
2222
2297
1881
1727
1590
1627
2358
1624
1010
1070
650
650
640
640
572
570
489
409
532
409
469
429
2006
3450
3000
2289
2094
1397
1140
892
650
640
570
457
416
425
Source: Draft final review of scientific information on cadmium, UNEP, version of November 2008
5.1.3 Global cadmium trade
118. Many
products in which cadmium is used intentionally are traded globally. This is the case in
particular for its use in NiCd batteries which commands 82 percent of consumption, but also
for many applications in alloys, plastics, pigments, plating and in electronic and electrical
equipment. In this context, as consequence of international trade, products containing cadmium
will be spread to consumers in countries worldwide.
119. The
general trend in global cadmium consumption over the last two decades has been a steep
increase in the use of cadmium for batteries and a decrease in the use for nearly all other
applications.
120. In
1980 cadmium pigment and plating were the main application areas followed by batteries
which accounted for 23 percent of total global consumption and stabiliser in polymers for 12
percent of the estimated world consumption. In 2005, batteries (NiCd batteries) accounted for
about 82 percent of the estimated world consumption40. Other major uses of refined cadmium
are: pigments for plastics, ceramics and enamels; stabilizers for plastics; plating on iron and
steel; and as an alloying element of some lead, copper and tin alloys. Since 1990, consumption
for pigments, stabilizers, alloys and other uses has decreased significantly.
40
UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on cadmium, version of November 2008
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Trade patterns in Africa
Major traded products containing cadmium in Africa
121. The major traded (imported/exported) products containing cadmium in Africa include
phosphatic fertilizers, plastic/rubber stabilizers/anti-oxidizing agents, NiCd electric
accumulators, pigments, cadmium sulphide, cadmium unwrought/cadmium waste and antioxidizing agents. The total volume of imported and exported products to/from Africa during
the period 2000 – 2005 is shown in Table 5.1c.
Table 5.1-c: Imports and exports volumes of products containing cadmium to and from
Africa: 2000-2005
Product
Phosphatic fertilizer and materials
Import/Kg
700,537,761
Export/Kg
9,174,381,922
Plastic/Rubber stabilizers/anti oxidizing
agents.
NiCd electric accumulators
69,911,734
27,256,763
4,455,116
36,597,974
Pigments
2,094,786
147,057
Cadmium sulphide
44,233
1,988
Cadmium unwrought/waste
4,875
47,611
777,048,505
9,238,433,315
Total
122. It
can be noted from Table 5.1-c that the most leading traded product containing cadmium in
Africa is phosphatic fertilizer followed by plastic and rubber stabilizers, NiCd batteries and
pigments. Other products include cadmium sulphide and cadmium wrought. The import
market shares of each product are illustrated in Figure 5.1-a and Figure 5.1-b while exports
are shown in Figures 5.1-c and Figure 5.1-d.
Table 5.1-d: Annual volumes of imports and export of products containing cadmium to
and from Africa: 2000-2005.
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Total
Imports (Kg)
71,740,686
85,773,851
111,370,384
130,499,182
196,455,714
181,208,688
777,048,505
Export (Kg)
1,724,492,235
1,532,551,507
1,457,090,938
1,209,498,412
1,687,057,531
1,627,742,692
9,238,433,315
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Table
5.1-e:
2000-2005.(Kg)
Imports
Phosphatic
fertilizer
materials
Plastic/rubber
stabilizers/anti
oxidizing
agents/anti
oxidizing preps
Cadmium nickel
accumulators
Cadmium
pigments
Cadmium
sulphide
Cadmium
unwrought
Import
volumes
of
products
containing
cadmium
into
.
Africa:
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Total
64,518,712
57,423,267
100,660,564
121,385,027
186,662,934
169,887,257
700,537,761
6,300,085
27,567,423
9,597,841
7,932,872
8,487,659
10,025,854
69,911,737
783,644
457,677
834,655
525,616
858,950
994,574
4,455,116
137,755
323,444
276,044
654,780
403,349
299,414
2,094,786
849
504
42,154
726
44,233
490
2,040
431
383
668
863
4,875
TOTAL
71,740,686
85,773,851
111,370,384
130,499,182
196,455,714
181,208,688
777,048,505
Table
5.1-f:
2000-2005 (Kg)
Export
Exports
Phosphatic
fertilizer
materials
NiCd Electric
accumulators
Plastic/rubber
stabilizer/anti
oxidizing
Pigments
Cadmium
unwrought
Cadmium
sulphide
TOTAL
volumes
of
products
containing
cadmium
from
Africa:
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
TOTAL
1,718,363,973
1,525,691,389
1,450,534,210
1,205,908,957
1,676,362,646
1,597,520,747
9.174,381,922
2,006,203
2,786,657
2,802,289
642,087
7,443,579
20,917,159
36,597,974
4,096,935
4,020,198
3,748,902
2,921,608
3,241,823
9,227,297
27,256,763
24,461
53,263
5,424
4,057
3,692
56,160
147,057
51
20,000
5,791
21,106
47,611
62
1,703
223
1,988
1,457,090,938
1,209,498,412
1,627,742,692
9,238,433,315
663
1,724,492,235
1,532,551,507
1,687,057,531
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Import of cadmium products including phopshatic fertilizers, 2000-2005
NiCd electric
accumulators
1%
Pigments
0%
Cadmium sulphide.
0%
Plastic/rubber
stabilizers.
9%
Phosphatic fertilizer
90%
Figure 5.1-a: Volume of products containing cadmium imported into Africa
Import of cadmium products excluding phosphatic fertilizers, 2000-2005
Pigments
3%
Cadmium sulphide.
0%
NiCd electric
accumulators
6%
Cadmium unwrought
0%
Plastic/rubber
stabilizers.
91%
Figure 5.1-b:
Volume of products containing cadmium (excluding phosphatic
fertilizer) imported to Africa
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Export of cadmium products including phosphatic fertilizers 2000-2006
NiCd electric
accumulators
0%
Plastic/rubber
stabilizers.
0%
Cadmium
unwrought/waste
0%
,
Phosphatic fertilizer
100%
Figure 5.1-c: Volume of products containing cadmium (including phosphatic fertilizer/
materials) exported from Africa
Export of cadmium products excluding phosphatic fertilizers, 2000-2005
Pigments
0%
NiCd electric
accumulators
57%
Cadmium sulphide.
0%
Cadmium
unwrought/waste
0%
Plastic/rubber
stabilizers.
43%
Figure 5.1-d: Volume of products containing cadmium (excluding phosphatic fertilizer/
materials) exported from Africa
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cadmium, lead and mercury
The general trade trend of products containing cadmium in Africa is increasing. The total
imports of products containing cadmium have increased from about 73,000 tons in 2000 to
about 192,000 tons in 2005 while reported exports decreased from about 1,779,000 tons in
2000 to about 752,000 tons in 2005 as shown in Table 5.1-d. The high volume in exports is
mainly contributed by phosphatic fertilizers which are exported from Tunisia and Morocco.
The import and export trends of products containing cadmium during the period 2000 to 2005
are further illustrated in Figures 5.1-e and Figure 5.1-f respectively while details on the
import/export data of each cadmium product for the same period are given in Table 5.1-e and
Table 5.1-f.
Import trend for cadmium, 2000-2005
250000000
200000000
150000000
Kg
123.
.
100000000
50000000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1-e : Import trend of products containing cadmium during 2000 to 2005
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Export trend for cadmium, 2000-2005
2,000,000,000
1,800,000,000
1,600,000,000
1,400,000,000
Kg
1,200,000,000
1,000,000,000
800,000,000
600,000,000
400,000,000
200,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1-f: Export trend of products containing cadmium during 2000 to 2005
124. The
import and export trends of major products containing cadmium including their partners is
given in Table 5.1-g and Table 5.1-h respectively while Map 5.1-a and Map 5.1-b illustrate the
trade movements of the same products.
Table 5.1-g: Major products containing cadmium imported to Africa, major importers and partners:
2000-2005
S/N
1
Product
name
Phosphatic
fertilizer
materials
Quantity
(tonnes)
700,537
%
Major
importers
90.15% Morocco
Major
partners
22% Portugal
Italy
Egypt
15% Turkey
France
Bulgaria
35%
20%
16%
18%
17%
15%
Corte
d’Ivoire
14.% USA
Bulgaria
Morocco
44%
18%
17%
Mozambique
29% Portugal
100%
South Africa
19% Italy
Germany
Malaysia
15% Belgium
Spain
Italy
26%
21%
16%
27%
24%
15%
Algeria
2
Cadmium anti
oxidizing
preps
69,911
9.00%
Morocco
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3.
.
NiCd
electronic
accumulators
4,455
0.57%
South Africa
Algeria
4
Cadmium
Pigments
2,094
0.27%
Swaziland
Egypt
South Africa
United Rep
Tanzania
26% China
Japan
Sweden
18% France
Spain
UK
11% South Africa
31% S. Arabia
China
USA
30% UK
France
Brazil
17% India
South Africa
Iran
98% Italy
China
26%
13%
8%
45%
42%
3%
100%
52.%
25%
13%
55%
17%
12%
83%
9%
7%
98%
2%
100%
57%
25%
5.
Cadmium
sulphide
44.23
0.01%
South Africa
6
Cadmium
unwrought
4.8
<0.001
Namibia
Kenya
2% South Africa
57% Areas nes*
Indonesia
Algeria
31% UK
*
.
98%
Areas not elsewhere specified
33
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Table 5.1 – h: Major exported products containing cadmium, major exporters and partners:
2000-2005
S/N
1.
2.
3.
Name of Product
Quantity
(tones)
Phosphatic fertilizer
materials
9,1743.81
NiCd electric
accumulators
Plastic/rubber
stabizer/antioxidizing
36.597
27,256
% Total
Cd
products
99.31%
0.40%
0.30%
Major
exporters %
Tunisia
Morocco
35%
South
Africa
35%
Sudan
54%
Tunisia
18%
Botswana
7%
South
99%
Africa
Tunisia
4.
5.
7.
Pigments
Cadmium unwrought
Cadmium sulphide
147.05
47.61
1.98
<0.10%
<0.01%
<0.01%
52.%
0.40%
Zimbabwe
38%
Zambia
20%
South Africa 19%
South Africa 53%
Ghana
44%
United Rep 3%
Of Tanzania
Namibia 96%
South
Africa 45%
Major partners
Brazil
Iran
UK
Iran
Brazil
UK
Netherlands
India
Japan
India
Indonesia
Vietnam
Jordan
Philippines
China Hong
Kong
South Africa
Germany
Belgium
India
Angola
Ghana
Libya
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Angola
Zimbabwe
China
USA
Rep.of Korea
Dem Rep of
Congo
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Areas nes
Uganda
%
19%
17%
0.4%
28%
22%
18%
44%
29%
6%
58%
13%
6%
42%
24%
8%
100%
22%
15%
11%
37%
37%
25%
100%
100%
39%
23%
79%
18%
100%
100%
100%
70%
18%
11%
34
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Map 5.1-a: Import flow of major products containing cadmium into Africa
Phosphatic fertilizers
Ni Cd Accumulators
Anti oxidizing agents
Cadmium pigments
Map 5.1-b: Export flow of major products containing cadmium from Africa
35
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
125. Based
on Table 5.1-g and Table 5.1-h, further description on the trade trend of each product is
given below:
NiCd electric accumulators
126. NiCd
electric accumulators are the 3rd largest cadmium product traded in Africa. The major
importer is South Africa commanding 26 percent of the market share and the main partners
being China/Hong Kong, Japan and Sweden. The second importer of NiCd batteries is Algeria
with 18 percent of the market share importing from France and Spain. The third importer is
Swaziland importing only from South Africa
127. On
the other hand the major exporter of NiCd batteries is Sudan with 55 percent of the market
share exporting to India with 58 percent share, followed by Indonesia and Vietnam with 13
percent and 6 percent respectively. The second major exporter is Tunisia with 19 percent
market share exporting to Jordan 42 percent and Philippines 24 percent share. Botswana is the
next exporter exporting only to South Africa
128. The
import trend was increasing almost from year 2001-2005 with a slight drop in 2003, while
the export was constant from year 2000 to 2003 when it started to pick up sharply to maximum
figure in 2005 as indicated in Figure 5.1-g and Figure 5.1-h below.
Import trend NiCd accumulators, 2000-2005
1,200,000
1,000,000
Kg
800,000
600,000
400,000
200,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1- g: Import trend of NiCd electric accumulators
36
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Export trend for NiCd accumulators, 2000-2005
25,000,000
20,000,000
Kg
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1-h: Export trend of NiCd electric accumulators
Pigment
129. Pigment
is the fourth largest cadmium product traded in Africa. The main importer is Egypt
commanding 31 percent of the market share importing 52 percent of it supplies from Saudi
Arabia. And China with 25 percent share. South Africa is second major importer commanding
30 percent of the market share mainly importing from United Kingdom (55percent) followed
by France with 17percent. United Republic of Tanzania is the next major importer mainly from
India with 82 percent market share. The main exporter of pigments was noted to be Zimbabwe
commanding 38 percent of the market share mainly exporting to South Africa, followed by
Zambia with 31 percent of the market share exporting only to Zimbabwe. South Africa is the
next major exporter with 18% market share exporting to Angola (39 percent) and Zimbabwe
(23 percent)
130. The
import trend was fluctuating and the maximum import and export volumes were achieved
in 2003. Import s continued to decrease but exports have been increasing since 2004 as shown
in Figure 5.1- i and Figure 5.1-j.
37
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Import trend for cadmium pigment, 2000-2005
700,000
600,000
Kg
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1-i: Import trend of cadmium pigments
Export trend for cadmium pigments, 2000-2005
25000
20000
Kg
15000
10000
5000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1-j: Export trend of cadmium pigments
38
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Cadmium sulphide
131. Cadmium
sulphide is fairly traded product in Africa compared to heavy industrialized
countries. The main importer of this product was South Africa commanding 98 percent of the
market share importing 98 percent of this product from Italy. The main exporter was Namibia
commanding 96 percent of the market share exporting to South Africa. Import picked up in
2003 to 2004 and declined again in 200 while export trend was minimal. Figures 5.1-k and
5.1-l illustrate the import and export trend of cadmium sulphide respectively, for the period
2000 to 2005.
Import trend for cadmium sulphide, 2002-2005
45000
40000
35000
Kg
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
2002
2003
2004
2,005
Year
Figure 5.1- k: Import trend of cadmium sulphide for the period 2000 to 2005
Export trend for cadmium sulphide, 2002-2005
1800
1600
1400
Kg
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
0
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1- l: Export trend of cadmium sulphide for the period 2000 to 2005
39
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Plastic/rubber stabilizers.
132. This
product is widely traded in Africa. The major importers include Mozambique with 29
percent, South Africa 19 percent and Morocco 15 per cent. The major importing partners
include Portugal for Mozambique, Italy, Germany and Malaysia for South Africa and Belgium,
Spain and Italy for Morocco. The main exporter is South Africa commanding 99 percent of the
market share exporting mainly to Germany, Belgium and India. It is not clear why South
Africa has to import from Germany and export the same product percentage to Germany.
133. The
general trade trend of this product is decreasing in Africa. Reported import and export
volumes have been decreasing since 2001. However exports started to increase again sharply
since 2004 (see Figures 5.1- m and Figure 4.1-n)
Import trend for cadmium rubber and plastic stabilizers, 2000-2005
30,000,000
25,000,000
Kg
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1-m: Export/Import Trend of Plastic/Rubber Stabilizer
40
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Export trend of cadmium rubber and plastic stabilizers, 2000-2005
60,000
50,000
Kg
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1-n: Export/Import Trend of Plastic/Rubber Stabilizer
Phosphatic fertilizer materials
134. This
is the most traded product in Africa, commanding 90 percent of the market share of
products containing cadmium imported in Africa and 99 percent of products exported from
Africa.
135. The
major importer is Morocco commanding 22 percent of the market share importing from
Portugal, Italy and Egypt followed by Algeria with 15 percent importing from Turkey, France
and Bulgaria. Similarly Corte d’Ivoire commands 15 percent market share importing form
USA, Bulgaria and Morocco. The major exporter is Tunisia commanding 52 percent of the
market share exporting mainly to Brazil and Iran followed by Morocco with 35 percent share
exporting also to Brazil and Iran. South Africa is also a major exporter of this product also
with 35 percent market share exporting to Netherlands, India and Bangladesh.
136. Import
trend has increased by over 160 percent between year 2000 and 2005 while exports
have decreased by 59 percent during the same period. Figures 5.1-o and Figure 5.1-p below
show the import and export trend of phosphatic fertilizers and materials respectively.
41
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Kg
Import trend for phosphatic fertilizers, 2000-2005
200,000,000
180,000,000
160,000,000
140,000,000
120,000,000
100,000,000
80,000,000
60,000,000
40,000,000
20,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1-o: Import trend of phosphatic fertilizers and materials
Export trend for phosphatic fertilizers 2000-2005
2,000,000,000
1,800,000,000
1,600,000,000
1,400,000,000
Kg
1,200,000,000
1,000,000,000
800,000,000
600,000,000
400,000,000
200,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.1-p: Export trend of phosphatic fertilizers and materials
42
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
5.2
.
Lead and products containing lead
5.2.1. Global source and production
137. Lead-rich
minerals most often occur together with other metals, particularly silver, zinc,
copper and sometimes gold. Thus, lead is also a co-product of zinc, copper and silver
production, making the extraction of lead more economical than if it occurred in isolation.
About two-thirds of worldwide lead output is obtained from mixed lead-zinc ore41
138. After
mining, the lead-rich ore (typically 3-8 percent lead) is separated from the other minerals
to form ore-concentrate. The ore concentrate is converted into metallic lead with impurities by
a smelting process, and the impurities are subsequently removed by pyrometallurgical or
electrolytic refining. The different steps often take place in different countries, and there is
extensive trade of intermediary raw products.
139. Globally,
lead is mined in more than 40 countries, the major producers being China and
Australia, which represent 30 percent and 22 percent of global lead mining production,
respectively. The production and reserves by country in 2004 are shown in Table 5.2-a.
Table 5.2-a: Mine production of lead and reserves by country in 2004 (USGS, 2006)42
Mine production
2004
1000 tonnes Pb
950
Percentage of global
production
30
Reserves 1)
2004
1000 tonnes Pb
11,000
Australia
678
22
15,000
United States
445
14
8,100
Peru
271
9
2,000
Mexico
139
4
1,500
Canada
77
2
2,000
Morocco
65
2
500
Ireland
65
2
NA
Kazakhstan
40
1.3
5,000
India
40
1.3
NA
South Africa
37
1.2
400
Sweden
34
1.1
500
Other countries
275
9
19,000
3,150
100
67,000
Country
China
World total
(rounded)
1)
Reserves are defined by the USGS as that part of the resources which could be economically extracted or produced
at the time of determination. Reserves include only recoverable materials. NA: not available
41
42
UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on lead, version of November 2008
Ibid
43
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
140. China
is also a leading world producer of refined lead producing 27 percent of the global
production followed by United States of America and Germany producing 23 and 5 percent
respectively (Table 5.2-b)
141. The
total global mine production of lead has decreased slightly during the last thirty years,
from 3,600,000 tonnes in 1975 to 3,100,000 tonnes in 2004. During the same period, global
refined lead production and metal consumption have increased from about 4,700,000 tonnes to
about 7,100,000 tonnes.43
142. South
Africa and Morocco are the two major countries from Africa continent which produce,
mine and refine lead. Between the years 2000-2005 both countries have produced one percent
each of the total world production of the refined lead. The annual production of refined lead
for South Africa has been increasing between the years 2000-2005 (Table 5.2-b) while for
Morocco it has been decreasing. At the same time the production of mine lead had been
decreasing for both countries (Morocco and South Africa) between the years 1998 and 2002
and 2004 as indicated in Table 5.2-c below. The table also indicates that in the year 2004
Morocco and South Africa produced 2 percent and 1.2 percent of the global production of
mine lead compared to the leading world producer China which produced 30 percent of the
total global production44. At the same time there has been a general increase of use of lead by
the African countries, the major users being South Africa and Algeria (see table 5.2-d). On the
other hand data available show that the recovery of the recycled lead has been increasing
during the period 1998 to 2002 as shown in Table 5.2-e.
Table 5.2-b Global production of refined lead per country for the years 2000-2005 (in 1000
tonnes)
Year
Country
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
1113.4
1195.4
1324.7
1542.6
1973.6
2394.1
9543.8
27
USA
1420
1340
1330
1370
1250
1270
7980
23
Germany
284.4
268.48
278.28
266.22
321.02
318.82
1737.2
5
236
366
370
320
243
1535
4
171
162
180
169
174
1036.8
3
Canada
Australia
284.33
235
230.93
215
251.82
276
169.66
267
241.4
182
1178.1
1175
3
3
Kazakhstan
185.81
158.72
162.18
133.18
157.02
796.91
2
Peru
116.4
121.2
119.6
112.3
118.6
710.12
2
Japan
239.38
236.04
475.42
1
117.4
110.9
87.4
64.47
405.13
1
77.9
96.4
89.2
11.28
326.54
1
China
UK
Korea,
republic of
Morocco
India
43
44
180.78
122.1
25
51.76
Total
Percent of
total
2000
Ibid
Ibid
44
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
Russia
59
67.5
60.35
66
66
Sweden
56
48
45
48
50
54.41
57.66
61
64.9
61.5
138.11
South Africa
France
318.85
1
302.49
1
299.47
1
134.13
272.24
1
247.45
1
228.3
1
222.55
1
Belgium
81
63.02
52.43
51
Malaysia
35.2
42
40
57
54
21.5
44.8
50.5
51
Poland
55.49
54.75
Argentina
35.67
35.43
43.57
41.31
43
198.98
1
Thailand
Other
countries
Total
27.2
30
30
47
58
192.2
1
965.91
5795.51
973.23
5839.41
947.04
5931.48
947.25
5932.8
963.13
6032.27
5641.65
34824.2
16
845.08
5292.88
.
Source: UNdata website, 2008
Table 5.2-c: Mine production of lead by country in Africa from 1998-2002 (1000 tonnes)
Country
Morocco
Namibia
South Africa
Other Africa
Total Africa
1998
80
14
84
4
182
1999
80
12
80
8
179
2000
82
12
75
8
178
2001
77
12
51
8
149
2002
73
12
50
7
142
2004*
65
37
Source : CANADIAN MINERALS YEARBOOK, 2002 * Source : Draft final review of scientific information on lead,
UNEP, version of November 2008
Table 5.2-d: Refined lead use by country in Africa (1000 tonnes):1998-2002
Country
Algeria
Egypt
South Africa
Other Africa
Total Africa
1998
21
8
74
32
135
1999
21
8
67
37
133
Quantity/Year
2000
21
9
59
41
130
2001
20
9
59
35
123
2002
21
9
71
42
143
Source : CANADIAN MINERALS YEARBOOK, 2002
Table 5.2-e: Recovery of recycled lead (1000 tonnes) in Africa; 1998-2002
Country
Algeria
Morocco
South Africa
Other Africa
Total Africa
1998
6
4
50
9
69
1999
6
6
52
7
71
Quantity/Year
2000
6
4
46
6
62
2001
6
4
49
5
64
2002
6
4
61
5
76
Source : CANADIAN MINERALS YEARBOOK, 2002
45
