Background Guide: World Health Organization (WHO)
When United Nations diplomats convened in 1945, an aspect on their agenda
included the setup of a global health organization. Thus, as of April 7, 1948, the WHO
Constitution came into effect—a date now recognized as World Health day. It was
established that all countries that are Members of the UN are eligible to become a part of
WHO by accepting its Constitution. The executive board is comprised of individuals
designated in accordance to WHO region. In terms of its role in the United Nations in its
entirety, WHO is responsible for directing and coordinating authority for health within
the global system. WHO also provides leadership on global health matters, shapes the
health research agenda, articulates evidence-based policy options, distributes technical
support to countries, and assesses current health trends.
Topic A: Air Pollution
According to recent statistics provided by the WHO, around 7 million people died
in 2012 as a result of air pollution, accounting for one in eight total global deaths in that
year. Effecting rural as well as urban areas, both indoor and outdoor air pollution
exposure have been directly linked to cardiovascular diseases such as strokes, ischaemic
heart disease, and cancer. Common indoor pollutants are emitted by household stoves of
coal, wood, or biomass types (WHO). However, the most dangerous pollutants are traced
back to dirty coal and fossil fuel smoke stacks. Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs) are
derived from these smokestacks, and include substances such as mercury, benzene, and
dioxins. These have a harmful effect on people located within a mile of power plants.
Also, smog can lead to decreased lung function and increased respiratory ailments, such
as asthma, in previously healthy people. The prevalence of health risk inevitably leads to
a heavy burden of cost. Air pollution is an important issue to recognize because about 37
million children live in areas with unhealthy air. On a body-weight basis, children inhale
more dust and toxins from the air than adults and are therefore more prone to pollutioncaused diseases (NRDC). With all of these factors considered, air pollution could be
considered the world’s largest single environmental health risk.
Industrialization has proliferated in developing countries as a means to produce
economic development. However, the economic benefit of industrialization often
overshadows the environmental detriment. Many countries are faced with the difficult
task of balancing industrial needs with environmental costs. The environmental damage
and public harm resulting from air pollution is becoming more and more apparent and
crucial. Thus, nations must embrace environmental protection as part of their
international competitive strategy and search for solutions to maintain the economic
benefits of industrialization. Proactive environmental management can be accelerated by
pressures from the UN on the public, industries, and governments to assure a cleaner
environment.
In order to alleviate health problems caused by air pollution, the UN developed
the Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication, and Ground-level Ozone in 1999.
The Protocol sets standards for Europe specifically, setting emission ceilings for 2010 for
sulfur, nitrogen oxides (NOx), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and ammonia. As of
2012, the protocol was amended to set emission reduction commitments to be achieved in
2020 and beyond, and included countries in the Caucasus and Central Asia (UN
Economic Commission for Europe). The UN has also made efforts towards spreading
awareness about the dangers of air pollution and sharing clean air alternatives in order to
reduce toxic emissions. In many countries, public demand for more responsible
environmental practices can be just as effective as government regulations and legal
liabilities for environmental damage.
Possible solutions for reducing toxic emissions from power plants include cleaner
energy alternatives such as wind or solar energy. These methods do not rely on the
combustion of fuel, and therefore cannot emit harmful pollutants. It is also significant
that wind and solar energies are sustainable because they are constantly renewed (U.S.
Department of Energy). Due to the fact that everyday household items can also emit
dangerous pollutants, it should also be considered that small efforts could be made at
home (California Environmental Protection Agency). Taking simple steps such as turning
off any unused electronics, reusing or recycling grocery bags, and buying products made
from sustainable resources can ultimately make a difference in the world’s carbon
footprint.
Questions to Consider
- What is your country’s policy in regards to air pollution in sectors such as transport,
energy, waste management, and industry? How much pressure is being placed on
corporations and industries to perform environmental responsibility, and where is this
pressure most effective? How sustainable are these policies, especially in curbing
healthcare costs in the long run?
Works Cited
“7 Million Premature Deaths Annually Linked to Air Pollution." WHO. N.p., n.d. Web.
15
May 2014. <http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/airpollution/en/>.
"Advantages and Challenges of Wind Energy." Energy.gov. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 May
2014. <http://energy.gov/eere/wind/advantages-and-challenges-wind-energy>.
"Gasping for Air: Toxic Pollutants Continue to Make Millions Sick and Shorten Lives."
NRDC:. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 May 2014. <http://www.nrdc.org/health/air
pollutionhealthimpacts.asp>.