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
5.2 2 Global trade of lead
143. Lead
is mainly used in the production of batteries which accounts for 78 percent of the
reported global consumption in 200345. Other applications of lead are in lead compounds (8
percent), lead sheets for roofing and flashing (5 percent), ammunition such as lead shot for
shotguns (2 percent), metal alloys (2 percent) and cable sheathing (1.2 percent), and Petrol
additives and others 9.2 percent.
Trade Patterns in Africa
Major traded products containing lead in Africa
144. The import and export quantities of products containing lead in Africa is shown in Table 5.2-f.
The major imported products including the importing countries and their partners are
summarized in Table 5.2-g while the major exported products and their partners are given in
Table 5.2-h.
Table 5.2-f: Import and export volume of products containing lead to Africa region 2000-2006
Product
Total Import/Kg
Total Export/Kg
Lead oxides
Lead Acid Electric Accumulators for Vehicles
( Lead Batteries)
20,159,919
13,245,518
205,579,273
128,320,613
Lead Batteries -Others
53,990,248
37,057,441
Lead alloys worked
7,698,722
7,596,685
256,699
8,038
Antiknock Preparations
54,215,799
513,982
Articles of Lead (Sheets, Scraps, Bars
15,209,628
20,689,408
Lead Ore & Concentrate
167,987,858
1,204,891,617
978,297
1,438,435
1,002,008,975
338,349,441
5,429,387
700,578
Automatic Data Processing Machines (Computers)
344,141,872
1,701,333,727
Lead pencils
243,865,242
17,515,995
2,121,520,919
3,471,661,478
Lead Carbonate
Ash Residue
Unwrought Lead
Glasses of Lead Crystal
Total
145. It
can be noted from the tables that the major product containing lead which was imported into
Africa during the period 2000 – 2006 is unwrought lead which accounted for about 56 percent
of the total imported products. More than 70 percent of this product was imported by Namibia
from South Africa and the highest imported figure was reported in the year 2004 which
accounted for almost 95 percent of the total imports of that product in the same year. However,
the correctness of the data reported by Namibia in year 2004 could not be verified as the data
was not reported by the importing partner, namely South Africa in the same year. South Africa
is the second major importer of unwrought lead importing mainly from Australia and China.
45
Ibid
46
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
major lead containing products imported into Africa during the period 2000 – 2006
include automatic data processing machines (computers) (17 percent); lead acid accumulators
for vehicles (10 percent); Pencils (6 percent); lead ores and concentrates (8 percent); and lead
acid accumulators other than for vehicles (3 percent); and antiknock preparations (3 percent).
Figure 5.2-a shows the major imported products and their percentage market shares during the
period 2000 – 2006.
146. Other
major product containing lead that was exported from Africa during the period 2000 –
2006 is automatic data processing machines (computers) which accounted for about 53 percent
of the exported products containing lead. The major exporter of this product during the same
period was Namibia exporting to South Africa (50 percent) and Angola (50 percent).
147. The
148. Other
major exported products include lead ores and concentrate; unwrought lead and lead
acid accumulators. Figure 5.2-b shows the market share of the different exported products
during the period 2000 – 2006.
Market share of imports of products containing Lead into Africa:
2000-2006
Lead Acid Electric
Accumulators-Vehicles
(HS 850710)
10%
Others (Alloys w orked,
lead carbonate, ash or
residues, glass
Lead oxides (HS 2824)
crystals
1%
1%
Lead Batteries -Others
(HS 850720)
3%
Lead pencils (HS 9609)
11%
Antiknock Preparations
(HS 381111)
3%
Automatic Data
Processing Machines
(Computers) HS 8471
16%
Unw rought Lead (HS
7801)
46%
Lead Ore &
Concentrate (HS
260700)
8%
Articles of Lead
(Sheets, Scraps, Bars,
etc)- HS 7802 - 06)
1%
Figure 5.2a- Import market share of products containing lead into Africa: 2000-2006
47
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Exports of products containing Lead from Africa: 2000 - 2006
lead alloys w orked,
lead carbonate, Antiknock, Ash or
resduue, glass
crystal, lead oxides
1%
Lead pencils
1%
Lead Acid Electric
Accumulators for
Vehicles
4%
Lead Batteries Others
1%
Articles of Lead
(Sheets, Scraps, Bars
1%
Automatic Data
Processing Machines
(Computers)
48%
Lead Ore &
Concentrate
34%
Unw rought Lead
10%
Figure 5.2-b: Export market share of product containing lead from Africa: 200-2006
149.
The import and export trends of major products containing lead including their partners is
given in Table 5.2-g and Table5.2-h respectively while Map 5.2-a and Map 5.2-b illustrate the
trade movements of the same products.
48
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Table 5.2-g: Major products containing lead imported to Africa and major importers and
partners:2000-2006
Product Name
1 Unwrought Lead
HS96- 7801
2 Automatic Data
processing
machines ( computers)
HS02-8471
3 Lead Acid electric
Accumulators for
vehicles HS96-850710
4 Lead Ores &
Concentrate
HS96-260700
Quantity
(tones)
1,002,009
344,142
205,579
167,988
Percent
of total
46
16
10
8
Importer
(country)
Namibia
South Africa
%
Partner of trade
%
76%
11%
Tunisia
4%
South Africa
22%
South Africa
Australia
China
Morocco
China
Canada
Belgium
China
United Kingdom
Ireland
USA
Germany
100%
71%
23%
52%
17 %
9%
9%
29%
9%
8%
8%
6%
Algeria
14%
China
France
Indonesia
Germany
Malaysia
47%
9%
8%
6%
4%
Morocco
12%
Algeria
14%
China
USA
France
Germany
Japan
France
China
Tajikistan
Thailand
Italy
26%
19%
12%
6%
5%
40%
24%
5%
3%
3%
South Africa
11%
Ghana
10%
20%%
19%
17%
12%
7%
30%
26%
12%
9%
5%
Morocco
100%
France
Rep. of Korea
Germany
China
USA
China
Indonesia
Rep.of Korea
Thailand
China, Hong
Kong
Ireland
Brazil
Poland
Tunisia
59%
15%
14%
6%
49
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
Product Name
Quantity
(tones)
5 Pencils (ordinary)
HS92- 9609
243,865
6 Lead Acid Electric
accumulators-Others
HS96-850720
7 Antiknock preparations
based on Lead
HS96- 381111
8 Articles of Lead (Bars,
sheets, scraps, rods,
pipes (HS 7802, 7803,
7804, 7805,7806)
53,990
54,216
15,210
Perce
nt of
total
11
3
3
1
Importer
(country)
Mozambique
.
Partner of trade
28%
United Arab
Emirates
Denmark
Pakistan
Rep. of Korea
China
Thailand
Germany
Malaysia
Rep. of Korea
France
China
Syria
Rep.of Korea
South Africa
10%
4%
1%
1%
62%
9%
5%
3%
3%
52%
26%
7%
4%
100%
South Africa
16%
Algeria
9%
Namibia
9%
South Africa
52%
China
France
USA
United Kingdom
Italy
24%
23%
11%
8%
7%
Nigeria
9%
China
Germany
Other Asia
China, Hong Kong
United Kingdom
44%
32%
6%
3%
Morocco
4%
South Africa
70%
France
United Kingdom
China
Greece
Germany
United Kingdom
Russia
Germany
Netherlands
Switzerland
3%
40%
19%
12%
9%
5%
89%
4%
4%
2%
2%
Algeria
8%
Kenya
3%
United Kingdom
France
Switzerland
Egypt
Germany
United Kingdom
Australia
France
Belgium
82%
14%
1%
1%
1%
56%
33%
8%
2%
See next table
50
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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Articles of lead imported to Africa, major importers and partners:2000-2006
Product Name
8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
8.5
Articles of Lead, nes
(HS 7806)
Lead plates, sheets, strip
and foil; lead powders and
flakes (HS 7804)
Lead bars, rods, profiles
and wire (HS 780300)
Lead tubes, pipes and tube
or pipe fittings
(HS 7805)
Lead waste & scraps (HS
780200)
Quantity
(tones)
4,880
4,419
3,752
1,791
368
Percent of
Total
<1
<1
<1
<1
<1
Importer
(country)
Zambia
%
Partner of Trade
%
27
South Africa
13
Zambia
53%
Botswana
7%
South Africa
6%
Mozambique
29%
Zambia
19%
South Africa
17%
Nigeria
24%
Zambia
22%
Botswana
18
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Zimbabwe
China
South Africa
Zimbabwe
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Mozambique
France
United Kingdom
South Africa
Portugal
Swaziland
South Africa
Zimbabwe
China
Australia
Germany
Spain
China
Germany
South Africa
United Kingdom
Kenya
South Africa
90
10
16
14
98
2
99
1
20
18
18
95
2
2
66
34
60
13
12
93
5
1
66
29
5
100
Egypt
86%
United Arab
Emirates
China
Other Asia
South Africa
63
Botswana
14%
22
15
100
51
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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Table 5.2-h: Major exported products containing lead from Africa, major exporters and
partners: 2000 - 2006.
1
2
3
4
5
Product Name and
Code
Quantity
( tonnes)
Data Processing
Machines
( computers)
Lead Ores &
Concentrates
SITC96-260700
Unwrought lead
HS 7801
Lead acid electric
accumulators for
vehicles
HS96-850710
Lead acid accumulators
other than for vehicles
HS 850720
Major
Exporter
%
1,701,334
Percent of total
products
containing lead
48
Namibia
99%
1,204,891
34
South Africa
80%
Tunisia
5%
Morocco
10%
Morocco
81%
South Africa
8%
Namibia
7%
South Africa
56%
Tunisia
14%
Botswana
11%
Tunisia
54%
South Africa
26%
Kenya
6%
338,349
128,321
37,057
10
4
1
Major
partners of
Trade
South Africa
%
Angola
China
Belgium
Morocco
Germany
Italy
China
Bulgaria
Italy
Belgium
Spain
Belgium
Algeria
Turkey
Italy
Belgium
Zimbabwe
India
Zambia
Korea
China
50%
61%
21%
27%
22%
14%
10
38%
24%
17%
50%
10%
8%
7%
7%
33%
29%
18%
4%
73%
26%
UK
Mozambique
Zambia
Morocco
Senegal
Libya
Burkina Faso
South Africa
Zimbabwe
Namibia
Malawi
France
Morocco
Libya
Iraq
Italy
UK
Nigeria
Australia
singapore
India
Singapore
Tanzania
54%
11%
7%
58%
14%
6%
6%
48%
18%
17%
7%
27%
24%
13%
12%
12%
35%
13%
12%
6%
42%
18%
11%
50%
52
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Articles of lead exported from Africa, major exporters and partners:2000-2006
Product Name
8.1
Lead waste & scraps
(HS 780200)
8.2
Lead bars, rods, profiles
and wire (HS 780300)
8.3
Lead plates, sheets,
strip and foil; lead
powders and flakes (HS
7804)
Quantity
(tones)
5028
Percent
of Total
<1
3,120
<1
5,957
<1
Exporter
%
Cote d'Ivoire
5
Botswana
South Africa
4
32
Morocco
29
Kenya
7
South Africa
63
Zambia
13
Ethiopia
8.4
8.5
Lead tubes, pipes and
tube or pipe fittings
(HS 7805)
Articles of Lead, nes
(HS 7806)
447
4,687
<1
<1
South Africa
4
68
Namibia
17
Kenya
6
South Africa
69
Ghana
9
Partner of
Trade
India
Belgium
Saudi Arabia
%
South Africa
100
61
20
12
Angola
50
Zimbabwe
23
Zambia
10
Mozambique
United
Kingdom
5
48
Spain
48
Ethiopia
39
India
26
Rwanda
18
Zambia
77
France
10
South Africa
United
Kingdom
50
Bulgaria
22
India
United Arab
Emirates
58
Sri Lanka
9
Zambia
84
Angola
7
Seychelles
2
Angola
87
South Africa
13
22
24
Equatorial Guinea 66
Tanzania
23
Uganda
9
Zambia
76
Mozambique
9
Spain
29
United Kingdom
22
53
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cadmium, lead and mercury
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Map 5.2a: Import flow of major products containing lead to Africa
Map 5.2b: Import flow of major products containing lead to Africa
Electric accumulators for vehicles
Pencils
Lead ore and concentrates
unwrought lead
Data processing machines
Electric accumulators for non vehicles
54
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cadmium, lead and mercury
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Trade trend of products containing lead
150. The trend of import and export trade of products containing lead is shown in Table 5.2-i and
Figure 5.2-c. The general trend seems to be increasing from the period 2000 to 2006 with the
maximum trade transaction carried out in the year 2004. The sudden increase is mainly
contributed by the major imports of unwrought lead carried out in the same year by Namibia
from South Africa, and export of lead ore and concentrates in 2005 by South Africa to China,
and automatic data processing machines (computers) by Namibia to South Africa in 2004 (see
Table 5.2-h and Table 5.2-i).
151. China
is increasingly capturing the import market share of products containing lead in Africa.
For example the import market share of automatic data processing machines (computers) to
South Africa by China in the year 2002 was 8 percent, in 2003 which went up to 35 percent in
2006 taking over the market from United Kingdom with the market share reduced from 20
percent in 2002 to 5 percent in 2006 . The same as the market share of the import of automatic
data processing machines to Algeria which is the second importer of the product has been
captured by China increasing yearly from 9 percent in 2002 to 30 percent in 2006 taking over
the market from United Kingdom and France whose market share dropped from 12 percent in
2000 to 5 percent in 2006 and 26 percent in 2000 to 10 in 2006 respectively.
Table 5.2-i: Trade trend of total products containing lead in Africa
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Total
Import/Kg
107,366,644
199,558,742
173,022,338
201,663,885
978,688,738
284,498,234
176,722,338
2,121,520,919
Export/Kg
230,441,704
127,775,820
203,428,808
191,483,962
1,868,502,564
748,204,751
101,823,869
3,471,661,478
55
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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Import and export trend of products containing
Lead in Africa: 2000 - 2006
Weight (Kg)
2,000,000,000
1,500,000,000
Import/Kg
1,000,000,000
Export/Kg
500,000,000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
Figure 5.2-c: Import and export trend of products containing lead in Africa: 2000-2006
The trade trend and partners of specific products is further describes below:
Unwrought lead
152. Unwrought lead is shown as a major product imported into Africa and over 70 percent of this
is imported by Namibia from South Africa. The major importation happened in the year 2004
where almost 95 percent of the total amount was imported. However, the authenticity of this
data which was collected from the UN Comtrade data base is uncertain as the data was shown
only by Namibia as imports from South Africa however not shown by South Africa being the
partner in the trade in the same year. South Africa is the second major importer of unwrought
lead importing mainly from Australia and China.
153. The
total imported amount of unwrought lead to Africa for the period 2000-2006 is indicated
as about 50 percent of total volume of major products containing lead imported to Africa in the
same period (Table 5.2g). Unwrought lead also takes a third place of the major products
containing lead exported from Africa. Over 80 percent of which is exported by Morocco to
many partners including Spain (50 percent), Belgium (10 percent), Algeria (8 percent) and
Turkey (10 percent). South Africa also is the major exporter of this product taking 8 percent of
the total market share of the export of the product from Africa mainly to Belgium (33 percent),
Zimbabwe (29 percent) and India 20 percent. The product is also exported by Namibia taking 7
percent of the market share and exporting to Korea (73 percent) and China (26 percent) (see
Table 5.2-h).
154. The
trend of import of unwrought lead to Africa is increasing and maximized in the year 2004.
The export trend also increased during the period 2000 to 2006. The export trade is within the
continent. Figures 5.2-d and 5.2-e show the import and export trends of unwrought lead
respectively, during the period 2000 – 2006. Quantities of import and export of unwrought
lead to and from Africa is given in Table 5.2-j.
56
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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Table 5.2-j: Quantities of import & export of unwrought lead to Africa: 2000-2006
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Total
Import (Kg)
27,347,707
49,220,242
29,343,596
35,145,949
800,695,056
36,251,461
24,004,964
Export (Kg)
4,003,313
25,448,893
8,0999,191
67,036,357
21,998,073
62,565,689
77,901,474
1,002,008,795
339,952,990
IMPORT TREND OF UNWROUGHT LEAD TO AFRICA 2000-2006
900000
WEIGHT /TONNES
800000
700000
600000
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
YEAR
Figure: 5.2-d: Import trend of unwrought lead in Africa: 2000-2006
57
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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EXPORT TREND OF UNWROUGHT LEAD TO AFRICA 20002006
WEIGHT/TONNES
90000
80000
70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
YEAR
Figure: 5.2-e: Export trend of unwrought lead in Africa: 2000-2006
Automatic data processing machines (Computers)
155. Automatic data processing machines (computers) with 16 percent of the imports are the second
major imported products containing lead in Africa and South Africa being the major importer.
The major import partners of South Africa include China (29 percent), United Kingdom (9
percent), Ireland (8 percent), USA 8 percent and Germany (6 percent). Another major
importer is Algeria (13 percent), major partners being China (47 percent), France (9 percent)
and Germany (6 percent). Morocco (12 percent according to the data) is also major importer of
Computers in Africa. Her major partners being China (26 percent), USA (19 percent) and
France (12 percent).
156. At
the same time, automatic data processing machines (computers) tops the list of the major
exported products from Africa accounting for 53 percent of the total exports. The highest
exported volume of this product was reported by Namibia in 2004. The reported data
represents nearly 95 percent of the total exports of this product from Africa. 90 percent of the
total export of this product was exported by Namibia to South Africa in the year 2004. This is
basically trade within African countries. However the authenticity of the data could not be
verified as there were no such records in the UN-Comtrade showing South Africa as having
imported that huge amount of computers in the same year.
157. The
general import and export trend data for processing machines (computers) for the period
2000 to 2006 is increasing as shown in Figures 5.2-e and 5.2-f respectively. Imports tripled
within this period, increasing from about 28,000 tons in 2000 to about 76,000 tons in 2006.
However, exports from Africa are minimal increasing from about 1,000 tons in 2000 to about
1,800 tons in 2006. Reported quantities of trade flow of data processing machines (computers)
to and from Africa for the period 2000-2006 is shown in Table 5.2-k.
58
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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Table 5.2-k: Quantities of import & export of data processing machine (computers) in
Africa 2000-2006
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Total
Import/Kg
28,134,876
18,804,107
31,176,407
36,257,396
57,355,905
96,504,128
75,909,053
344,141,872
Export /Kg
1,156,689
138,158
435,327
372,009
1,695,554,311
1,847,511
1,829,722
1,701,333,727
IMPORT TREND OF DATA PROCESSING MACHINES TO AFRICA
2000-2006
WEIGHT/TONNES
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
IMPORT/TONNES
400000
200000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
YEAR
Figure 5.2-f: Import trend of data processing machines (Computers) 2000-2006
59
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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WEIGHT/TONNES
EXPORT TREND OF DATA PROCESSING MACHINES FROM
AFRICA 2000-2006
1800000
1600000
1400000
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
YEAR
Figure 5.2-g: Export trend of data processing machines (Computers) 2000-2006
Lead acid electric accumulators for vehicle
158. Lead acid electric accumulators (batteries) for vehicle are the third major imported products
containing lead to Africa which accounted for 10 percent of the total products containing lead.
The major importers include Algeria (14 percent) importing mainly from France (40 percent)
and China (24 percent). Another major importer is South Africa with 11 percent of the imports,
major partners being France (20 percent), Republic of South Korea (19 percent) and China 17
percent. Ghana accounts for 10 percent of the imports importing mainly from China (30
percent) and Indonesia (26 percent).
159. The
product is also the fourth among the major exported products from Africa and the major
exporters being South Africa (56 percent) exporting to UK (54 percent) and Mozambique(11
percent), Tunisia (14 percent) exporting to Morocco (58 percent) and Botswana (11 percent)
exporting to South Africa (48 percent) Zimbabwe (18 percent) and Namibia (17 percent)
160. Import
trade of this product has been tremendously increasing over the years from 2000-2006
while export has been decreasing as shown in Figure 5.2-h below. Reported data of import
and export for this product during 2000 – 2006 is given in Table 5.2- l
60
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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Table 5.2-l: Quantities of import and export of lead acid electric accumulator for vehicles
into and from Africa 2000-2006
Import (Kg)
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Total
Export (Kg)
9,364,847
2,078,484
1,928,336
1,617,290
15,195,846
11,366,542
2,485,668
44,037,013
14,177,953
16,490,227
23,277,042
33,044,866
40,430,016
51,255,714
26,903,455
205,579,273
IMPORT AND EXPORT TREND OF LEAD BATTERRIES FOR
VEHICLE TO AND FROM AFRICA 2000-2006
60000000
WEIGHT/KG
50000000
40000000
EXPORT/ KG
30000000
IMPORT( KG)
20000000
10000000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
YEAR
Figure 5.2-h: Trade trend of import and export of lead acid electrical accumulators for
vehicle 2000-2006
61
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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Lead ores and concentrates
161. Lead ores and concentrates are the second most exported products from Africa and fourth most
imported lead product. The major exporter of this product is South Africa exporting 80 percent
of the total volume and exporting to China (61 percent) and Belgium (21 percent). Morocco
exported 10 percent of the total volume of lead ore and concentrates to among others, Bulgaria
(38 percent) and Italy 924 percent). Tunisia contributed 5 percent of the total exports of this
product and its export partners included Morocco (27 percent) and Germany (22 percent). The
three exporting countries are also the major producers of mine and refined lead in Africa. At
the same time, the major importer of this product in Africa is Morocco importing almost 100
percent of the total volume imported to Africa. The product is mainly imported from Ireland
(59 percent), Brazil (15 percent) and Poland (14 percent).
162. Generally the
trend of imports of this product is increasing every year while exports are almost
constant except in year 2005 where-by a big increase in export was recorded. The increase
was mainly due to reported data from South Africa in 2005. The figure accounted for almost
(90 percent) of the total exported volume of this product from Africa within the period 2000 –
2006. The export was mainly to China. However the data from China show a different figure
of import from South Africa in the same year. South Africa reported in 2005 a total amount of
536,000,000 Kg as exports to China while China reported only 27, 528,144 Kg as imports of
that product from South Africa in the same year. The authenticity of the data could not be
verified in this study. Figures 5.2-i and 5.2-j show the trade trend of import and export of lead
ores and concentrates respectively during 2000 – 2006. The trade data is given in Table 5.2- m.
Table 5.2-m: Quantities of export and import of lead ore & concentrate in Africa region
2000-2006
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Total
Import (Kg)
10,369
91,599
47,710,623
57,874,484
21,325,765
40,974,638
380
167,987,858
Export (Kg)
120,607,488
88,361,643
111,407,647
113,767,964
119,996,933
651,646,832
79,110
1,205,867,617
62
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
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AMOUNT IN
KILOGRAMME (KG)
IMPORT QUANTITIES OF LEAD ORE
&CONCETRATE TO AFRICA (2000-2006)
70,000,000
60,000,000
50,000,000
40,000,000
30,000,000
20,000,000
10,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
YEAR
Figure 5.2-i: Import trend of import of lead ore& concentrate to Africa
QUANTITY IN
KILOGRAMMES ( KG)
EXPORT QUANTITIES OF LEAD ORE &
CONCETRATE FROM AFRICA (2000-2006)
700,000,000
600,000,000
500,000,000
400,000,000
300,000,000
200,000,000
100,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
YEAR
Figure 5.2-j: Export trend of export of lead ores & concentrates from Africa
63
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Lead pencils, crayons
163. Lead pencils and crayons is the product commonly used in almost all African countries. It is
the fifth most imported product in Africa and the major importer of this product is
Mozambique (28 percent) followed by South Africa (16 percent). Major import partners of
Mozambique being United Arab Emirates (10 percent) and Denmark (4 percent). The product
is mainly imported by South Africa from China (62 percent).
164. The
import trend of this product to Africa has increased during the period 2000 to 2006 while
exports have remained almost constant during the same period (see Figure 5.2-k and Figure
5.2-l). 40 percent of the total imported volume of this product was reported in 2001. The
quantities of this product imported into and exported from Africa are indicated in Table 5.2-n.
Table 5.2-n: Quantities of import and export of lead pencils and crayons into Africa:
2000-2006
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Total
Import/Kg
14,628,593
96,299,521
20,952,984
21,223,815
36,311,143
30,202,600
24,246,586
243,865,242
Export /Kg
1,520,259
2,055,945
975,565
903,440
1,188,322
911,778
1,203,798
8,759,106
60000000
50000000
40000000
30000000
20000000
10000000
0
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
AMOUNT
KILOGRAMMES(KG)
IMPORT TRADE TREND OF LEAD
PENCILS TO AFRICA( 2000-2006)
YEAR
Figure 5.2-k: Import trend of lead pencils into Africa: 2000 - 2006
64
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cadmium, lead and mercury
.
AMOUNT IN
KILOGRAMME (KG)
EXPORT TRADE TREND OF LEAD
PENCILS FROM AFRICA 2000-2006
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
YEAR
Figure 5.2-l: Export trade trend of Lead pencils from Africa
Lead acid electric accumulators other than for vehicles
165. Lead electric accumulators for other uses than for vehicle is the sixth most imported lead
product to Africa taking 3 percent of the total imports volume of products containing lead into
Africa. The product is imported mainly by South Africa (52 percent) importing from China 24
percent, France 23 percent, United States of America11 percent and United Kingdom 8
percent. The product is also imported by Nigeria 9 percent from China (44 percent) and
Germany (32 percent).
166. The
product is also the fifth most exported product from Africa taking 1 percent of the total
exported volume of products containing lead. It is mainly exported from Tunisia which
accounts for 54 percent of the total export volume of the product and South Africa takes 26
percent of the market share. The major export partners of South Africa include United
Kingdom which accounts for 35 percent of the market share, Nigeria (13 percent), Australia
(12 percent) and Singapore (6 percent). Kenya also is exporting 6 percent of the total exports
of this product from Africa and is exporting to India (42 percent), Singapore (18 percent) and
Tanzania (11 percent). The trade trend has been increasing over the years for both export and
import as indicated in Figure 5.2-m. The reported trade data is given in Table 5.2-o
Table 5.2-o: Volume of lead acid electric accumulators other than for vehicles
Year
Import (Kg)
Export (Kg)
2000
7,304,471
6418922
2001
3,466,845
2,406,056
2002
2,682,259
2018495
2003
4,332,174
2,597,477
2004
8,917,512
7,110,919
2005
12,542,108
9,984,017
2006
14,743,879
6,521,525
Total
53,989,248
37,057,441
65
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
.
IMPORT AND EXPORT TREND OF LEAD BATTERIES OTHER THAN FOR
VEHICLE TO AND FROM AFRICA 2000-2006
WEIGHT/KG
16000000
14000000
12000000
10000000
8000000
IMPORT /KG
EXPORT /KG
6000000
4000000
2000000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
YEAR
Figure 5.2-m: Export and import trade trend of lead acid electric accumulators other than for
vehicle 2000-2006
Antiknock preparations based on lead
167. Antiknock
preparations is the seventh most imported product in Africa taking 2 percent of the
total imported volume of products containing lead into Africa. It is mainly imported by South
Africa (70 percent) from United Kingdom (89 percent), Russia (4 percent), Germany (4
percent) and the Netherlands (2 percent).
168. The
trade trend of import of antiknock preparation to and from Africa has tremendously
decreased over the recent years. This is because most of the countries are banning the use of
leaded gasoline and the leaded antiknock preparations are slowly being replaced by other less
harmful products to the environment. Figure 5.2-n below shows the import trend between year
2000 and 2006.
Table 5.2-p: Quantities of import and export of antiknock preparations into and from
Africa: 2000-2006
Year
Import (Kg)
Export (Kg)
2000
11,900,480
1,707
2001
6,313,456
47,163
2002
10,848,630
69,274
2003
7,886,113
82,524
2004
9,417,480
53,924
2005
6,860,311
80,677
2006
989,329
178,713
Total
54,215,799
513,982
66
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Import trend of antiknock preparations into Africa:
2000-2006
14,000,000
Weight (Kg)
12,000,000
10,000,000
8,000,000
6,000,000
4,000,000
2,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
Year
Figure 5.2-n: Import trend of antiknock preparations into Africa 2000-2006
Articles of lead ( bars, scrap, steel products )
169. Articles
of products containing lead including lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead powders
and flakes, lead bars, rods, profiles and wire; lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings; and
lead waste and scraps are mainly used for construction purposes. Zambia and Mozambique
were the biggest importers mostly from South Africa, whereby about 15,900 tonnes were
imported. Main exporters include Cote d'Ivoire and South Africa, their major export partners
being United Kingdom and other African countries..
170. The
trend of imports and exports over the period 2000-2006 is increasing as shown in Table
5.2-q and Figure 5.2-o. A total of about 15,000 tones were imported while the total exports
were more than 20,000 tones.
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Table 5.2-q: Volume of export and import of articles of lead for Africa 2000-2006
Year
Imports (Kg)
Export (Kg)
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
903,069
2,466,811
2,156,502
1,419,336
1,552,508
2,590,030
4,121,372
863,055
1,401,461
2,712,347
2,305,763
2,688,445
3,685,398
7,032,939
Total
15,209,628
20,689,408
Import and Export trend of Articles of Lead in
Africa: 2000 - 2006
8,000,000
Weight (Kg)
7,000,000
6,000,000
5,000,000
Imports
4,000,000
Exports
3,000,000
2,000,000
1,000,000
0
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
Year
Figure 5.2-o: Trade trend of articles of lead in Africa 2000-2006
68
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5.3
.
Products containing mercury
5.3.1 Global production
171. Mercury
is a natural component of the earth, with an average abundance of approximately
0.05mg/kg in the Earth’s crust, with significant local variations. Mercury ores that are mined
generally contain about one percent mercury, although the deposits in Spain typically contain
up to 12 -14 percent mercury. While about 25 principal mercury minerals are known, virtually
the only deposits that have been harvested for the extraction of mercury are cinnabar.
172. Mercury
is also present at very low levels through the biosphere. Its absorption by plant may
account for the presence of mercury within fossil fuels like coal, oil and gas, since these fuels
are conventionally thought to be formed from geological transformation of organic residue.
173. Mercury
production world-wide is summarized in Table 5.3a. Between year 2000 and 2003,
Algeria, Spain and Kyrgyzstan mined more than 90 percent of global mined mercury. Both
Algeria and Spain closed down the mercury plants in 2003 and are not expected to reopen.
Table 5.3-a:
Mercury produced from worldwide mining operations in metric tonnes.
Country/Region
Primary mercury (Virgin)
Secondary mercury
Year 2000
2000
2002
2003
Algeria
240
307
250
China
200
Finland
45
Peru
48
Spain
236
727
745
Kyrgyzstan
554
530
530
Tajikistan
40
50
Rusia/Siberia
Other
Total
1270
50
50
415
1614
1575
558
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5.3.2 Source and supply of mercury
174. The
mercury available on the world market is supplied from a number of different sources
including:
 Mine production of primary mercury;
 Recovered primary mercury from refining of natural gas;
 Reprocessing or secondary mining of historic mine tailings containing mercury;
 Recycled mercury recovered from spent products and waste from industrial production
processes;
 Mercury from government reserve stock or inventories; and
 Private stocks (such as mercury in use in chlor - alkali and other industries some of which may
later be returned to the market
.
175. The
key players in the international mercury trade include, among others, Kyrgyzstan, China,
South America, European Union as well as Algeria in Africa. Kyrgyzstan and China are the
two countries that continue to mine virgin mercury, and only Kyrgyzstan mines for export,
China uses all its virgin mercury for its own production. Both countries mine are all
government – sponsored or – owned and are heavily subsidized.
176. The
European Union supplies approximately 30 percent of the global mercury stock pile and is
involved in more than half the global trade in mercury, even though it accounts for only 10
percent of the world’s demand for mercury annually. China’s principal use of mercury is
thought to be in vinyl – chloride and battery manufacturing. India’s heaviest use is for her
mercury – based chlor – alkali plants. African and South American countries also use a large
and still growing amount of mercury in small – scale gold mining process in which mercury is
heated and released nearly in its entirety to the atmosphere.
177. Recycled
mercury has played an important role on the global market in recent decades. In
1982, the OECD estimated that the secondary production could be as much as 40 percent of
the primary production. Masters (1997)46 stated that 700 – 900 metric tonnes of mercury are
recycled globally every year, of which some 200 – 400 metric tonnes originate from spent
mercury containing products, and the rest come mainly from chlor – alkali facilities47. Among
the major recyclers include U.S.A, German, Denmark and Netherlands.
5.3.3 Global mercury trade
178. Following
the trail of mercury across multiple boarders can be difficult. A quantity of mercury
might be recovered from a Western European Mercury – cell chlor – alkali plant, sold to a
Spanish mercury mining and trading company, shipped to Germany for conversion into
mercuric oxide, and sold to mainland China for the manufacture of button – cell batteries. The
batteries could then be exported to Hong Kong for incorporation into mass – produced watches
that are then shipped to the United States of America or the European Union. This sort of
46
47
Masters, H. B. (1997): Metals & Minerals Annual review – 1997, Mercury, Mining Journal Ltd
UNEP Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002
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.
globetrotting traffic in mercury greatly diminishes the positive impact of rules that a developed
country may have put in place to eliminate source of mercury pollution within its boarders.
Existing methods for tracking mercury trade are inadequate, sometimes failing to provide
adequate or consistent data48
179. Among
the major mercury containing products traded globally includes batteries consuming
about 300 – 600 tonnes per year, measuring and control (largely medical sector) consuming
150-350 tonnes per year, electric and electronic switches consuming 150 -300 tonnes per year,
lighting consuming 100- 150 tonnes per year and cosmetics49 .
Trade patterns in Africa
Major traded products in Africa.
180. Among the major products containing mercury traded in Africa which were analyzed in this
study includes primary cells, elemental mercury, electric discharge lamps,
hydrometers/thermometers/barometers, fluorescent lamps, mercury/sodium discharge lamps,
thermionic cold cathode valves and tubes, electrical switches/ relays, radio and television
transmitters and organo mercury compounds.
181. In
the course of analyzing the data, it was noted that organo mercury compounds are no longer
traded in Africa as the products were last imported by Cape Verde in 1994; hence the product
was eliminated from the study list.
182. Table
5.3-b shows the ranking of the major imported products, the major importers as well as
the trade partners while Table 5.3-c shows the major exported products including the
importers, exporters and their partners. Map 5e and Map 5f illustrate the trade movements of
the same products.
183. The import
volume of products containing mercury in Africa (excluding switches/relay) for the
period of 2000-2005 is shown in Figure 5.3-a while Figure 5.3-b shows the market share of
the imports (including switches/relays) during the same period. Figure 5.3-c shows the market
share of exports during the same period.
48
Issues: International issues, last revision
49
UNEP, An overview of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury, August 2007
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Table 5.3-b: Major products containing mercury imported into Africa with major importers and
Partners
Product Name
1
2
3
4
5
Weight
(Kgs)
Electric switch/relay
(SITC 772)
Radio/TV
transmitters.
(HS92-8525)
71,759,845
Florescent lamps
(HS92- 853931)
Thermionic
cathode
(HS96- 8540)
Mercury/
sodium lamps
(HS92- 853932)
11,309,086,167
cold
48,552,281
26,214,694
5,561,210
% total
Importer
%
Partner
%
**
Kenya
88%
Mozambique
6%
South Africa
22%
Denmark
Germany
Belgium
China
Japan
Swaziland
Finland
Rep. of Korea
Germany
86%
10%
1%
39%
28%
27%
16%
14%
14%
Morocco
15%
Nigeria
11%
France
Sweden
China
Finland
United Kingdom
USA
Germany
22%
18%
11%
11%
34%
46
31
16
3
Tunisia
11%
Sudan
19%
South Africa
13%
Morocco
12%
Tunisia
59%
Algeria
24%
South Africa
13%
Ethiopia
Algeria
41%
25%
South Africa
9%
France
Sweden
Japan
China
Indonesia
China
Germany
USA
China
Hungary
Poland
China
Poland
Turkey
China
France
Rep.of Korea
Rep. of Korea
China, Hong Kong
Brazil
India
China
Germany
Hungary
China
Japan
Germany
22%
8%
33%
17%
14%
97%
2%
39%
16%
9%
55%
14%
13%
28%
17%
16%
56%
16%
11%
49%
24%
24%
99%
55%
19%
12%
25%
21%
18%
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6
7
8
Hydrometer/
thermometer
barometers
(HS92 – 9025).
Primary cells.
(HS02- 850630)
Elemental Mercury
(HS02- 280540)
5,094,747
1,420,793
629,710
3
1
0
South Africa
15%
Algeria
14%
Nigeria
10%
Namibia
52%
Ethiopia
16%
Zambia
7%
Botswana
Mozambique
43%
13%
South Africa
12%
Germany
Belgium
USA
France
China
Italy
China
Germany
United Kingdom
South Africa
China
China
29%
22%
11%
24%
24%
14%
21%
17%
16%
97%
2%
100%
China
South Africa
Other Asia
South Africa
Germany
50%
29%
19%
100%
100%
Spain
Finland
Kyrgyzstan
28%
27%
17%
.
** Excluded in the calculations
Table 5.3-c: Major products containing mercury exported from Africa, major exporters and
partners
S/N
Name of product.
Weight (Kgs)
% total
Exporter
%
Partner
%
1
Electric switch/relays
(SITC 772)
124,890,004
**
Tunisia
49%
South
Africa
26%
Morocco
20%
Mauritius
30%
France
Italy
Germany
Mozambique
Zambia
Zimbabwe
France
Germany
Switzerland
United
Arab
Emirates
Italy
France
Australia
Denmark
USA
France
51%
23%
16%
15%
14%
7%
67%
7%
7%
64%
Zimbabwe
Mozambique
USA
Syria
Iraq
Zambia
41%
21%
9%
63%
16%
7%
2
Radio/TV
transmitters.
(HS92-8525)
4,131,578
55
South.
Africa
Cote
Ivoire
3
Fluorescent lamps
(HS92- 853931)
1,410,572
19
25%
d
24%
South
Africa
18%
Egypt
4%
18%
4%
18%
7%
6%
99%
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4
5
6
7
8
Mercury
(HS02- 280540)
Thermionic
cathode
(HS96- 8540).
1,242,981
cold
Mercury or sodium
vapour lamps
(HS92- 853932)
Primary cells.
(HS02- 850630)
Hydrometers/
thermometer
/Barometers
(HS92 – 9025).
328,172
181,697
173,746
146,368
16
4
2
2
2
Algeria
83%
South
Africa
8%
Swaziland
4%
Tunisia
55%
South
Africa
19%
Zimbabwe
13%
Belgium
India
Netherlands
Saudi Arabia
Zimbabwe
Netherlands
South Africa
49%
21%
13%
47%
22%
21%
100%
Algeria
Rep. of Korea
France
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Mozambique
United
Arab
Emirates
Turkey
South Africa
Libya
Areas nes
France
80%
14%
3%
53%
14%
5%
73%
Zambia
Angola
Zimbabwe
Angola
22%
13%
12%
99%
.
19%
7%
88%
5%
4%
Tunisia
91%
South
Africa
5%
Namibia
84%
Kenya
14%
Tanzania
Sudan
98%
2%
Togo
2%
France
100%
South
Africa
22%
Tanzania
Zimbabwe
Mozambique
17%
12%
11%
Nigeria
15%
Areas nes
Angola
91%
9%
Mauritius
12%
Italy
Hungary
Belgium
83%
14%
1%
** Excluded in the calculations
74
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Table 5.3-d: Import/ export volume products containing mercury into and from Africa:
2000-2005
Product
Electric switch relay circuit (SITC 772)
Radio and TV transmitters, television cameras
(HS 8525)
Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode (HS 853931)
Thermionic and cold cathode valves and tubes
(HS 8540)
Sodium or vapour lamps (HS 853932)
Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers (HS 9025)
Primary cells & primary batteries, mercuric oxide (HS
850630)
Mercury (HS 280540)
Ash or residues (excl. from mfr. of iron/steel) containing
mainly arsenic/mercury/thallium/their mixtures (HS
262060)
Total
Total Imports
(Kg)
11,309,086,167
Total Exports
(Kg)
124,890,004
71,759,845
48,552,281
4,131,578
1,410,572
328,172
26,214,694
5,561,210
5,094,747
181,697
146,368
173,746
1,420,793
629,710
1,242,981
4,077
11,468,323,524
7,461
132,512,579
Imports of products containing mercury into Africa: 2000 - 2005
(excluding switch relays)
Hydrometers, etc.
(HS 9025)
3%
Primary cells, etc
(HS 850630)
1%
Sodium or vapour
lamps (HS
853932)
3%
Thermionic and
cold cathode
valves & tubes
(HS 8540)
16%
Mercury
(HS 280540)
0%
Radio and TV
transmitters, etc.
(HS 8525)
46%
Fluorescent
lamps, etc. (HS
853931)
31%
Figure 5.3-a: Imports of products containing mercury (excluding switches) into Africa:
2000 - 2005
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Imports of products containing mercury into Africa:
2000 - 20005 (including switches/relays)
Others (Radio & TV
transmitters,
Fluorescent lamps,
etc.)
1%
Electric switch
relay circuit
99%
Figure 5.3-b: Imports of products containing mercury (including switches) into Africa:
2000 - 2005
Exports of products containing mercury from Africa (including
electric switch/relays): 2000 - 2005
Fluorescent
lam ps
1%
Mercury
1%
Others
1%
Radio and TV
transm itters
3%
Electric switch
relay circuit
94%
Figure 5.3-c: Exports of products containing mercury (including switches) from Africa:
2000 – 2005
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Exports of products containing mercury from Africa:
2000 - 2005 (excluding switch relay)
Sodium or vapour
lamps
2%
Thermionic and cold
cathode valves and
tubes
4%
Mercury
16%
Fluorescent lamps,
hot cathode
19%
Primary cells &
primary batteries,
mercuric oxide
2%
Hydrometers,
thermometers,
barometers
2%
Ash or residues (HS
262060)
0%
Radio and TV
transmitters,
television cameras
55%
Figure 5.3-d: Exports of products containing mercury (excluding switches) from Africa:
2000 - 2005
Map 5e: Trade flow of major mercury products imported into Africa, importers and their
partners
Electric switch/ relays
Radio/TV transmitters
Thermionic cold cathode
Hydrometre/Thermometres
77
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cadmium, lead and mercury
Fluorescent lamps
.
Mercury
Map 5f: Trade flow of major mercury products exported from Africa, exporters and
their partners
Electric switch/ relays
Radio/TV transmitters
Fluorescent lamps
Thermionic cold cathode
Hydrometre/Thermometres
Mercury
Trade trend of products containing mercury in Africa
184. The general trade trend for products containing mercury in Africa from year 2000-2005 is
increasing. The imports reported in 2005 have increased by over 70 percent as compared to the
quantities reported in 2000 while exports in 2005 have almost doubled compared to those
reported in the year 2000. Table 5.3-e below shows the reported trade quantities of products
containing mercury in Africa while Figures 5.3-e and 5.3-f show the import and export trends
respectively, during the period 2000 and 2005.
Table 5.3-e. Trade trend of products containing mercury: 2000 - 2005.
Year
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Imports (Kg)
113,109,636
708,944,991
9,168,217,286
1,076,383,999
203,726,132
197,941,480
Exports (Kg)
15,559,780
16,995,114
19,475,283
22,965,753
27,167,926
30,348,723
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cadmium, lead and mercury
Total
11,468,323,524
.
132,512,579
Imports of products containing mercury into
Africa: 2000 - 2005
Weight (kg)
10,000,000,000
8,000,000,000
6,000,000,000
4,000,000,000
2,000,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-e: Import trend of products containing mercury: 2000 - 2005
Exports of products containing mercury from
Africa: 2000 - 2005
35,000,000
Weight (Kg)
30,000,000
25,000,000
20,000,000
15,000,000
10,000,000
5,000,000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-f: Export trend of products containing mercury: 2000 - 2005
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185. Table
5.3-e and Figure 5.3-e show that import of products containing mercury picked up to
maximum point in 2002. This was mainly due to very large amount of reported imports of
electrical switches by Kenya from Denmark in the same year. However, the correctness of this
data in the UN Comtrade could not be verified beyond reasonable doubts since the importing
partner (Denmark) did not report the same figure in 2002.
186. Generally
the exports of products containing mercury into Africa were minimal but growing
throughout the period of 2000-2005. Import and export quantities of major products containing
mercury in Africa are shown in Table 5.3-f and Table 5.3-g respectively.
Table 5.3-f: Import quantities of products containing mercury : 2000-2005 (Kg)
IMPORT
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
TOTAL
Electrical switch/rela
87,938,874
691,501,126
9,143,644,723
1,054,850,866
173,026,808
158,123,770
11,309,086,167
Radio/TV transmitter
11,334,193
6,963,940
5,717,941
11,742,979
14,225,178
21,775,614
71,759,845
Fluorescent lamps
5,711,115
4,435,829
14,977,865
6,134,232
6,300,496
10,992,744
48,552,281
Themionic cold cath
6,807,510
4,517,139
2,371,397
2,056,787
5,848,611
4,613,250
26,214,694
Mercury/Sodium lam
467,258
482,068
497,817
586,288
2,877,686
650,093
5,561,210
Hydrometers, etc
654,525
865,558
675,704
698,791
1,019,901
1,180,268
5,094,747
0
0
248,184
272,855
342,048
557,706
1,420,793
196,161
179,331
83,655
41,201
85,403
43,959
629,710
0
0
0
0
1
4,076
4,077
113,109,636
708,944,991
9,168,217,286
1,076,383,999
203,726,132
197,941,480
11,468,323,524
Primary Cells
Mercury
Ash or residues
TOTAL
Table 5.3-g: Export quantities of products containing mercury:2000-2005 (Kg)
EXPORT
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
TOTAL
Electrical switch/rela
Radio/TV
transmitter
Fluorescent lamps
Themionic cold cath
Mercury/Sodium
lam
Hydrometers, etc
Primary Cells
Mercury
Ash or residues
TOTAL
14,544,004
16,423,113
18,579,248
22,073,317
25,907,656
27,362,666
124,890,004
573,769
115,212
127,856
73,997
86,683
58,414
137,824
284,960
11,503
292,776
277,731
5,698
648,686
336,835
94,387
2,404,526
309,151
30,314
4,131,578
1,410,572
328,172
7,523
17,471
0
173,945
0
15,559,780
26,108
14,131
0
312,668
0
16,995,114
1,236
10,171
55,595
393,740
1,006
19,475,283
34,280
27,479
42,167
211,573
732
22,965,753
10,942
17,790
50,754
99,442
1,434
27,167,926
101,608
59,326
25,230
51,613
4,289
30,348,723
187.
181,697
146,368
173,746
1,242,981
7,461
132,512,579
Description on the trade trend and movements of each major product containing mercury in
Africa including the major importers/exporters and their partners are further given below:
80
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Primary cells
188. The share of primary cells compared to other mercury products is minimal 1-2 percent.
Primary cells are mainly imported into Africa by Namibia which accounted for 52 percent of
the market, the major importing partner being South Africa which contributed almost 97
percent of the imports. On the other hand, Namibia commands 84 percent of the exports of this
product mainly trading with Angola 99 percent.
189. Reported
data show that imports increased gradually between 2000 and 2005 while exports
decreased by 50 percent in 2005 as compared to 2001 (see Figures 5.3-g and 5.3h).
Import trend of Primary cells, ect (HS 850630) into
Africa: 2000 - 2005
600000
Weight (Kg)
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
2000
2001
2003
2002
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-g: Import trend of primary cells: 2000 - 2005
81
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cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Export trend of Primary cells, etc (HS 850630)
from Africa: 2000 - 2005
60000
Weight (Kg)
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-h: Export trend of primary cells: 2000 - 2005
Mercury
186. The largest amount of elemental mercury imported into Africa during 2000 – 2005 was
reported by Botswana which accounted for 43 percent of the import market, importing mainly
from South Africa (100 percent) between 2000 and 2002. Reported import data from Botswana
between 2003 and 2005 is negligible. Other countries which reported import of mercury
between 2000 and 2005 include Kenya (9 percent), Morocco (1.4 percent), Mozambique (12.7
percent), South Africa (11.9 percent), Swaziland (7 percent), Togo (8.1 percent), United
Republic of Tanzania (0.96 percent) and Zimbabwe (3.5 percent). Quantities of imports and
exports of mercury between 2000 and 2005 are shown above in Table 5.3f and Table 5.3g
respectively.
187. Export
of elemental mercury during the same period was dominated by Algeria (which has
mercury mines) commanding 83 percent of the market and the major export partners being
Belgium (49 percent) and India (21 percent).
188. The
market share of exported mercury compared to other products is 16 percent. The general
trade (import/export) trend of mercury into Africa is declining throughout the reviewed period
as shown in Figures 5.3-i and 5.3-j.
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Import trend of Mercury (HS 280540) into Africa:
2000 - 2005
Weight (Kg)
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-i: Trend of imports of elemental mercury into Africa: 2000 - 2005.
Export trend of Mercury (HS 280540) from Africa:
2000 - 2005
Weight (Kg)
500000
400000
300000
200000
100000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-j: Trend of exports of elemental mercury from Africa: 2000 - 2005.
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Hydrometers/Thermometers/Barometers
189. Hydrometer/thermometer/barometers, compared to other products containing mercury
command 3 percent of the market share. The main importer is South Africa accounting to 15
percent of the market share importing from Germany (29 percent), Belgium (22 percent) and,
USA (11 percent). Another major importer of this product is Algeria commanding 14 percent
importing from France (24 percent), China (24 percent) and Italy (14 percent).
190. The
main exporter of measuring instruments containing mercury was South Africa which
accounted for 22 percent of the market share. The major export partners include Tanzania (17
percent), Zimbabwe (12 percent) and Mozambique (11 percent).
general trade (import/export) trend of the product over the period 2000 – 2005 is
increasing as shown in Figures 5.3-k and Figure 5.3-l.
191. The
Import trend of Hydrometers,etc. (HS 9025) into
Africa: 2000 - 2005
1400000
Weight (Kg)
1200000
1000000
800000
600000
400000
200000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-k: Import trend of hydrometers/thermometers/barometers: 2000-2005
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Export trend of Hydrometers,etc. (HS 9025) from
Africa: 2000 - 2005
70000
Weight (Kg)
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-l: Export trend of hydrometers/thermometers/barometers: 2000-2005
Fluorescent lamps
194. Fluorescent lamps are among the major products containing mercury imported into Africa.
This product accounts for 31 percent of the market share, the major importer being Sudan
commanding 19 percent of the imports and the major exporting partner being China (97
percent). The second major importer of fluorescent lamps in Africa is South Africa which
takes 13 percent of the imports, also importing mainly from China (39 percent).
195. The
major exporter on the other hand is South Africa with 18 percent of the market exporting
mainly to Zimbabwe (41 percent) and Mozambique (21 percent).
trade trend of this product over the period 2000 – 2005 was generally increasing although
the export quantities were minimal compared to imports as shown in Figures 5.3-m and Figure
5.3-n.
196. The
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Weight (Kg)
Import trend of Fluorescent lamps (HS 853931)
into Africa: 2000 - 2005
16000000
14000000
12000000
10000000
8000000
6000000
4000000
2000000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-m: Import trend of fluorescent lamps: 2000 - 2005
Weight (Kg)
Export trend of Fluorescent lamps (HS 853931)
from Africa: 2000 - 2005
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
50000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-n: Export trend of fluorescent lamps: 2000 - 2005
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Mercury/Sodium lamp
197. This product is least traded in Africa. It only accounted for 3 percent of the market share. The
main importer of this product is Ethiopia with 41 percent of the market share and mainly
importing from India 99 percent). The second major importer was noted to be Algeria
accounting for 25 percent of the imports and importing mainly from China (55 percent).
198. Tunisia
also appeared to be the main exporter commanding 91 percent of the market and
exporting mainly to Libya (88 percent).
199. The
trade (import/export) trend show a general gradual increase over the period 2000 to 2005
except in 2004 when it picked to a maximum (see Figure 5.3-o). The sharp increase in 2004
was mainly due to reported import data from South Africa, the major partners in that year
being China (about 35 percent), Japan (about 17 percent), Germany (about 16 percent),
Belgium (about 10 percent) and Hungary about 9 percent). The export trend was almost
constant throughout the period.
Import trend of mercury or sodium vapour lamps
(HS 853932) into Africa: 2000 - 2005
3500000
Weight (Kg)
3000000
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-o: Import trend of mercury/sodium lamp: 2000 – 2005
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Export trend of mercury or sodium vapour lamps
(HS 853932) from Africa: 2000 - 2005
120000
Weight (Kg)
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Fig 5.3-p: Export trend of mercury/sodium lamp: 2000 - 2005
Thermionic cold cathode valves and tubes
200. The main importer of the product was noted to be Tunisia commanding 59 percent, importing
from China (28 percent) and Poland (17 percent) followed by Algeria which accounted for 24
percent of the market and importing 56 percent of it from China. On the other hand data
showed that Tunisia is the major exporter of this product with 55 percent of the market share
and the major exporting partners being Algeria (80 percent) and Republic of Korea (14
percent).
201. The
imports in 2005 declined to almost half the volume reported in 2000 (see Figure 5.3-q),
while exports on the other hand were minimal and decreasing during the same period as shown
in Figure 5.3-r.
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Weight (Kg)
Import trend of Thermionic cold cathod valves
and tubes (HS 8540) into Africa: 2000 - 2005
8000000
7000000
6000000
5000000
4000000
3000000
2000000
1000000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-q: Import trend of thermionic cold cathode valves and tubes: 2000-2005
Export trend of Thermionic cold cathode valves
and tubes (HS 8540) from Africa: 2000 - 2005
140000
Weight (Kg)
120000
100000
80000
60000
40000
20000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-r: Export trend of thermionic cold cathode valves and tubes: 2000-2005
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Electric switches/Relays
202. This is the most traded product in Africa. The major import of the product was Kenya
commanding 88 percent of the imports, importing from Denmark (86 percent).
203. The
main exporter was Tunisia commanding 49 percent exporting to France (51 percent) and
Italy (23 percent). The second major imported was noted to be South Africa which accounted
for 26 percent exporting to Mozambique (15 percent) and Zambia (14 percent). The general
trend of imports increased during the period 2000 to 2005. The highest volume of imports
occurred in 2002 due to reported data from Kenya. However, as pointed out earlier there could
be an error in posting figures of imports made by Kenya in year 2002 since the other partner
(Denmark) did not report the same figure.
204. The
exports though minimal compared to the imports also increased from about 14,500 tons in
2000 to about 27,000 tons in 2005 (see Table 5.3-f and Table 5.3-g). Figures 5.3-s and Figure
5.3-t below shows the import and export trends of electric switches and relays into and from
Africa during the period 2000 – 2005 respectively.
Import trend of electric switch/relay circuits
(SITC 772) into Africa: 2000 - 2005
Weight (Kg)
10000000000
8000000000
6000000000
4000000000
2000000000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-s: Import trend of electric switches/relays: 2000-2005
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Export trend of electric switch/relay circuits
(SITC 772) from Africa: 2000 - 2005
30000000
Weight (Kg)
25000000
20000000
15000000
10000000
5000000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3-t: Export trend of electrical switches/relays: 2000-2005
Radio/ TV transmitters
205. This is another well traded product in Africa. The major importer of the product is South
Africa accounting for 22 percent of the market. The major importing partners include Finland
(16 percent) and Republic of Korea (14 percent). Other major importers include Morocco,
Nigeria and Tunisia which imported mainly from France, United Kingdom, and Sweden.
took the lion’s share in exports commanding 30 percent and major export partner
being United Arab Emirates (64 percent). South Africa (26 percent) took the second position in
exports of this product and exported mainly to Australia.
206. Mauritius
207. Both
the import and export of this product showed an increasing trend between 2000 and 2005
(see Figures 5.3-u and 5.3-v).
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Import trend of Radio & TV transmitters (HS 8525)
into Africa: 2000 - 2005
Weight (Kg)
25000000
20000000
15000000
10000000
5000000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3 u: Import trend of radio/ TV transmitters: 2000 – 2005
Export trend of Radio & TV transmitters (HS 8525)
from Africa: 2000 - 2005
3000000
Weight (Kg)
2500000
2000000
1500000
1000000
500000
0
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
Year
Figure 5.3 v: Export trend of radio/ TV transmitters: 2000 - 2005
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6.0 ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND INITIATIVES FOR
COLLECTION, RECYCLING AND DISPOSAL OF USED
PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY IN
AFRICA
208. This
section provides examples of existing environmentally sound management strategies and
practices put in place by the different African governments for the environmentally sound
collection, recycling and disposal of used products containing cadmium, lead and mercury.
The section focuses on existing country policies, legislations and programmes for prevention
and control of wastes containing cadmium, lead and mercury. It also provides information on
local, international, regional and sub-regional initiatives taken by governments and other
stakeholders that are geared towards the prevention and control of waste containing cadmium,
lead and mercury.
6.1
National Initiatives
209. General
overviews of the different types of environmental management measures implemented
by various States in the world to control the effects of cadmium, lead and mercury in the entire
life-cycle (i.e. production, use and disposal) are documented in the UNEP Draft final reviews
of scientific information on lead and cadmium50 while initiatives for the control of the effects
of mercury are provided in the Global Mercury Assessment Report 51. These prevention and
control measures and the States in which they are being implemented are reproduced in Table
6.1
50
51
UNEP Review of Scientific Information on Lead and Cadmium
Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002
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Table 6.1: Overview of implemented measures related to cadmium, lead and mercury
TYPE AND AIM OF MEASURE
Production and Use Phase of Life-Cycle
POINT
Apply emission control technologies to limit
SOURCES emissions of cadmium, lead or mercury from
combustion of fossil fuels and processing of
mineral materials.
Prevent or limit the release of cadmium, lead or
mercury from industrial processes to the waste
treatment system and the environment
Prevent or limit the intentional use of mercury in
processes
Require use of best available technology to reduce
or prevent cadmium, lead or mercury releases
PRODUCTS
Prevent or limit products containing cadmium,
lead or mercury from being marketed nationally
Prevent products containing mercury from being
exported
Prevent the use of already purchased mercury and
mercury containing products
Limit the allowable content of cadmium or
mercury present as impurities in high volume
materials – e.g. in phosphate fertilizers
Limit the allowed contents of cadmium, lead or
mercury in commercial foodstuffs and feed.
STATE OF IMPLEMENTATION
Implemented in most countries
Implemented in many countries
General bans implemented in very few countries
Implemented in some countries, especially
OECD countries
General bans implemented in a few countries
only. Bans or limits on specific products are
more widespread, such as batteries, lighting and
clinical thermometers for mercury products:
some types of cadmium products including
pigments; and gasoline and paints for lead
products. In EU the use of lead has been
restricted or prohibited for use in electric and
electronic equipment as well as in vehicles.
Only implemented in a few countries
Only implemented in a few countries
Only implemented in a few countries
Implemented in some countries, especially
OECD countries. WHO guidelines are used by
some countries.
TYPE AND AIM OF MEASURE
STATE OF IMPLEMENTATION
Disposal Phase of Life-Cycle
Prevent cadmium, lead or mercury in products (especially batteries in Implemented in many countries, especially
cadmium and lead products) and process waste from being released OECD countries
directly to the environment, by efficient waste collection
Prevent cadmium, lead or mercury in products and process waste from Implemented in many countries, especially
being mixed with less hazardous waste in the general waste stream, by OECD countries
separate collection and treatment
Prevent or limit cadmium, lead or mercury releases to the Implemented or implementation is on-going in
environment from treatment (e.g. incineration) of household waste, many countries
hazardous waste and medical waste by emission control technologies
Set limit values for allowable cadmium, lead or mercury contents in Implemented in many countries
sewage sludge and other organic waste products used for land
application
Set limit values for cadmium, lead or mercury in solid incineration Implemented in few OECD countries
residues used in road-building, construction and other applications
Prevent the re-marketing of used, recycled mercury
Implemented only in a few countries
Source: UNEP Draft final scientific reviews on cadmium and Lead; UNEP Global Mercury Assessment Report.
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210. The
overall objective of these initiatives is to reduce or prevent the release of cadmium, lead or
mercury to the environment and avoid direct or indirect impact on human health and the
environment. The initiatives are grouped into four general groups:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Environmental quality standards or guidelines, specifying maximum acceptable
concentration of cadmium, lead or mercury for different concentrations (such as drinking
water, surface water, air, soil, and for food stuffs and feeds);
Environmental source actions and regulations that control cadmium, lead or mercury
release available technologies into the environment, including limits on air and water point
sources and promoting use of best available technologies and waste treatment and waste
disposal restrictions;
Product control actions and regulations for products containing cadmium, lead or
mercury; and
Other standards, actions and programmes, such as regulations or guidance on exposure
to lead in the workplace, requirements for information and reporting on use and releases of
cadmium, lead or mercury in industry and consumer safety measures.
211. Available
information has shown that no country has developed a comprehensive legislation
covering the whole life-cycle stages of cadmium, lead or mercury. Many countries,
particularly the OECD countries, have a number of actions and regulations covering specific
uses and releases. In most countries, legislations on releases and disposal of waste products
are often more general. They normally include other heavy metals, particulate matter (PM)
and/or specific inorganic and organic pollutants and not specific to cadmium, lead or mercury
containing products.
212. On
the other hand very few African countries have reported initiatives and future plans aiming
at the prevention or control of emissions of cadmium, lead and mercury to the environment and
its effects to human health and the environment. The following section describes some of the
existing initiatives reported by African countries. Most of these initiatives have been extracted
from the Appendices of the UNEP Draft final reviews of scientific information on lead and
cadmium; Global Mercury Assessment Report as well as the information submitted for this
study report. Responses submitted for this study have been summarized and provided in Annex
5A.
6.1.1 Environmental quality standards/guidelines
213. A
number of African countries have established standards setting maximum acceptable
concentration limits for heavy metals (including cadmium, lead and mercury) in a number of
media, such as water, air, soil and foodstuffs. Among these countries include, Ghana,
Mauritius, Morocco, Niger, and Nigeria. The limits vary from country to country52 as shown
in the Table 6.2.
52
UNEP Draft final scientific reviews on lead and cadmium – Appendices - , version of November 2008
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Table 6.2: Maximum acceptable concentration limits for cadmium and lead in different media
Country
Niger
Maximum acceptable concentration for different media
Water
Effluent
Air
Drinking water:
Pb: 0.05mg/l
Cd: 0.005mg/l
Nigeria
Morocco
Mauritius
Food / beverages
Max. contaminant level:
Pb: 0.015 mg/l (set by US EPA)
Cd: 0.005 mg/L (set by US EPA)
Drinking water:
Pb: 0.05mg/l
Cd: 0.005mg/l
Moroccan
Mediterranean
Coastal water –
Pb: 200 µg/l.
Cd: 500 µg/l.
Drinking water:
Pb: 0.01mg/l
Cd: 0.003mg/l
Coastal water:
Pb: 0.05 mg/l
Cd: 0.02mg/l
Inland surface
water:
Pb: 1.3 µg/l.
Cd: 0.7 µg/l
Effluent discharge standard:
Pb: 0.05 mg/l.
Cd: 0.01mg/l
Standards for effluent
discharge into the ocean:
Pb: 2 mg/l.
Cd: 0.02 mg/L
Ambient
air: 1.5
µg/m3 (3month
average).
Standards of effluent for use
in irrigation:
Pb: 2 mg/l.
Cd: 0.01 mg/l
Irrigation water:
Pb: 2.0 mg/l.
Cd: 0.01 mg/l.
Standards for discharge of
industrial effluent into a
waste water system:
Pb: 1 mg/l
Cd: 0.05 mg/l.
Ghana
Effluent discharges into
natural water bodies or
water courses:
Pb: 0.1mg/l
Cd: <0.1mg/l
Source: UNEP Interim Scientific Reviews on Cadmium and Lead – Appendices
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6.1.2 Environmental source control actions and regulations
214. In
Africa, only Mauritius, Morocco and Niger have reported to have regulations prescribing
maximum allowable releases of heavy metals and other pollutants from various types of point
sources to air, water and soil as follows;.
215. Mauritius.
Existing regulations include the Promulgation of the Road Traffic (control of
vehicle emissions) Regulations of November 2002 (GN No. 198 of 2002, and its amendments
of 2003 (GN No. 35 of 2003) which provide for registration of only petrol driven motor
vehicles capable of running on unleaded petrol. In order to monitor air pollution and content
of lead in the air, the ministry of Environment in Mauritius procured in March 2001 two
ambient air quality monitoring stations for their two Monitoring stations, one permanent and
one mobile.
216. Morocco.
Existing relevant regulations include the Law 03-03 on the prevention of air
pollution. The decree concerning the traffic defines arrangement for the prevention of
pollution due to transport. Revision of the characteristics-octane petrol was limited to 0.15g/l.
The reduction of lead and sulfur content in fuels for motor vehicles has contributed to the
reduction of some emissions of movable sources.
217. Niger.
Existing relevant regulations include the Law No. 98-56 of 29/12/1998 which supports
the framework law relating to environmental management; Order no. 89-24 of 8/12/1989
covers the ban on the import of industrial and toxic nuclear waste; and Order no.
140/MSP/LCE/DGSP/DS of 27/09/2004 establishes the standards for waste disposal in the
natural environment (maximum concentration of lead in effluent containing heavy metals and
other toxic metals at 0.5 mg/L).
6.1.3 Actions and regulations on products containing cadmium, lead or
mercury
218. Very
few African countries have reported to have actions or regulations that limit or prevent
the use of products containing heavy metals including cadmium, lead and mercury. However
few countries have started to phase-out the use of lead in petrol including, among others,
Burkina Faso, Ghana, Madagascar, Mauritius, Niger, and Togo53. Below are some of the
actions taken by some of the countries to regulate products containing cadmium, lead and
mercury as extracted from the Draft final reviews of scientific information on lead and
cadmium, and Global Mercury Assessment report:
219. Mauritius
has reported to have stopped the use of mercury in paints54.
220. Burundi
has prohibited import and use of mercury and mercury compound as pesticides in
agriculture and has applied proposed norm for mercury in air.
221. Cameroon
has banned through the inter-ministerial order No 19 AI-MSP-SP-DMPHP-SHP of
27th July 1989 the importation, commercialization and use of cosmetic products containing
53
54
UNEP Draft final scientific reviews on lead and cadmium – Appendices - , version of November 2008
Global Mercury Assessment Report, December 2002
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more than 2% of mercury. The country has also put in place a system where fertilizers
containing cadmium must be registered by the Committee for pesticide registration.
222. Gambia
banned since 1997 the importation of mercury into Gambia.
223. Ghana
has in 1989 enacted a law, PNDC law 217 which restricts the importation and
distribution of Mercury. A phase out strategy plan has been implemented since January 2004
to ensure a smooth change from the use of the leaded gasoline to unleaded gasoline. The
country has also put in place a system where-by samples of specific imported raw materials
such as granules fertilizers and meat products are analysed regularly for levels of heavy metal.
224. Guinea.
Two regulations prohibiting the production, import and all forms of use of mercury
and mercury compounds within industry and agriculture are being finalised one at the ministry
of Environment and the other at the Ministry of Agriculture.
225. Kenya
has banned the importation, production and use of any cosmetic products containing
mercury and the total amount of heavy metals in finished products shall not exceed 3% and
mercury is no longer used in paint manufacture. Since 1986 no pesticide containing mercury
has been imported in the country. The Kenya Bureau of Standards have been given a full time
involvement by the laws of Kenya to ensure products evaluation and testing surveillance of
imported products at points of entry and conducts regular market survey sampling.
226. Lesotho
has phased out the use of mercury based pesticides
227. Madagascar has
decree No 8913/2002/MEM the national phase out of leaded gasoline by end
of 2005.
228. In
Mauritius reduction of lead content in petrol from 0.84 g/l to a maximum of 0.4 g/l was
passed on 1992. From Sept 2002, Mauritius introduced the use of unleaded petrol. The
country has also phased out mercury batteries replacing them with Cd/Ni batteries and
launched a sensitization programme for collection of mercury buttons until a policy decision is
taken regarding their safe disposal. Mercury is no longer used in paints and banned the use of
pesticides containing mercury.
229. Nigeria.
No mercury batteries are allowed. Mercury Iodide is banned in cosmetics and the
allowed mercury in dental amalgam capsule is 0.3g.
230. The
Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles (PCFV) with its secretariat at UNEP has
continued to support countries to eliminate the use of leaded gasoline, reduce sulphur levels in
fuels concurrent with the adoption of cleaner vehicle technologies. At the beginning of 2008,
19 countries worldwide were still using leaded gasoline. Within the year four countries
namely, Jordan, Palestine, Laos PDR and Mongolia have stopped the use of leaded gasoline
and an additional three countries – Afghanistan, Morocco and Tunisia are expected to stop
using leaded gasoline at the end of 2008, while Egypt is expected to stop using leaded gasoline
by the end of 2010. Through sub-regional and national events, countries have been assisted to
set timelines and strategies to stop the use of leaded gasoline. The goal of the PCFV is the
global elimination of leaded gasoline.
231. South
Africa is also one of the countries which have a strategy to deal with e-waste. Though
there are no specific legislations that deal with e-waste in South Africa, various legislations
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can be considered to impact on e-waste. A sustainable approach to waste management in
general, echoed in both the National Waste Management Strategy (NWMS) of South Africa
and the Polokwane Declaration 43, moves towards reducing the waste stream. The NWMS
was initiated in 1997 by the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) and
the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (DWAF), with financial support from the
Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development (DANCED). Also, for the last four
years the Environmental and Process Systems Engineering Research Group (E&PSE) have
been conducting a study on e-waste use in South Africa. It is hoped that, this imitative would
provide a good starting point for finding a useful way of handling e-wastes in the region Ewaste is both valuable as source for secondary raw material, and toxic if treated and discarded
improperly.
232. Rwanda
has passed a law relating to the protection of environment. This law came into force
on May 1st 2005. The application of this law will mainly be implemented through the
Rwandese Environmental Management Bureau which has been created in order to offer the
framework for the management of all environmental problems, including problems inherent to
the emissions of lead and cadmium (and mercury). Rwanda has regularly participated in all
the sensitization conferences and workshops on the gradual elimination of leaded fuel both at
sub regional and regional levels. A sensitisation programme is now being implemented at the
national level with the financial support of the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP).
233. Tanzania
has enacted the Environmental Management Act of 2004 (EMA, 2004), which
among other issues, provides for the management of hazardous waste and chemicals 55. Other
relevant legislations in Tanzania include the Industrial and Consumer Chemicals (Management
and Control ) Act of 2003.
234. Generally
most of the countries, including developed countries, do not have comprehensive
systems in place to register the intended use of products containing lead, cadmium or mercury
before import/export/re-export. Finland however has a register for chemical products on the
market, and a common Nordic database (SPIN) based on the publicly available data; although
these do not cover all other technical products, articles and materials containing heavy metals.
SPIN is a database for substances in products in the Nordic Countries. The database is based
on data from the Product Registries of Norway, Sweden, Denmark and Finland . The database
is financed by the Nordic Council of Ministers, Chemical group. The direct internet address to
the Nordic on-line database is http://195.215.251.229/DotNetNuke/default.aspx
6.1.4 Other standards and waste management programmes
235. Lead
batteries recycling facilities have been established in few African countries, especially in
West Africa including Cameroon and Senegal. For instance, CREPD (Centre de Recherches et
d'Education pour le Développement) in Cameroon has taken an initiative to collect and recycle
used batteries in the main cities of Cameroon. Although lead recycling facilities exist in
Cameroon, the country does not have any specific regulations to control and manage hazardous
waste such as waste of products containing lead. The impact of these recycling facilities to
human health and the environment has been a major concern in many of the respective
countries due to poor environmental management practices.
55
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236. In
Kenya, an NGO called Computers For Schools Kenya (CFSK) has opened East Africa's first
e-waste management plant in Embakasi, Kenya, to handle the region's electronic recycling
needs. The project, undertaken in collaboration with the Nairobi City Council and the local
Embakasi community, will dismantle and separate electronic waste from Kenya and eventually
from Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda and Burundi. The workers will be properly equipped and
educated on how to handle and separate metals such as aluminium and copper, which can be
recycled locally, while motherboards will be shipped to Asia and Europe for disposal. Apart
from training, the workers will be provided with heavy duty gloves, goggles and dust masks to
protect them from injury. For the monitors that are considered toxic, CFSK will be shipping
them to Norway for recycling. The Norwegian government supports recycling of 50,000
tonnes of monitors from CFSK every year. The monitors are sent to Fair International, which
has the expensive equipment required to dispose of the monitors. CFSK is scheduled to visit
companies in the U.S. to learn how they handle the recycling of motherboards and monitors in
order to replicate the processes in the Embakasi plant.
237. CFSK
has been promoting local innovation by recycling cathode ray tube (CRT) computer
monitors and converting them to affordable TV sets. The organization has signed a
memorandum of cooperation with the Kenya National Environmental Management Authority
(NEMA), to develop sustainable models for the management of electronic waste. NEMA is yet
to develop a law governing e-waste management in Kenya.
238. Other
programmes include the National Cleaner Production Centres in several African
countries which promote and build capacity in cleaner production concept in the respective
countries. Countries which have established National Cleaner Production Centres include
Ethiopia, Egypt, Morocco, Tunisia, Kenya, Mozambique, South Africa, Uganda and Tanzania.
The major activities of NCPCs include awareness creation, capacity building, assessments and
policy advice in cleaner production. Cleaner production concept strives for optimal efficiency
at every stage of the product life while preventing pollution at source and protecting the human
health.
6.2
International agreements and instruments
239. There
are a number of international agreements and instruments that contain provisions to
manage and control releases, limit use and exposures of hazardous chemicals including
cadmium, lead and mercury. The relevant international agreements relevant to cadmium, lead
and mercury in which most of the African countries are Parties to include the Basel
Convention and the Rotterdam Convention.
6.2.1 Basel Convention
240. Basel
Convention on the Control of Tranboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their
Disposal which was adopted in March 1989 and came into force in 1992 provides a global
legal framework for controlling the Tranboundary movements of hazardous wastes and
establishes obligations for its Parties to ensure that such wastes are minimized and disposed of
in an environmentally sound manner. The main objectives of the Basel Convention are to
control and reduce transboundary movements of hazardous wastes; prevent and minimize their
generation at source; support the environmentally sound management of such wastes; and
actively promote the transfer and use of cleaner technologies. The Convention covers all toxic
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wastes including cadmium, lead and mercury. The Basel Convention currently has 170 Parties
including most of the African countries56.
241. The
Convention requires Parties to cooperate in developing technical guidelines to improve
and achieve environmentally sound management of wastes. The Convention is also promoting
development of partnerships and programmes of activities on the environmentally sound
management of e-waste, including wastes from mobile phones, computers and other sources.
One of the challenges facing this process is how to distinguish between waste and non-waste
as some of these e-wastes may be traded as used products. More information about the Basel
Convention, its activities and achievements is found on the Secretariat’s website
http://www.basel.int/ .
Basel Convention Ban Amendment
242. The Basel Ban Amendment57, adopted by the third Conference of the Parties to the Basel
Convention in September 1995, bans hazardous wastes exports for final disposal and recycling
from what are known as Annex VII countries (Basel Convention Parties that are members of
the EU, OECD, Liechtenstein) to non-Annex VII countries (all other Parties to the
Convention). The Ban Amendment has to be ratified by three-fourths of the Parties who
accepted it in order to enter into force. The Basel Ban has not entered into force.
6.2.2 Rotterdam Convention
243. The
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous
Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade of September 1998 has two objectives:
 To promote shared responsibility and cooperative efforts among Parties in the international
trade of certain hazardous chemicals in order to protect human health and the environment
from potential harm; and
 To contribute to the environmentally sound use of those chemicals by facilitating
information exchange about their characteristics, providing for a national decision-making
process on their import and export, and disseminating these decisions to Parties58.
244. The
Convention establishes a specific procedure to identify and include chemicals in the
Convention based on actions taken by Parties to ban or severely restrict the use of a pesticide
or industrial chemical or a Party is experiencing problems with a severely hazardous pesticide
formulation under condition of use. Certain banned or severely restricted chemicals and
severely hazardous pesticide formulations appear in Annex III of the Convention known as the
“The PIC List”. Among these chemicals include 24 pesticides, 11 industrial chemicals and 4
pesticide formulations.
Rotterdam Convention currently has 119 Parties including most of the African countries59.
According to the Convention, Parties may export listed substances to other Parties only if the
prospective importing Party first provides its informed consent. Exporting Parties are obliged
245. The
56
Basel Convention, http/www.basel.int/ratif/convention.htm
The Basel Ban Amendment, http://www.basel.int/pub/baselban.html
58
Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides
in International Trade (1998), http://www.pic.int/ConventionText/
59
Rotterdam Convention, “Ratifications”, http://www.pic.int/home.php?type=t&id=63&sid=17
57
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to provide importing Parties with an export notification that includes specified information
when they (or an entity in their territory) wish to export a chemical that is banned or severely
restricted in their territory, but not yet included in Annex III. The Convention provides for
importing Parties to require additional information about the chemical related to occupational
safety or environmental impact or human health.
246. Tetraethyl
lead and tetramethyl lead, the two anti-knocking agents for gasoline (petrol) are
covered by the Rotterdam Convention. Cadmium is not listed in the “PIC List” and hence not
covered by the Convention. Inorganic and organic mercury compounds used as pesticides are
covered by the Convention and hence subjected to PIC procedure.
6.2.3 Other agreements
247. Other
existing agreements relevant to subject issue include the Aarhus Protocol on Heavy
Metals. The Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals is one of the eight protocols to the United
Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) Convention on Long - Range
Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP)60. The Aarhus Protocol adopted in June 1998 entered
into force in December 2003. The Protocol targets three harmful metals namely cadmium,
lead and mercury. According to one of the basic obligations, Parties will have to reduce their
emissions for these three metals below their levels in 1990 (or an alternative year between
1985 and 1995).
248. The
Protocol aims to cut emissions from several sources including industrial sources (iron and
steel industry, non-ferrous metal industry), combustion processes (power generation, road
transport) and waste incineration. It lays down stringent limit values for emissions from
stationary sources and suggests best available techniques (BAT) for these sources, such as
special filters or scrubbers for combustion sources or mercury-free processes. The Protocol
requires Parties to phase out leaded petrol. It also introduces measures to lower heavy metal
emissions from other products, such as mercury in batteries, and proposes the introduction of
management measures for other mercury-containing products, such as electrical components
(thermostats, switches), measuring devices (thermometers, manometers, barometers),
fluorescent lamps, dental amalgam, pesticides and paints61.
249. Although
any State may ratify the LRTAP and the Aarhus Protocol, none of the African
countries are Parties to these agreements. Only States in the UNECE region are currently
Parties to the LRTAP and the Aarhus Protocol.
6.2.4 SAICM
250. The
Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM) is a policy
framework to foster the sound management of chemicals62.
60
61
62
The Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/
The 1998 Aarhus Protocol on Heavy Metals, http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/hm_h1.htm
SAICM, http://www.saicm.org/index.php?ql=h&content=home
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251. SAICM
was developed by a multi-stakeholder and multi-sectoral Preparatory Committee and
supports the achievement of the goal agreed at the 2002 Johannesburg World Summit on
Sustainable Development of ensuring that, by the year 2020, chemicals are produced and used
in ways that minimize significant adverse impacts on the environment and human health.
6.3
International organizations and programmes
252. There
are a number of international organizations and programmes which have activities in
Africa and other parts of the world aiming at addressing the adverse impacts of cadmium, lead
and mercury on human health and the environment. Among these include the International
Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), International Labour Organization (ILO), and
International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS), World Health Organization (WHO),
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), United Nations Industrial Development
Organization (UNIDO) and the World Bank (WB). Other relevant programmes include the
Intergovernmental Forum on Chemical Safety (IFCS) and the Inter-Organization Programme
for the Sound Management of Chemicals (IOMC). An overview of the type of activities for
some of the organizations and programmes related to cadmium, lead and mercury is given in
Table 6.3. General descriptions of each organization or programme and their relevance to
cadmium, lead and mercury are provided in the UNEP Draft final review of scientific
information on lead and cadmium as well as the Global Mercury Assessment report.
Table 6.3: Overview of international organizations and programmes with activities addressing
the adverse impacts of cadmium, lead and mercury on human health and the environment.
Name
WHO
Geographic
Coverage
Global
ILO
Global
IARC
Global
IPCS
Global
OECD
OECD
member
States
Global
UNEP GPA
UNEP PCFV
UNIDO
WB
Global
Global
Global
Relevancy
Addresses issues of health including effects of cadmium,
lead and mercury in products.
Addresses occupational health and safety issues
associated with the use of chemicals including smallscale mining activities and mercury
Addresses the evaluation of carcinogenic risk of
chemicals including cadmium, lead and mercury, to
humans
Addresses health and environmental aspects of chemicals
including cadmium, lead and mercury
Addresses among other things issues related to cadmium,
lead and mercury containing products and their wastes.
Addresses heavy metals (including cadmium, lead and
mercury)
Addresses issues of clean fuels in vehicles
Addresses sustainable industrial management including
prevention, monitoring, treatment, recycling and disposal
of toxic and hazardous chemical wastes and remediation
of contaminated sites
Addresses environmentally sustainable industrial
activities including artisanal mining
Type of Activities addressing
cadmium, lead or mercury
Assessments/evaluations
of
health risks of individual
chemicals,
information
dissemination,
setting
standards and guidelines.
Information,
guidelines,
capacity building
Evaluations on individual
chemicals,
information,
guidelines
Information (risk evaluations,
scientific
data
and
precautionary information)
Information, recommendation
Goal definition, guidelines
Information,
capacity building
Information,
capacity building
awareness,
Information,
capacity building
guidelines,
guidelines,
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6.4
.
Sub-regional and regional initiatives
6.4.1 Bamako Convention
253. One
of the regional initiatives in Africa relevant to this study is the Bamako Convention on the
ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement of Hazardous
Wastes within Africa which was adopted in Bamako, Mali, on 30 January 1991 and came into
force on 10 March 1999 63. The objective of the Bamako Convention is to protect human health
and the environment from dangers posed by hazardous wastes by reducing their generation to a
minimum in terms of quantity and/or hazard potential. Only States which are members of the
African Union (AU) can become a Party to the Bamako Convention.
254. All
Parties are obliged to prohibit the import of all hazardous wastes, for any reason, into
Africa from non-Contracting Parties (article 4.1). The categories of wastes listed in Annex I of
the Bamako Convention include among others, wastes containing cadmium, lead and mercury.
The Convention states that the dumping of radioactive wastes, industrial wastes, sewage and
sewage sludge is prohibited. The Bamako Convention places the duty on the Parties to monitor
their respective waterways to ensure that no dumping occurs. The Convention prohibits or
bans the dumping at sea of hazardous wastes, including their incineration at sea and their
disposal in the seabed and sub-seabed. Each State Party must report annually to the Secretariat
all the hazardous wastes generated each year.
255. There
are also other initiatives which address general issues of environment including
pollution caused by hazardous chemicals such as cadmium, lead and mercury. Among these is
the African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN), the New Partnership for
Africa’s Development (NEPAD) and sub regional cooperation groups such as the East African
Community (EAC), ECOWAS, etc.
256. Other
activities dealing with hazardous chemicals and wastes of products containing hazardous
chemicals are carried out under the Basel Convention Regional Centres (BCRCs) in Africa as
well as the Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM).
6.4.2 The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN)
257. 257.
The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment (AMCEN) is a permanent forum
where African ministers of the environment discuss mainly matters of relevance to the
environment of the continent64.
258. 258.
AMCEN was established in 1985 when African ministers met in Egypt and adopted the
Cairo Programme for African co-operation. The Conference is convened every second year.
The objective of AMCEN is to halt environmental degradation and promote sustainable
development in Africa by enhancing inter-governmental co-operation among African
countries.
63
Bamako Convention on the ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of Transboundary Movement of
Hazardous Wastes within Africa (1991), http://www.imo.org/Safety/mainframe.asp?topic_id=1514&doc_id=7607
64
AMCEN, http://www.unep.org/roa/Amcen.
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6.4.3 The New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD)
259. The
New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD) is a vision and strategic framework
for Africa’s renewal. NEPAD is designed to address the current challenges facing the African
continent including escalating poverty levels, underdevelopment and the continued
marginalisation of Africa. The primary objectives of NEPAD are to eradicate poverty; to place
African countries, both individually and collectively, on a path of sustainable growth and
development; to halt the marginalisation of Africa in the globalisation process and enhance its
full and beneficial integration into the global economy; and to accelerate the empowerment of
women. Environment is one of the priority areas of NEPAD65.
6.4.4 East African Community (EAC)
260. The
East African Community (EAC) is the regional intergovernmental organisation of the
Republics of Kenya, Uganda, the United Republic of Tanzania, Republic of Burundi and
Republic of Rwanda with its headquarters in Arusha, Tanzania66. EAC aims at widening and
deepening co-operation among the Partner States in, among others, political, economic and
social fields for their mutual benefit. Environment is also a priority among the Partner States.
6.4.5 Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities
261. The
objective of the Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities (CAI-SSA), launched
in 1998, is to improve air quality through the reduction of air pollution originating in particular
from motorized transport.67
6.4.6 The African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and
Production (ARSCP)
262. ARSCP
is a non-governmental, not for profit regional association of sustainable consumption
and production (SCP) practitioners in Africa. The pioneers of the association are the National
Cleaner Production Centres. Current membership comprises individuals and institutions
engaged in SCP activities. The mission of ARSCP is to promote the development of national
and regional capacities for the effective promotion and implementation of principles of
sustainable consumption and production principles and to serve as the regional clearinghouse
for these issues. Currently, it is implementing the African Ten Year Framework of
Programmes on sustainable consumption and production (10YFP on SCP) which incorporates
sound management of chemicals.
65
NEPAD, http://www.nepad.org/2005/files/inbrief.php
66
EAC, http://www.eac.int/
67
UNEP Draft final review of scientific information on lead, version of November 2008
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7.0 LABORATORY ANALYSES RESULTS OF SELECTED
PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD AND MERCURY
7.1
Sampling procedure
263. A
range of products for the laboratory tests were purchased in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, where
operates a free market environment under an elected civilian Government. Each lot consisted
of 5 samples which were tested for presence of any quantity of the heavy metals under
consideration.
264. Criteria
for selecting a product was based on track record of that particular type of product
with respect to these heavy metals. During product purchase, samples were randomly picked
from same and/or different shops depending on the availability of the product. Five samples
were randomly picked for each type of product. Imported products were given preference over
locally produced goods. For locally produced goods only those manufactured from imported
raw materials were selected. In total 13 different consumer products were procured as shown
in Table 7.1 below. All together some 35 tests were carried out.
265. Soil
samples from ‘’Tabata Dumpo’’ also in Dar es Salaam were also sent for testing. This is
an area of vehicles and batteries repair workshops which is on a hill which descends to a river.
Soil samples were collected within the facility from 20m, 50m, 100m and 250m from one
battery repair shop along a descending slope which ends up at the river. Soil samples from the
river bed, about 500m away from the battery shop was also tested.
7.2
Analysis of samples in various samples at SEAMIC Laboratory
Sample preparation
266. The method of sample preparation used depended entirely on the type of the material.
 Petrol, lipstick, and skin lightening creams
These were dissolved/diluted with petroleum spirit and the organic solution was made to a 10
ml ready for analysis by Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP-OES).
 Fertilizer and soil sample from recycling site/dump
An accurately weighed material was taken and digested by aqua regia (3:1 HCl:
HNO3) and then diluted to 20 ml ready for analysis by the ICP-OES machine.
 Medicated Soaps
Samples were cut into fine pieces
A known mass was weighed and dissolved in de-ionised water, then diluted to 50 mls ready for
analysis by ICP-OES
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Equipment used
267. ULTIMA2 Manufactured and serviced by HORIBA JY, France. Fully automated with user
friendly auto sampler.
268. Principle:
ICP, abbreviation for Inductively Coupled Plasma, is one method of optical
emission spectrometry. When plasma energy is given to an analysis sample from outside, the
component elements (atoms) are excited. When the excited atoms return to low energy
position, emission rays (spectrum rays) are released and the emission rays that correspond to
the photon wavelength are measured. The element type is determined based on the position of
the photon rays, and the content of each element is determined based on the rays’ intensity.
269. Special
Features of ICP
a. Simultaneous, sequential analysis of multiple elements possible
b. Wide linear region of analytical curve
c. Few chemical interference or ionization interference, making analysis of high-matrix
samples possible
d. High sensitivity (low limit of detection for majority of elements is 10ppb or lower)
e. High number of measurable elements - elements that are difficult to analyze in atomic
absorption spectrometry such as Zr, Ta, rare earth, P and B can be easily analyzed
f. Stable
7.3
Laboratory results
270. The
laboratory results are given in Table 7.1 below. As will be noted from the table, all the
tested samples have cadmium, lead or mercury content within the acceptable levels. Results for
soil samples were compared with soil quality standards of few countries (given in Table 7.2).
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Table 7.1: Sample results of products tested for presence of cadmium, lead and mercury
S/N
Type of
sample
Corporate
Name/Mark
Brand
Manufacturer/
Country of origin
No of
Samples
Tested
Heavy Metal Concentration
Cd
(ppm)
<0.01
Pb
(ppm)
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
Hg
(ppb)
1
Car paint
Master Paint,
Synthetic/ Enamel Gloss 1,
670 vermilion,
National Paints
Factories Co .Ltd,
UAE
5
2.
Household
paint
Gasoline
Goldstar
Kiboko water paint
Kobil
Camel
Oilcom
Engen
Shell
Medsoft dedorant ,
Trichloro Carbanilider USA
Goldstar Tanzania
Kiboko Industries
Middle East
Middle East
Middle East
Middle East
Middle East
India
5
1
1
1
1
1
1
5
Teint Clair, Yous Types de
Peaux
Skin Glow, Fairness Crème
Fermco sprl
Rep. of Congo
Tanzania
5
<0.01
5
<0.01
Personi 314
Electric bell switch, UK
India
5
1
1
<0.01
<0.01
1
<0.01
1
<0.01
3.
4.
5
6.
7
8
9.
10.
11
Toilet/me
dicated
soap
Beauty
soap
Skin
cream
Lipstick
Switch
relay
Overflow
switch
Electronic
switch
PVC pipes
Toys
(Funny
Airplane
battery
operated)
Phosphate
Fertilizers
England
15(8)A250V~U T80 >PP<
Electronic Ballast (choke),
hongyu
Tee, IPS MYTU dia ½
Tee, IPS MYTU dia ½
Tee, IPS MYTU dia ½
Tee, IPS MYTU dia ½
Tee, IPS MYTU dia ½
Toy 1, xie yu No A360
Toy 2, xie yu No A360
Toy 3, xie yu No A360
Toy 4, xie yu No A360
Toy 5, xie yu No A360
Minjingu Phosphates P20528-30%
China
India
China
Tanzania
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
0.12
0.26
<0.01
0.01
0.19
0.03
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
<0.01
Phosphate Di-Ammonium Phosphate
South Africa
1
17.14
Fertilizers (DAP) 18-46-0
12.
Floor
Red cement floor paint
India
1
0.27
50.56
paint
13
Dumpsite/ Soil sample at 20m
1
0.65
263.71
battery
Soil sample at 50m
Tabata Dar es
1
1.00
131.52
reconditio Soil sample at 100m
Salaam
1
0.20
102.16
ning site
Soil sample at 250m
1
0.05
11.01
soil
Soil sample at 500m
1
0.96
65.40
Note: Samples analyzed by Southern and Eastern African Mineral Centre (SEAMIC), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania
2.87
0.82
0.76
0.46
<0.01
0.64
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Table 7.2: Contaminant Limits for Habitat and Agriculture Soil:
Parameter
Cadmium
Lead
Mercury
Source:
Upper Limit (mg/kg)
Netherlands1
1
50
0.5
Thailand2
37
400
23
France
400
Tanzania
1
200
2
VROM,1983, Leidrand Bodemsanering – Guidelines for soil clean-up – Netherlands Ministry of Housing, Planning
and Environment, Soil, Water and Chemical Substances Department, The Hague, Netherlands.
2
http://www.pcd.go.th/info_serv/en_reg_std_soil01.html#s1
1
271. As
noted in Table 7.1 and Table 7.2 the concentrations of cadmium, lead and mercury in the
tested soil samples were within the acceptable levels. .
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8.0 CASE STUDIES ON THE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH
AND THE ENVIRONMENT FROM CADMIUM, LEAD AND
MERCURY AND PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM, LEAD
AND MERCURY
272. This
chapter presents some cases studies showing good and bad management practices of
wastes from products containing cadmium, lead and mercury in Africa as well as impacts to
human health and the environment which have resulted from activities or the trade of these
products.
8.1
Case Study No. 1: E-waste management in Kenya
Country: Kenya
Problem
273. The electronic and information technology industry is currently the largest and fastest
manufacturing industry in the world. As a consequence of this remarkable growth combined
with the phenomenon of rapid obsolescence of products, discarded electronic equipment
known as e-waste is now recognized as the fastest growing waste stream in developed
countries. Electronic equipment contains a number of toxic materials including cadmium,
lead and mercury. Thus electronic wastes are technically hazardous wastes and should be
managed properly as recognized under the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal.
Action Taken
274. In order to prevent significant environmental problems associated with the growing waste
stream of e-waste, the Computers for Schools Kenya (CFSK) has opened East Africa's first ewaste management plant in Embakasi, Kenya, to handle the region's electronic recycling
needs. The monitors which are considered toxic will be shipped to Fair International in
Norway, which has the expensive equipment required to dispose of the monitors.
Lessons learned
275. This case study demonstrates one way of a good method for waste management. Considering
that most African countries are in the developing group, the project demonstrates a method
which other countries could adopt to solve their e-waste problems.
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8.2 Case Study No. 2:
dump
.
Bridging the digital gap vs. creating a digital
Country: Nigeria
Problem
276. The growth rate of information technology in developing countries like Nigeria is similarly
increasing due to among other issues, the natural hunger among the populace to stay abreast
technological developments in order to communicate and compete in this globalized world.
However, due to financial limitations in most of the people in developing countries, the growth
of information technology in developing countries has been contributed to a larger extend by
importation of used or second-hand products from developed countries whose consumers are
more than happy to find buyers for their used products. This could be regarded as a ‘win-win’
situation whereby the rich countries from the North are sweeping out their e-waste mountains
which pollute their environment while at the same time benefit those in the South who are too
poor to afford a brand new equipment. As a result, the trade in used electronic equipment has
become a big business.
Action taken
Nigerian government is working to abolish the import of second-hand goods. Ironically,
Nigeria has already ratified the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movement
of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal.
277. The
Assessment of action
278. Study conducted by Basel Action Network (BAN) in Nigeria in 2005 revealed that containers
loaded with computers keep coming to Nigeria and most of them are non-functional or have
very short life span. Large amounts of televisions, cellular phones and computer scraps from
North America and Europe are being dumped into Nigeria. Consequently, these fast growing
hazardous wastes end up in dumpsites or landfills and pollute the environment in developing
countries. Electronic equipment contains a number of toxic materials including cadmium, lead
and mercury. Thus electronic wastes are technically hazardous wastes and should be managed
properly as recognized under the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary
Movement of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal. Exporters from the west on the other
hand continue to violate the Basel Convention by calling electronic waste as second-hand
products. The Basel Action Network says that if all parties involved don’t take responsibility
soon, this toxic trade nightmare will never end.
Lessons learned
279. Trade of used electronics equipment is actually a trade of hazardous wastes which should be
controlled by the Basel Convention. These e-wastes often end up dumped in countries with
little or no regulation of its recycling or disposal. What we are seeing in Nigeria is
unfortunately a harbinger of things to come; it is soon to be the future in the entire developing
world. Therefore efforts should be made to test all electronic equipment before shipment to
ensure that they comply with the Basel convention.
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8.3 Case Study No 3
Ghana
.
E-waste environmental contamination in
Country: Ghana
Problem
280. Electronic products such as laptops and mobile phones contain hazardous chemicals and
materials. Thus recycling or disposal of these products can pose serious threats to human
health and the environment if not well managed. Since, many developing countries have no
restrictions for importing used electronic products, these e-wastes often end up dumped in
countries with little or no regulations for its recycling or disposal. Exporting hazardous ewaste is illegal in the European Union (EU), however the US Environment Protection Agency
classifies it as legitimate recycling.
281. As
the global market for electronic goods expands, and the lifespan of many of those products
gets shorter, there has been a rapid growth in electronic waste (e-waste). The UN estimates that
20-50 million tonnes of e-waste is produced globally every year, making e-waste the fastest
growing waste stream in the world.
282. In
2006 millions of tonnes of obsolete electronics products were unaccounted for in the US and
EU amounting to about 6.6 million tonnes. It is believed that some of these e-wastes are still
stored in people’s homes; some disposed of in landfills; some incinerated while some are
exported to developing countries where they are considered useful. After a short useful
lifespan these products become obsolete.
Action taken
283. At Agbogbloshie, in Ghana, the obsolete electronics products are manually dismantled at
numerous small workshops within the market to remove valuable parts. Some parts are burned
to remove plastics from valuable metals. Materials of no value are dumped along with other
waste. Much of the work is carried out by children, some as young as 5, with no protective
equipment and using basic tools, or bare hands.
Assessment
284. The Greenpeace team documented in Ghana e-waste from European, Japanese, and US brands,
including: Philips, Sony, Microsoft, Nokia, Dell, Canon and Siemens. Labels revealed the
equipment came from a range of organizations such as Den Kongelige Livgarde – the Danish
Royal Guard, and the US Environmental Protection Agency. The team saw containers of ewaste from Germany, Korea, and Switzerland and the Netherlands being opened at Tema
harbour; the biggest port in Ghana. The container numbers revealed that all the European
containers had been shipped via Antwerp in Belgium
285. Greenpeace
experts collected soil and sediment samples from two e-waste recycling sites: the
Agbogbloshie scrap market in the capital city, Accra, the main centre for e-waste recycling in
the country; and from a scrap yard in the smaller city of Korforidua, which were thought to be
typical of the numerous small-scale e-waste recycling workshops in Ghana. The soil samples
were analyzed at one University of Exeter in Britain.
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286. The
study found that many soil and sediment samples contained numerous hazardous
substances: including very high levels of the toxic metal lead and other chemicals such as the
phthalates, DEHP and DBP, which are known to interfere with human sexual reproduction;
and chlorinated dioxins known to promote cancer. Though the study did not attempt to
quantify the damage caused to the environment or human health, the results indicated that
there may be substantial exposure of workers and bystanders to hazardous chemicals.
Lessons learned
trade of hazardous waste is being practiced by many countries, especially developed
countries, under the legitimate term of recycling or reuse. Many of the old computers, monitors
and television sets that end up in Ghana come from the European Union, despite laws there
that prohibit the export of such hazardous materials. The materials are exported as "second
hand goods" and purportedly meant to be reusable. But it has been reported that 25-75% of
“second hand goods” imported into Africa are broken and cannot be reused again. This simply
means dumping useless equipment containing hazardous chemicals on the poor.
287. Illegal
288. Therefore
in order to end this dumping of toxic chemicals in developing countries, there is
need for electronics manufacturers to eliminate hazardous chemicals from their products, and
to take responsibility for their products over their entire lifecycle; from design to use to waste
disposal, otherwise this dumping of toxic chemicals will not stop. Some countries and regions
including the EU have introduced a legislation to restrict the use of certain hazardous
substances in electronic goods and regulate the collection and recycling of e-waste. The
regulation is however limited, as it excludes many hazardous substances used in electronics
and many countries fail to fully address the management of e-waste. An international and
more comprehensive legislation must therefore be put in place.
8.4
Case No 4:
Lead intoxication in Thiaroye sur Mer, Senegal
Country: Senegal
Problem
70% of the lead manufactured worldwide goes into car batteries. As the demand for
cars increases, the demand for lead-acid car batteries also increases. Although North America
and Europe continue to be the world's biggest buyers of cars, fewer and fewer car batteries are
made there. Both the manufacturing and the recycling of these batteries have now been moved
mostly to developing countries such as China, India and Africa where labor is cheaper and
environmental protections regulations are weak, and/or at least more leniently enforced.
289. About
290. In
developed countries, recycling of lead batteries is regulated. Most states in North America
and Europe require anyone who sells lead-acid batteries to collect spent ones and ship them to
recycling plants licensed and regulated by the Environmental Protection Agency. However,
this is not the case in the third world like Senegal, where there are hardly any attempts to
control the movement of these products.
291. The
Thiaroye sur Mer, a suburb of Dakar, Senegal, is a town of about 100,000 people. Like
many African families, most of the families here are very poor. Most of the people depend on
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petty agriculture and fishing for their livelihoods. For years, the town's blacksmiths extracted
lead from car batteries and remolded it into weights for fishing nets. This is a dangerous and
messy process in which workers crack open the batteries with a hatchet and pull small pieces
of lead out of skin-burning acid. This work left the dirt of Thiaroye dense with small lead
particles; consequently the soil in the town became heavily contaminated with lead due to
informal recycling of lead batteries.
292. When
the world price of lead increased in recent years, traders from India came and offered to
buy bits of lead particles from the dirt soil by the bag for 60 cents a kilogram. So the locals in
Thiaroye sur Mer, mostly women, started to dig the dirt soil and carried bags of it back home
for sifting in order to separate the lead particles. The sifting, which was done in the presence of
children, created a lot of lead dust. On the other hand, the same business created more and
quick income to the families than selling vegetables at the market. However, as the sifting
continued, sickness among the children in the town started and eventually some died. About
20 children were reported to have died with same symptoms between October 2007 and March
2008.
Action taken
293. The government of Senegal through the health and environmental authorities conducted blood
tests on 71 siblings and mothers of the dead children in March 2008 and found extremely high
blood lead levels of 1,000 micrograms per liter (just 100 micrograms per liter is enough to
impair brain development in children).
Assessment
a formal request from Senegal, the World Health Organization (WHO) deployed in
June 2008 an international team consisting of a clinical toxicologist, an environmental health
specialist and analytical chemist to investigate further this outbreak and to assist the Ministry
of Health in managing the outbreak. The team conducted clinical examinations and further
environmental investigations in Thiaroye sur Mer. Clinical examinations confirmed continuing
high blood lead concentrations in the original group studied, as well as in a randomly-selected
group of adults and children who were not involved in lead recycling. Many children showed
evidence of neurological damage. Environmental investigations found very high
concentrations of lead both outside and inside peoples' homes. These have been mapped to an
area inhabited by approximately 950 people, who are continuously exposed through ingestion
and inhalation of lead-contaminated dust.
294. Following
295. The
following are some of the key findings of the WHO mission to Thiaroye sur Mer in June
2008:

Out of the 47 children examined, 25 showed evidence of neurological damage including, in
some cases, developmental regression;

Blood lead concentrations in those children ranged from 439 g/L to 6139 g/L. The lowest
level was in a 3 month old baby who was presumably exposed in utero;

40 children had a blood lead concentration above 700 g/L, for which immediate removal from
exposure and chelation therapy was advised;
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
An additional 6 children had a blood lead concentration above 450 g/L, for which removal
from exposure and chelation therapy was also advised;

Of the 32 children whose blood lead was measured in March 2008, 12 had increased blood
lead concentrations, indicating continuing exposure;

Lead concentrations of up to 200,000 ppm were found in NGagne Diaw. In areas previously
decontaminated by the Ministry of Environment, lead was measured at 100,000 ppm which is
much higher than the maximum permissible concentration level in France of 400 ppm in
residential areas;

Measurements performed inside houses also showed high levels of lead up to 14,000 ppm.
Lessons learned
296. Recycling/recovery
of valuable products from waste is a good economic strategy for reducing
poverty but it can also be very disastrous when not properly managed and controlled.
Governments must establish waste recycling regulations for purposes of protecting the human
health and the environment. Monitoring of recycling sites or activities is essential.
8.5 Case Study No 5:
and the environment
Dump sites in Africa: A hazard to children
Country: Kenya
Problem
297. Human activities normally generate different waste streams including solid wastes, which need
to be well controlled and managed in order to prevent negative impacts to the environment and
human health. Huge amounts of solid wastes are being generated in municipalities and cities
due to high populations in these urban centres. Thus environmental disposal of municipal
solid waste is very important in order to avoid adverse effects to the environment and human
health. Municipal solid wastes are normally disposed of in land-fills or dump sites. Thus local
authorities are supposed to set aside sites for disposal of rubbish. However, many countries in
developing world lack proper solid waste disposal facilities. Waste sorting and separation is
hardly practiced before disposal. Existing land-fills/dump sites such as the Dandora dumping
site in Nairobi, are uncontrolled and unmanaged. This means that even hazardous wastes such
as waste products containing lead / cadmium and mercury are not given the required handling
and treatment to prevent the potential health and environmental effects caused by these metals.
298. The
Dandora dumping site in Nairobi, Kenya, is one of the largest waste dumps in Africa. The
30-acre dumping site receives 2,000 tonnes of rubbish every day, including plastics, rubber and
lead paint treated wood, generated by some 4.5 million people living the Kenyan capital City,
Nairobi.
299. Every
day, scores of people, including children, from the nearby slums and low-income
residential areas use the dump to find food, recyclables and other valuables they can sell as a
source of income, at the same time inhaling the noxious fumes from routine waste burning and
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methane fires. Waste often finds its way into the Nairobi River that runs just meters away from
the dumpsite, polluting water used by local residents and farmers downstream
Action taken
study, commissioned by the UN Environment Programme (UNEP), examined 328 children
aged 2-18 living around the Dandora waste dump and its impacts on public health and the
environment. Experts from the University of Nairobi, Kenyatta University, Kenyatta National
Hospital and Kenya Agricultural Research Institute as well as local community leaders from
St. John's Catholic Church in Korogocho supported the study. The study also compared soil
samples from the site with another location just outside of Nairobi. Soil and water samples
were analyzed for heavy metals, such as lead, mercury, cadmium and chromium, and persistent
organic pollutants, including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and pesticides. Blood and
urine samples were analyzed for the same pollutants and for signs of diseases associated with
them
300. A
Assessment
301. Half of the children tested had concentrations of lead in their blood exceeding internationally
accepted levels, while 42 percent of soil samples recorded lead levels almost 10 times higher
than what is considered unpolluted soil (over 400 parts per million (ppm) compared to 50
ppm).
302. Children
have been exposed to pollutants such as heavy metals and toxic substances through
soil, water and air (smoke from waste burning) with implications for respiratory,
gastrointestinal and dermatological or skin diseases. Almost half of the children tested were
suffering from respiratory diseases, including chronic bronchitis and asthma.
303. The
results show dangerously high levels of heavy metals, especially lead, mercury and
cadmium, at the dumpsite, in the surrounding environment and in local residents. Lead and
cadmium levels found on the dumpsite were 13,500 ppm and 1,058 ppm, respectively,
compared to the action levels in The Netherlands of 150 ppm/5 ppm for these heavy metals.
304. One
soil sample from the banks of Nairobi River indicates high levels of mercury (over 18
ppm against the safe level of 2 ppm). The soil surface samples also recorded cadmium
concentration 50 times higher than in unpolluted soil (53 ppm compared to 1 ppm). Health
wise, 50 percent of the children had blood lead levels equal to or above the internationally
accepted action levels of 10 micrograms per decilitre of blood, including two children with
concentrations of over 29 and 32 micrograms. Low haemoglobin levels and iron deficiency
anaemia, some of the known symptoms of lead poisoning, have been detected in 50 and 30
percent of the children, respectively. Exposure to high lead levels is also linked with a wide
range of other ill effects including damage to the nervous system and the brain, whilst
cadmium poisoning causes damage to internal organs, especially kidneys, and cancers.
Lessons learned
305. The poor are the best recyclers in the world, nothing of value goes to waste. Many local
people around the Dandora dump site depend on the wastes. However, uunrestricted and
uncontrolled waste dumping is causing serious threat to their health and the environment. Thus
a controlled and well-managed waste processing facility should be established. This will not
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only reduce health and environment impacts but also generate jobs and income for the local
community.
306. The
challenge is for the authorities to minimize or prevent the level of hazardous materials
coming to the dump site in the first place and better treatment of toxic and medical wastes
before disposal. Safe and sustainable conditions for the people working on, and living near, the
dump site need to be put in place for purposes of assisting the poor people who depend on this
waste and promote the recycling and reuse of this waste as a safer opportunity both
economically and environmentally.
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ANNEX 1A: TERMS OF REFERENCE FOR THE STUDY
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1. BACKGROUND
The UNEP Governing Council, at its 23rd session in February 2005, requested UNEP to undertake a
review of scientific information on lead and cadmium, focusing especially on long-range
environmental transport, in order to inform future discussion of the Governing Council on the
possible need for global action in relation to lead and cadmium. Interim scientific reviews were made
available to the Governing Council for consideration at its 24th regular session in February 2007 and
they can be accessed at http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pb_and_Cd/SR/Interim_reviews.htm . The Interim
scientific reviews identified some essential gaps in information, in particular, the need to examine
global flow of lead and cadmium in products.
UNEP Governing Council decided in February 2007 ( Decision 24/3 III ) to encourage efforts by
Governments and others to reduce risks to human health and the environment of lead and cadmium
throughout the whole life cycle of those substances; and requested UNEP to provide available
information on lead and cadmium to address the data and information gaps identified in the Interim
Reviews, and to compile an inventory of existing risk management measures; with a further report back
to the next Governing Council at its 25th regular session in 2009.
The aim of this study is to fill some of the data and information gaps identified in the Interim scientific
reviews on lead and cadmium and for mercury information gaps identified elsewhere.
Lead, cadmium and mercury are used and traded globally as metals in various products.
The major use of lead in recent years is in lead batteries, accounting for 78 percentage of reported global
consumption in 200368. Other major application areas are lead sheets, ammunition, alloys and cable
sheathing. Other uses include plastics, paints, electrical and electronic equipment and certain toys.
Cadmium is produced mainly as a by-product of mining, smelting and refining of zinc and, to a lesser
degree, as a by-product of lead and copper production. Cadmium is used and traded globally as a metal
and as a component in various products. This is the case in particular for its dominant use -NiCd
batteries- but it is also used for many applications in alloys, plastics, plating and in electronic and
electrical equipment. A special issue of concern that is not addressed in this project is the presence of
cadmium in phosphate fertilizers.
Main source categories of products containing mercury includes batteries, dental amalgams, measuring
and control devices (largely medical sector), electric and electronic switches, skin lighting creams and
cosmetics. The rate of decline in mercury demand in the future will depend primarily upon reductions in
the battery, electrical product, and measuring device manufacturing sectors, and in dental use. These
sectors represent the greatest potential for short-term declines because alternatives are readily available
and are of equal or better quality. For these sectors, the challenges are not technical but relate to the rate
of and incentive to phase out.
As awareness of the adverse impacts of lead, cadmium and mercury has increased, many uses have
been reduced significantly in industrialized countries. In addition, as public awareness has grown,
waste management systems have increasingly been put in place in industrialized countries to reduce
releases of these three heavy metals to the environment. However, some of the uses of lead, cadmium
Interim review of scientific information on lead –Version of October 2006- Figure 6
(http://www.chem.unep.ch/Pb_and_Cd/SR/Interim_reviews.htm )
68
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and mercury which have been phased out in industrialized countries have continued in developing
countries, and even increased in some less developed regions and countries.
A specific problem faced by developing countries is the import of new and used products containing
lead, cadmium and mercury, including electrical and electronic equipment and batteries, since some
countries lack the capacity to manage and dispose of such products in an environmentally sound
manner. Regulations and restrictions are less comprehensive or less well enforced in some
developing regions. This has resulted in some of the health and environmental risks, local and
regional, that accompany the use, management (including collection, storage, recycling and
treatment) and disposal of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury. These hazardous disposal
practices include open burning and indiscriminate dumping in sensitive ecosystems such as rivers and
wetlands.
2. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF WORK
The main objective of this project is to analyze the trade, use and disposal of products containing
lead, cadmium and mercury in Africa in order to assess how this can lead to adverse human and
environmental effects due to the release of these toxic elements. The study will be the basis for
identifying measures that need to be taken on a regional and global level.
The full range of products should be assessed in order to be able to identify and focus on types of
products that constitutes the main hazards to health and environment.
The study will consist of a comprehensive collection, compilation and analysis of data on trade and
transfers of products to Africa based on available databases and sources. The study should quantify
the extent of the problem to be able to identify what measures need to be taken on a national, regional
and global level to reduce the risks to human health and the environment.
The study should include case studies to describe concrete examples of how some products
containing lead, cadmium and mercury can have adverse effects on the human health and the
environment in Africa, but also examples of sound management of products containing these toxic
metals.
The study is to be written in English.
UNEP will be involved in the work through teleconferences in order to follow progress and discuss
how the results are presented in the study.
Issues to be covered
The following elements should be covered in the study:
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Background and context of the work (incl. a reference to the UNEP Governing
Council mandates, specific objectives, scope and coverage of the study);
Brief overview of lead, cadmium and mercury and products containing lead,
cadmium and mercury;
Brief overview of possible effects on human health and the environment from
products containing lead, cadmium and mercury;
Brief description of production, use and trade patterns of lead, cadmium and
mercury containing products (description of type of products, quantities, etc.) in a
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(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
(i)
.
global perspective and with emphasis on Africa (incl. international trade to Africa
and trade routes within Africa);
Brief overview or examples of environmentally sound initiatives taken in Africa for
collection, recycling and disposal of used products containing lead, cadmium and
mercury;
Key organizations and databases dealing with lead, cadmium and trade statistics
(data collection, reporting, scope and limitations of trade data);
Screening analysis of selected products to determine presence of lead, cadmium
and/or mercury;
Case studies including a description of effects on human health and the
environment from products containing lead, cadmium and mercury within the
African context; and
Glossary of terms and reference list.
A more detailed chapter outline should be developed and approved by UNEP Chemicals within the
2nd to 3 ½ month. The report should be aimed to be less than 80 pages total.
Sources of information
The sources of information to be used to develop the report are:




Information from Governments, IGOs, NGOs and the private sector regarding trade
information of lead, cadmium and mercury containing products. This information is/will be
made available on a running basis on a dedicated web-page;
Publications, articles and reports of relevance to lead, cadmium and mercury contained
products identified through a search of the scientific literature;
Additional available information, publications and reports publicly available on websites of
various Governments, intergovernmental and non-governmental organizations; and
Data bases, included but not limited, to the UN Comtrade database (exports and imports of
reported lead, cadmium and mercury containing products), the International Lead and Zinc
Study Group (ILZSG), The International Cadmium Association (ICdA), the Secretariat of the
Basel Convention for (national reporting on transboundary movements of hazardous wastes
and other wastes for the year 2004 with special focus on under cover wastes that can become
second hand products) and the World Customs Organization database.
Expected output
It is expected that the study will include a review of relevant materials and databases, compilation
and assessment of collected information, drafting, language editing and final formatting of the study
(word version with other relevant supportive documentation e.g. excel sheets, figures, tables, etc).
The development of this study is to be performed over a period of approximately 8 months, in
accordance with the workplan and timetable given in the next section.
3. DESCRIPTION OF THE WORK TO BE UNDERTAKEN
The work can be organized in the main tasks as described below, together with suggested deadlines,
to be adjusted as necessary during the course of the work:
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TASKS
A.
TO BE
AVAILABLE
BY THE END
OF
EXPECTED
OUTPUT
Data collection (briefly review materials by
performing literature search, collect and review
identified materials and download 2000-2005 data
bases from the suggested different sources of
information)
2nd to 3 ½
month
Summarized
background
information and data
Develop more detailed study outline (to be
discussed and agreed with UNEP Chemicals by
taking into consideration the tentative outline in
these terms of references)
2nd to 3 ½
month
Detailed study outline
C.
UNEP Chemicals providing to the contractor
input received from GOV, IGOs and NGOs
5th month
Information from
UNEP
D.
Develop of the first draft of the study, including
suggested case studies
6th month
First draft of the study
E.
UNEP Chemicals providing comments to the
draft study and the contractor incorporating
those comments and developing a 2nd draft
6 ½ to 7th
month
Second draft of the
study
F.
Incorporation of final comments and results
(including case studies)
7th – 7 ½
month
Incorporated
comments and case
studies
G.
Contractor submitting final study
8th month
Final study to be
submitted
H.
Contractor submitting final certified financial
statement
8th to 8 ½
month
Final certified
financial statement
B.
.
UNEP Chemicals will contribute to the work as follows:






Establish and ensure all communication with the GOV, IGOs and NGOs with regard to the
requested information (incl. developing a questionnaire for requests of information);
Put all information and submissions received from Governments, IGOs and NGOs up on a
dedicated webpage to allow easy electronic access for the contractor.
Draft an introductory chapter providing necessary background and context;
Provide guidance with regard to the direction of the work, through teleconferences hosted
monthly and/or by a country visit;
Provide comments and input to the draft documents according to the agreed workplan;
Publish, print and distribute the finalized study.
4. COSTING. To be further discussed
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ANNEX 1B : QUESTIONNAIRE
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1.0
.
CONTACT DETAILS
Please indicate the country or organization submitting the information and provide a
contact institution and/or person, with full contact details for eventual follow-up questions.
Name of country or organization……………………………………………………………
Name and address of contact institution and/or person (physical address, telephone, email
in case follow-up is needed)…………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Date:………………………………………………………………………………………….
2.0
TIMEFRAME AND UNITS FOR THE DATA
Comprehensive trade statistics for lead, cadmium and mercury for United Nations member
states are publicly available through the United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics
Database (Comtrade). Comtrade contains detailed export and import statistics reported by
statistical authorities of close to 200 countries and area. These data are processed into a
standard format with a consistent coding and valuation. The data are then stored in a
computerized data base system, called UN Comtrade. For many countries the data
coverage starts as far back as 1962 and goes up to the most recent completed years. The
data can be accessed at http://unstats.un.org/unsd/comtrade/ .
In addition there are a few other commercial statistical database maintained by key
organizations that provide trade data on lead, cadmium and mercury. These include, among
others, Eurostat (the statistical office of the European Communities) and the United States
International Trade Commission, which focus on statistics for trade between their own
region/country and other countries.
In connection with the study on possible effects on human health and the environment in
Africa of the trade of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury, while going through
UN Comtrade website, it was noted that some countries, especially African countries have
never submitted their trade data or, if submitted, data were not in the standard format of
Comtrade.
As background information to the study, we would like you to provide information and
input relevant to:
1. Countries dealing with production/use/export/import/re-export of products
containing lead, cadmium and mercury to and within Africa, which have either
already been submitted to UN Comtrade or which have been reported to other
databases in your country, including to customs authorities
2. Data requested should be covering the period 2000-2006 and amounts should be
given with a unit clearly defined, preferably in kilogramme (kg) and not in pieces
or not Applicable (N.A) or zero.
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3.
.
TRADE OF PRODUCTS CONTAINNING LEAD, CADMIUM AND MERCURY.
3.1 Products containing lead
Does your country have any system in place to register the intended use of products containing
lead before import/export/re-export? YES / NO . If YES what kind of systems are in place?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
During the collection and reporting of trade statistics in your country, is there any requirement to
identify the final destination or use of products containing lead being transported?. YES / NO. If
YES, please give details and respond through the relevant tables below.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Give names of the trade partners to your country of products containing lead.
Import partners: …………………………………………………………………………..
Export partners: ………………………………………………........................................
Re-exported partners:…………………………………………………………………...
Please provide data on the production, use, export, import and re-export of products containing
lead for the year 2000-2006 to Africa and within Africa, as indicated in the following tables:
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Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)
2000
Products containing lead
Lead-acid electric accumulators (vehicle)
Lead-acid electric accumulators except for
vehicles
Ash or residues containing mainly lead
2001
2002
P
U
E
I
R
P
U
E
I
R
P
P
R
I
R
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
Lead oxides, red lead, orange lead
Lead monoxide (litharge, massicot)
Anti-knock preparations based on lead
comps.
Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire.
Lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead
powders and flakes.
Lead waste and scraps
Pencils lead, black/coloured
Leaded gasoline sludges & leaded antiknock compound sludges
Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings
(for example, couplings, elbows, sleeves).
Lead and lead alloys unwrought
Lead and lead alloys, worked
Lead carbonates
Electronic computers
Second hand electric and electronic
products such as computers which might
containing lead
Second hand mobile phones that might
contain lead.
Any additional products containing lead
that are treaded in your country? Please
specify and give details.
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)
2003
Products containing lead
Lead-acid electric accumulators (vehicle)
Lead-acid electric accumulators except for
vehicles
Ash or residues containing mainly lead
2004
2005
P
U
E
I
R
P
U
E
I
R
P
P
R
I
R
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
Lead oxides, red lead, orange lead
Lead monoxide (litharge, massicot)
Anti-knock preparations based on lead
comps.
Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire.
Lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead
powders and flakes.
Lead waste and scraps
Pencils lead, black/coloured
Leaded gasoline sludges & leaded antiknock compound sludges
Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings
(for example, couplings, elbows, sleeves).
Lead and lead alloys unwrought
Lead and lead alloys, worked
Lead carbonates
Electronic computers
Second hand electric and electronic
products such as computers which might
containing lead
Second hand mobile phones that might
contain lead.
Any additional products containing lead
that are treaded in your country? Please
specify and give details.
127
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)
2006
Products containing lead
Lead-acid electric accumulators (vehicle)
P
U
E
I
R
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
Lead-acid electric accumulators except for vehicles
Ash or residues containing mainly lead
Lead oxides, red lead, orange lead
Lead monoxide (litharge, massicot)
Anti-knock preparations based on lead comps.
Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire.
Lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead powders and flakes.
Lead waste and scraps
Pencils lead, black/coloured
Leaded gasoline sludges & leaded anti-knock compound sludges
Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings (for example, couplings, elbows, sleeves).
Lead and lead alloys unwrought
Lead and lead alloys, worked
Lead carbonates
Electronic computers
Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might containing lead
Second hand mobile phones that might contain lead.
Any additional products containing lead that are treaded in your country? Please specify and give details.
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead
and mercury
.
3.2
Products containing cadmium
Does your country have any system in place to register the intended use of products containing cadmium
before import/export? YES / NO . If YES what kind of systems are in place?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
During the collection and reporting of trade statistics in your country, is there any requirement to identify
the final destination or use of products containing cadmium being transported?. YES / NO. If YES, please
give details and respond through the relevant tables below.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Give names of the trade partners of products containing cadmium in your country.
Import Partners: ……………………………………………………………………………………….
Export Partners: ……………………………………………………………….....................................
Re-exported partners:…………………………………………………………………………………...
Please provide data on the production, use, export, import and re-export of products containing cadmium for
the year 2000-2006 to Africa and within Africa, as indicated in the following tables:
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)
2000
Products containing cadmium
Cadmium sulphide (Electroplating)
Pigments and preparations based on cadmium
compounds
2001
2002
P
U
E
I
R
P
U
E
I
R
P
P
R
I
R
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
Nickel-cadmium electric accumulators
Cadmium, unwrought; cadmium waste and
scrap; powders
Anti-oxidising preps. & oth. compound
stabilisers for rubber/plastics
Mineral or chemical fertilizers, phosphatic
Phosphatic fertilizers and materials
Ash & residues (excl. from the manufacture
of iron/steel) containing
antimony/beryllium/cadmium/chromium/their
mixtures
Second hand electric and electronic products
such as computers which might containing
cadmium
Second hand mobile phones that might
contain cadmium
Any additional products containing cadmium
that are treaded in your country? Please
specify and give details.
130
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)
2003
Products containing cadmium
Cadmium sulphide (Electroplating)
Pigments and preparations based on cadmium
compounds
2004
2005
P
U
E
I
R
P
U
E
I
R
P
P
R
I
R
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
Nickel-cadmium electric accumulators
Cadmium, unwrought; cadmium waste and
scrap; powders
Anti-oxidising preps. & oth. compound
stabilisers for rubber/plastics
Mineral or chemical fertilizers, phosphatic
Phosphatic fertilizers and materials
Ash & residues (excl. from the manufacture
of iron/steel) containing
antimony/beryllium/cadmium/chromium/their
mixtures
Second hand electric and electronic products
such as computers which might containing
cadmium
Second hand mobile phones that might
contain cadmium
Any additional products containing cadmium
that are treaded in your country? Please
specify and give details.
131
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)
2006
Products containing cadmium
Cadmium sulphide (Electroplating)
P
U
E
I
R
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
Pigments and preparations based on cadmium compounds
Nickel-cadmium electric accumulators
Cadmium, unwrought; cadmium waste and scrap; powders
Anti-oxidising preps. & oth. compound stabilisers for rubber/plastics
Mineral or chemical fertilizers, phosphatic
Phosphatic fertilizers and materials
Ash & residues (excl. from the manufacture of iron/steel) containing antimony/beryllium/cadmium/chromium/their mixtures
Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might containing cadmium
Second hand mobile phones that might contain cadmium
Any additional products containing cadmium that are treaded in your country? Please specify and give details.
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead
and mercury
3.3
Products containing mercury
Does your country have any system in place to register the intended use of products containing mercury
before import/export? YES / NO . If YES what kind of systems are in place?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
During the collection and reporting of trade statistics in your country, is there any requirement to identify
the final destination or use of products containing mercury being transported?. YES / NO.
If YES, please give details and respond through the relevant tables below.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
Give names of the trade partners of products containing mercury in your country.
Import Partners: ……………………………………………………………………………………….
Export Partners: ……………………………………………………………….....................................
Re-exported partners:…………………………………………………………………………………...
Please provide data on the production, use, export, import and re-export of products containing mercury for
the year 2000-2006 to Africa and within Africa, as indicated in the following tables:
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)
2000
Products containing mercury
Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode
2001
2002
P
U
E
I
R
P
U
E
I
R
P
P
R
I
R
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers, etc
Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultra-violet
lamps), mercury/sodium vapour ...
Primary cells & primary batteries, mercuric
oxide
ELEC.SWITCH.RELAY.CIRCUT
Input/output units (of auto. data processing
machines), whether or not cont. storage units
in the same housing
Radio and TV transmitters, television
cameras
Cathode-ray television picture tubes, incl.
video monitor cathode-ray tubes, black &
white/oth. monochrome
Thermionic and cold cathode valves and
tubes
Organo-mercury compounds
Ash & residues (excl. from the mfr. of
iron/steel) cont. mainly
arsenic/mercury/thallium/their mixts.
Thermionic, cold cathode or photo-cathode
valves and tubes (e.g., vacuum or vapour or
gas-filled valves and tubes, mercury arc
rectifying valves and tubes, cathode-ray
tubes, television camera tubes); diodes,
transistors and similar semiconductor
devices.
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Second hand electric and electronic products
such as computers which might containing
mercury
Second hand mobile phones that might
contain mercury
Skin lightening creams which might contain
mercury
Any additional products containing mercury
that are treaded in your country? Please
specify and give details.
135
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)
2003
Products containing mercury
Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode
2004
2005
P
U
E
I
R
P
U
E
I
R
P
P
R
I
R
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers, etc
Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultra-violet
lamps), mercury/sodium vapour ...
Primary cells & primary batteries, mercuric
oxide
ELEC.SWITCH.RELAY.CIRCUT
Input/output units (of auto. data processing
machines), whether or not cont. storage units
in the same housing
Radio and TV transmitters, television
cameras
Cathode-ray television picture tubes, incl.
video monitor cathode-ray tubes, black &
white/oth. monochrome
Thermionic and cold cathode valves and
tubes
Organo-mercury compounds
Ash & residues (excl. from the mfr. of
iron/steel) cont. mainly
arsenic/mercury/thallium/their mixts.
Thermionic, cold cathode or photo-cathode
valves and tubes (e.g., vacuum or vapour or
gas-filled valves and tubes, mercury arc
rectifying valves and tubes, cathode-ray
tubes, television camera tubes); diodes,
transistors and similar semiconductor
devices.
136
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Second hand electric and electronic products
such as computers which might containing
mercury
Second hand mobile phones that might
contain mercury
Skin lightening creams which might contain
mercury
Any additional products containing mercury
that are treaded in your country? Please
specify and give details.
137
Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Key: P-Production: U-Used: E- Export, I –Import, R-Re-export (Units: kg)
2006
Products containing mercury
Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode
P
U
E
I
R
89765
89765
89765
89765
89765
Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers, etc
Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultra-violet lamps), mercury/sodium vapour ...
Primary cells & primary batteries, mercuric oxide
ELEC.SWITCH.RELAY.CIRCUT
Input/output units (of auto. data processing machines), whether or not cont. storage units in the same housing
Radio and TV transmitters, television cameras
Cathode-ray television picture tubes, incl. video monitor cathode-ray tubes, black & white/oth. monochrome
Thermionic and cold cathode valves and tubes
Organo-mercury compounds
Ash & residues (excl. from the mfr. of iron/steel) cont. mainly arsenic/mercury/thallium/their mixts.
Thermionic, cold cathode or photo-cathode valves and tubes (e.g., vacuum or vapour or gas-filled valves and tubes, mercury arc
rectifying valves and tubes, cathode-ray tubes, television camera tubes); diodes, transistors and similar semiconductor devices.
Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might containing mercury
Second hand mobile phones that might contain mercury
Skin lightening creams which might contain mercury
Any additional products containing mercury that are treaded in your country? Please specify and give details.
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cadmium, lead and mercury
.
4. ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND INITIATIVES
4.1 Do you have any awareness raising activities on the effects of lead, cadmium and mercury?
YES / NO. If YES, please provide names and contact details of key organization(s) that
provide such activities.
Organization name ………………………………………………………………………
Contact person and detailed address ……………………………………………………
Organization name ………………………………………………………………………
Contact person and detailed address ……………………………………………………
(use another sheet of paper if necessary)
4.2 Are you aware or have you reported cases of possible effects on human health and the
environment from products containing, lead, cadmium and mercury in your country? YES /
NO.
If YES, provide a brief on the case(s) and some reference material, if possible.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(use another sheet of paper if necessary)
4.3 Does your country have policies and regulations to prevent and control production, use and
disposal of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury? YES / NO.
If YES, please list them below:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
(use another sheet of paper if necessary)
4.4 Does your country have any strategy for collection, recycling, transportation and disposal of
products and/or waste containing lead, cadmium and mercury? YES/NO. If YES please
mention:

National strategies………………………………………………………………………

International strategies……………………………………………………………………

International strategies……………………………………………………………………

NGO strategies…………………………………………..………………………….……

Regional / sub-regional strategies…………………………………………………………
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cadmium, lead and mercury
.
4.5 Has waste of products containing lead, mercury and cadmium been recognized/appreciated
as a threat for human health and environment in your country? YES / NO. If YES, are there
any initiatives which are in place to manage/alleviate the problem?. Provide a brief on them.

National strategies………………………………………………………………………

International strategies……………………………………………………………………

International strategies……………………………………………………………………

NGO strategies…………………………………………..………………………….……

Regional / sub-regional strategies…………………………………………………………
4.6 Does your country have facilities to measure the levels / amount of lead, cadmium and
mercury in:
Water
Air
Soil
Products
– Yes/No
– Yes/No
– Yes/No
- Yes / No
If the answer is YES, what type of facilities does your country have? Government and/or
private laboratories, universities, technical institutes, etc?
Do you have any views or suggestions on measures that could be implemented at national,
regional or global level to better understand the trade of products containing lead, cadmium
and mercury, and to take steps to reduce the potential effects to human health and the
environment
resulting
from
this
trade?...........................................................................................................................................
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
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cadmium, lead and mercury
.
ANNEX COMMODITY CLASSIFICATIONS AND CODES
PRODUCTS CONTAINING LEAD
CODE
HS1992-850710
HS1992-850720
HS96 - 262020
HS92 - 2824
HS92 - 282410
HS96- 381111
HS02-780300
HS92-7804
HS02-780200
HS02-960920
HS02-262021
HS92-7805
SITC 3-6851
SITC 3-6852
SITC 3 - 52375
HS96-7016
SITC 1 - 71421
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Lead-acid electric accumulators (vehicle)
Lead-acid electric accumulators except for vehicles
Ash or residues containing mainly lead
Lead oxides, red lead, orange lead
Lead monoxide (litharge, massicot)
Anti-knock preparations based on lead comps.
Lead bars, rods, profiles and wire.
Lead plates, sheets, strip and foil; lead powders and flakes.
Lead waste and scraps
Pencils lead, black/coloured
Leaded gasoline sludges & leaded anti-knock compound sludges
Lead tubes, pipes and tube or pipe fittings (for example, couplings, elbows,
sleeves).
Lead and lead alloys unwrought
Lead and lead alloys, worked
Lead carbonates
Glass blocks, bricks, tiles, leaded lights, etc.
Electronic computers
Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might contain lead
Second hand mobile phones that might contain lead.
PRODUCTS CONTAINING CADMIUM
CODE
HS02- 283030
SITC3-53313
HS 92- 850730
SITC C3-68982
HS96-381230
SITC.4-5622
SITC.1-5612
HS07-262091
PRODUCT DECRIPTION
Cadmium sulphide (Electroplating)
Pigments and preparations based on cadmium compounds
Nickel-cadmium electric accumulators
Cadmium, unwrought; cadmium waste and scrap; powders
Anti-oxidising preps. & oth. compound stabilisers for rubber/plastics
Mineral or chemical fertilizers, phosphatic
Phosphatic fertilizers and materials
Ash & residues (excl. from the manufacture of iron/steel) containing
antimony/beryllium/cadmium/chromium/their mixtures
Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might contain cadmium
Second hand mobile phones that might contain cadmium.
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cadmium, lead and mercury
.
PRODUCTS CONTAINING MERCURY
CODE
HS92 -853931
HS92-9025
HS02-853932
...
HS02-850630
SITC3-772
HS02-847160
HS92-8525
H02-854012
HS96-8540
SITC.2-51551 and
SITC.1-51283
HS02-262060
SITC.4-776
PRODUCT DECRIPTION
Fluorescent lamps, hot cathode
Hydrometers, thermometers, barometers, etc
Electric discharge lamps (excl. ultra-violet lamps), mercury/sodium vapour
Primary cells & primary batteries, mercuric oxide
ELEC.SWITCH.RELAY.CIRCUT
Input/output units (of auto. data processing machines), whether or not cont.
storage units in the same housing
Radio and TV transmitters, television cameras
Cathode-ray television picture tubes, incl. video monitor cathode-ray tubes,
black & white/oth. monochrome
Thermionic and cold cathode valves and tubes
Organo-mercury compounds
Ash & residues (excl. from the mfr. of iron/steel) cont. mainly
arsenic/mercury/thallium/their mixts.
Thermionic, cold cathode or photo-cathode valves and tubes (e.g., vacuum
or vapour or gas-filled valves and tubes, mercury arc rectifying valves and
tubes, cathode-ray tubes, television camera tubes); diodes, transistors and
similar semiconductor devices.
Second hand electric and electronic products such as computers which might contain mercury
Second hand mobile phones that might contain mercury.
Skin lightening creams which might contain mercury
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cadmium, lead and mercury
.
ANNEX 6A : SUMMARY OF RESPONSES TO THE
QUESTIONNAIRE FROM GOVERNMENTS, IGOs AND NGOs
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
A:
AFRICAN STATES
SUBMISSION RESPONSES/COUNTRY
QUESTION
System in place to register the intended use of products
containing Cd, Pb and/or Hg before import/export/re-export
Burkina Faso
Seychelles
Togo
None
None
Products containing
Pb: Yes – Customs
Office
Products containing
Cd: No
Requirement to identify final destination of products.
None
None
Products containing
Hg: Yes – Customs
Office
Products containing
Pb: YES - Exterior and
Interior Trade
(Ministère du
Commerce; de
l’Industrie et des
Petites et Moyennes
Entreprises)
Products containing
Cd: No
Products containing
Hg: Yes - Exterior and
Interior Trade
(Ministère du
Commerce; de
l’Industrie et des
Petites et Moyennes
Entreprises)
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
Policies and regulations to prevent and control production,
use and disposal of products containing lead, cadmium and
mercury
None
None
SUBMISSION RESPONSES/COUNTRY
QUESTION
Awareness activities on the effects of products containing
cadmium, lead and/or mercury
Awareness on Cases of possible effects on human health
and environment
Strategies for collection, recycling, transport and disposal
of products containing cadmium, lead and/or mercury
No
Burkina Faso
Available
Seychelles
None
Yes
None
Burkina Faso is a mining country.
There is an industrial production
mainly of gold, but we have an
important informal production. In
this case they use a lot of mercury
with possible effects on human
health and the environment
None, but an action plan is being
prepared.
Togo
None
None
None
None
Waste recognised / appreciated as a threat for human
health and environment.
None
Facilities to monitor or measure levels of Cd, Pb & Hg in
products, water, air and soil
Water Air
Soil
Products -
NO
NO
NO
NO
Water – Yes, but in ppm
level for lead & cadmium
Air – No
Soil – Yes, but in ppm
level for lead & cadmium
Products - Yes, but in ppm
level for lead & cadmium
Water – YES
Air
– No
Soil
– No
Products- No
Views or suggestions on measures that could be
implemented at national, regional or global level to better
understand the trade of the products
Many countries don’t have actions
plan of products containing lead,
cadmium and mercury
management. Each country must
elaborate its action plan. In second
time we have to implement it. But
Nationally, it is important
that specific regulations be
established for the trading
and use of such products.
These regulations should
cover the whole life-cycle
a) Reduce the informal trade;
b) Find new alternatives;
c) Have the registrations for
trade
importation
exportation;
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it is not evident because the most
of those countries don’t have
sufficient capacities technically
and materially for products
containing lead, cadmium and
mercury sustainable management
c) Have the data of inventory
SUBMISSION RESPONSES/COUNTRY
QUESTION
Trade data and trade partners for products containing
cadmium, lead and mercury
of the products right from
the moment of entering
the country to its final
disposal or re-cycling. The
same approach could be
extended
on
an
international or regional
scale.
Burkina Faso
None
Seychelles
Import partners: the products
are
imported
by
licensed
importers
Export partners: No exporters
Re-exported partners: No reexporters
Import
data
for
products
containing Cd, Pb and Hg for the
period 2000 to 2006 provided
Togo
Import partners:
France; United
States of
America;
England;
Belgium; China;
Holland; Brazil
Nigeria
Indonesia; Hon
Kong and
German.
Re-exported
partners for
products
containing Hg:
Niger; Burkina
Faso; Mali;
Ghana; Chad;
Nigeria.
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B:
OTHER STATES OUTSIDE AFRICA
SUBMISSION RESPONSES/COUNTRY
QUESTION
Czech Republic
System in place to register the intended
use of products containing Cd, Pb and/or
Hg before import/export/re-export
Yes
EU
legislation:
Council Regulation
(EEC) No 2658/87 of
23 July 1987 on the
tariff and statistical
nomenclature
and
on the Common
Customs Tariff etc.
Czech
legislation:
Tariff
law
No.
13/1993 Sb.
Requirement to identify final destination
of products.
69
/
European
Community69/
Finland
Sweden
Briefly there are no completely
covering systems in place to register
the intended use of products
containing lead, cadmium or mercury
before import/export/re-export.
Finland however has a register for
chemical products on the market, and
also a common Nordic database
(SPIN) based on the publicly available
parts of the same data, but these do
not cover all other technical products,
articles and materials containing heavy
metals. The direct internet address to
the Nordic online database is http://195.215.251.22
9/DotNetNuke/default.aspx
Yes.
EU
legislation:
Council Regulation
(EEC) No 2658/87 of
23 July 1987 on the
tariff and statistical
nomenclature
and
on the Common
Customs Tariff etc.
Czech legislation:
Tariff law No.
13/1993 Sb.
The European Community (EC) legislation reported here applies to all Member States of the EC. Currently, there are 15 Member States: Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Finland,
France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Portugal, Spain, Sweden and the United Kingdom.
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SUBMISSION RESPONSES/COUNTRY
QUESTION
Czech Republic
Policies and regulations to prevent and
control production, use and disposal of
products containing lead, cadmium and
mercury
European
Community
Finland
Sweden
Yes.
EU Legislation
Czech legislation: Water law No
254/2001sb; Waste law No
185/2001sb; Chemical law No
356/2003sb; Law on Air pollution
No 86/2002 sb
Awareness activities on the effects of
products containing cadmium, lead and/or
mercury
Awareness on Cases of possible effects on
human health and environment
Strategies for collection, recycling,
transport and disposal of products
containing cadmium, lead and/or mercury
Yes
No
YES
Yes
National Strategies: The Waste
Management Plan of the Czech
Republic stipulates the objectives
and measures for waste
management in the territory of the
Czech Republic, in accordance with
the principles of sustainable
development
Waste recognised / appreciated as a threat
for human health and environment.
International Strategies: Waste
Framework Directive
Yes
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
SUBMISSION RESPONSES/COUNTRY
QUESTION
Czech Republic
Facilities to monitor levels of Cd, Pb and
Hg in products, water, air and soil
European
Community
Finland
Sweden
Water – Yes
Air
– Yes
Soil
– Yes
Products - Yes
Views or suggestions on measures that
could be implemented at national,
regional or global level to better
understand the trade of the products
Trade data and partners
-
Trade data are
based on UN
COMTRADE and are
available at
http://madb.europ
a.eu/mkaccdb2/st
atistical_form.htm
,
http://exporthelp.
europa.eu/thdapp/
comext/ComextSer
vlet?languageId=EN
Export data of
products containing
Cd, Pb and Hg to all
African countries for
the period 2000 to
2006 provided
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Study on the possible effects on human health and the environment in Africa of the trade of products containing cadmium, lead and mercury
C:
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS AND NON-GOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZAITIONS
QUESTION
SUBMISSION RESPONSES/ORGANIZATION
WHO
Toxics Link, NGO, India
System in place to register the intended use of products containing
Cd, Pb and/or Hg before import/export/re-export
None
Requirement to identify final destination of products.
No
Policies and regulations to prevent and control production, use and
disposal of products containing lead, cadmium and mercury
Awareness activities on the effects of products containing cadmium,
lead and/or mercury
Yes
Yes
Yes
Teaching material for the
health sector on lead and
children's health;
Information sheet on mercury :
http://www.who.int/phe/new
s/Mercury-flyer.pdf
Policy paper on mercury in
health care:
http://www.who.int/water_sa
nitation_health/medicalwaste/
mercurypolpap230506.pdf
World Health Organization
Regional Office for Africa:
website
contains
relevant
material http://afro.who.int/
Awareness on Cases of possible effects on human health and
environment
Yes - Mass lead poisoning in
Thiaroye sur Mer, Dakar
Yes
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Strategies for collection, recycling, transport and disposal of
products containing cadmium, lead and/or mercury
Waste recognised / appreciated as a threat for human health and
environment
QUESTION
Yes
SUBMISSION RESPONSES/ORGANIZATION
World Health Organization
(WHO)
Facilities to monitor levels of Cd, Pb and/or Hg in products, water,
air and soil
Views or suggestions on measures that could be implemented at
national, regional or global level to better understand the trade of
the products
Should identify existing facilities
for measuring Cd, Pb and Hg in
blood & urine, and also food.
Toxics Link, NGO, India
1. Labeling and information
availability on products
2. Information availability to
various stakeholders who come in
contact with them through out
their life cycle.
3. Substitution of lead cadmium
and mercury in products by cleaner
alternatives
4. Working with medical
community to improve
sensitization of health impacts.
5. Specific disposal guidance for
such products at end-of-life
Trade data and partners
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cadmium, lead and mercury
.
Top Six Products Containing Hg. Cd, Pb Exported by Sweden into African Countries:
2000 – 2006.
Submission from Sweden
Quantity (Kg), Product and HS Code
Country
Angola
Benin
Burkina Faso
Botswana
C. African Rep.
Congo
Cote d Ivoire
Cameroon
The DRC
Egypt
Ethiopia
Gabon
Ghana
Gambia
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Morocco
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Malawi
Mozambique
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Seycheles
Sudan
Siera Leone
Senegal
Togo
Electrical
apparatus for
voltage > 1
kv, nes HS
853590
Lead
unwrought
containing
mostly
antimony
HS 780191
Digital auto
data
processing
units
HS 847149
1,694
Lead bars,
rods, profiles
and wire
HS 780300
Refined
Lead
HS
780110
451
22
23
3,736
3,343
11
12,670
414
703,708
24,406
600
1,155
8
Portable digital
processing
machines
HS 847130
300,000
47
1
311
209
196
1470
4740
360
3789
20
2085
13
9614
53594
18236
606
16
33
8,561
38,985
431
2
740
2
10,487
4,251
79
872,727
126
409,936
1,845
35,225
30
6
472
504
100483
129
163
483
1350
3560
1
23
1
26
46,496
345
52
3
2
30
7
278
10
947
108
10
34
50,964
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Quantity (Kg), Product and HS Code
Country
Tunisia
Tanzania
Uganda
South Africa
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Total
Electrical
apparatus for
voltage > 1
kv, nes HS
853590
Lead
unwrought
containing
mostly
antimony
HS 780191
27,612
36,617
9,602
59,424
4,508
18,111
2,291,005
Digital auto
data
processing
units
HS 847149
300,000
Portable digital
processing
machines
HS 847130
276
383
34
2305
579
1
121,969
Lead bars,
rods, profiles
and wire
HS 780300
246
11677
7521
1722
1831
41
109,551
Refined
Lead
HS
780110
9,000
55,496
50,964
Import Data for the period 2000 to 2006 for cadmium, lead and mercury (kg)
Submission from Seychelles
HSCODE
3811.1100
7803.0000
7805.0000
8507.1000
8507.2000
8507.3000
8539.3100
8540.1200
9609.2000
2.850630
92.8525
2.850630
2.847160
92.8525
92.9025
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
75
27
163
13,326
157
34
2,273
0
1,065
257
190
21,902
66,337
13,069
89,751
0
0
25
52,990
982
196
3,921
0
686
387
2,615
23,502
63,462
21,975
90,652
0
822
0
48,040
314
52
4,216
3
2,268
739
95
19,469
75,172
43,881
97,743
152
2
52
35,391
725
133
3,245
99
581
130
224
32,733
95,046
11,337
128,714
132
24
84
55,684
1,619
245
4,806
0
892
149
183
32,059
73,586
12,626
106,869
0
95
552
39,486
3,551
557
1,811
2
1,632
126
130
32,907
107,381
26,142
142,176
0
0
0
60,364
5,533
127
5,284
0
744
369
727
31,445
65,120
12,502
98,405
SITC
772.000
776.000
533.130
562.220
177,943
20,019
19
1,000
243,069
12,396
188
13,253
205,420
14,105
126
2,663
171,657
2,808
391
0
166,275
6,607
3,493
0
353,768
1,945
15
5,000
183,008
1,395
1
5,282
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.
ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AU
African Union
AMCEN
African Ministerial Conference on the Environment
ARSCP
African Roundtable on Sustainable Consumption and Production
BAN
Basel Action Network
BAJ
Battery Association of Japan
BAT
Best Available Techniques
BCRC
Basel Convention Regional Centres
°C
degree Celsius (centigrade)
Cd
Cadmium
CAI-SSA
Clean Air Initiative in Sub-Saharan African Cities
CFSK
Computers For Schools Kenya
CNS
Central Nervous System
CREPD
Centre de Recherches et d'Education pour le Développement,
Cameroon
CRT
Cathode Ray Tube
DANCED
Danish Co-operation for Environment and Development
DEAT
Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism
DWAF
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
EAC
East African Community
EMA
Environmental Management Act
EU
European Union
GC
Governing Council
g.cm-3
Gram per cubic centimeters
g.mol -1
Gram per mole
Hg
Mercury
Hg2+ or Hg(II)
divalent mercury
HS
Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System
IARC
International Agency for Research on Cancer
IDB
Inter-American Development Bank
ICdA
International Cadmium Association
IGO
Intergovernmental Organizations
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IOMC
.
Inter-Organization Programme for the Sound Management of
Chemicals
IPCS
International Programme on Chemical Safety
ITC
International Trade Commission
ILZSG
International Lead and Zinc Study Group
LRTAP
Long - Range Transboundary Air Pollution
km
kilometre
mg
milligram
ng
nanogram (10-9 gram)
µg
microgram (10-6 gram);
NEMA
National Environmental Management Authority
NEPAD
New Partnership for Africa’s Development
NWMS
National Waste Management Strategy
NCPC
National Cleaner Production Centre
NGO
Non-governmental organizations
OECD
Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development
Ni
Nickel
P
Phosphorus
PIC
Prior Informed Concert
PCFV
Partnership for Clean Fuels and Vehicles
PM
particulate matter
ppb
parts per billion
ppm
parts per million
pH
Power of Hydrogen (measure for acidity or basicity of a solution)
PTWI
Provisional Tolerable Weakly Intake
PVC
Poly vinyl chloride
RBRC
Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation
SITC
Standard International Trade Classification
SCP
Sustainable Consumption and Production
SEAMIC
Southern and Eastern Africa Mineral Centre
TV
Television
UN
United Nations
TRAINS
Trade Analysis and Information System
UNCOMTRADE
United Nations Commodity Trade Statistics Database
UNSD
United Nations Statistics Division
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UNECE
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
UNEP
United Nations Environment Programme
UNIDO
United Nations Industrial Development Organization
USA
United States of America
WB
World Bank
WHO
World Health Organization
10YFP
Ten Year Framework of Programmes
<
less than
>
greater than
.
156
157