"Protocol to Abate Acidification, Eutrophication and Ground-level Ozone - Air Pollution
- Environmental Policy - UNECE." UNECE. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 May 2014.
<http://www.unece.org/env/lrtap/multi_h1.html>.
"Simple Solutions to Help Reduce Air Pollution." California Environmental Protection
Agency. N.p., n.d. Web. 15 May 2014. <http://www.arb.ca.gov/homepage.htm>.
Topic B: Genetically Modified Organisms
Technological advances and increasing stresses on the world’s food supply have
ensured the increased use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Plants
domesticated for agriculture are the most well known examples of GMOs. These plants
are typically engineered for better crop yield, enhanced food quality and nutrient
composition, resistance to disease and pests, and medicinal benefits. Other genetic
advances have allowed some plants to flourish in areas and conditions where they would
not otherwise grow. Genetic modification is not limited to plants; domesticated animals
have also been modified to increase production yield by breeding offspring that are
continuously larger, faster to mature, and disease resistant. GMOs have also been used in
the pharmaceutical industry. For example, the human growth hormone was the first
protein pharmaceutical made in plants in 1986 (Phillips). With increasing global
population, massive world hunger, and a death toll rising due to starvation, advances in
technology can benefit farmers and societies worldwide. GMOs have made it possible to
feed more people more nutritious food, prevent pest or drought related famine, create
foods with longer shelf life for easier transportation, generate bigger yields for more
efficient use of land, and are viewed by many as an essential and sustainable way to feed
the world.
However, despite the numerous benefits reaped from the usage of GMOs, the
debate over its risks is inevitable. Several researchers argue that the modification of an
organism’s genetic makeup can lead to unpredictable results, especially since the field of
study is relatively new. These risks are largely dependent on the specific genetic
modifications, the organism’s history, and the properties of the ecosystem in which it is
to be released (Peterson, et. al.). Also new reports have indicated that the production of
select GMOs has led to an increased need for herbicides, posing major environmental and
health risks (USDA). Due to the fact that knowledge of GMOs is still so limited, it is
difficult to determine whether its benefits effectively outweigh the risks.
As of 2004, the United Nations Environmental Programme adopted the Cartagena
Protocol on Biosafety. The new system regulates international trade of GMOs, featuring
new requirements for labeling and documentation. Under this protocol, the
documentation accompanying bulk shipments of GMOs is to include contact details of
the importer or exporter (UNEP). The establishment of a system for labeling and
identifying GMO exports effectively ensures cooperating countries a greater confidence
in using biotechnology, all the while helping avoid potential risks.
The three most prevalent issues surrounding GMOs include gene transfer to nontarget species, unintended harm to other organisms, and reduced effectiveness of
pesticides. Though these three issues appear to be significant, possible solutions to
resolving them are prevalent as well. For example, the problem of gene transfer amongst
non-target species can be resolved by creating GM plants that do not produce pollen. The
outcome of this proposal relates to the effects on other organisms. As a result of this
strategy, cross-pollination would not occur. Also, measures could be made for farmers to
create buffer zones of non-GM crops around the GM fields, as this could be more
environmentally conscious and prevent an excessive usage of pesticides while also
keeping gene transfer from occurring (CSA). Though the cost-benefit analysis of GMO
use is complicated, the issue can be addressed by creating initiatives that tackle genetic
engineering at its core.
Questions to Consider:
-Do the public health benefits of GMOs outweigh their potential risks?
-How can the WHO ensure that GMOs don’t contaminate the general food supply, and
how can evaluation of GMOs be improved?
Works Cited
"Genetically Modified Foods: Harmful or Helpful?" ProQuest. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 May
2014. <http://www.csa.com/discoveryguides/gmfood/overview.php>.
"GMO Crops May Cause Major Environmental Risks, USDA Admits." RT USA. N.p., 24
Feb. 2014. Web. 19 May 2014. <http://rt.com/usa/usda-gmo-risk-report-537/>.
Peterson, G., Et. Al. "Conservation Ecology: The Risks and Benefits of Genetically
Modified Crops: A Multidisciplinary Perspective." Conservation Ecology: The
Risks and Benefits of Genetically Modified Crops: A Multidisciplinary
Perspective. N.p., 2000. Web. 19 May 2014. <http://www.ecologyand
society.org/vol4/iss1/art13/>.
Phillips, Theresa. "Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs): Transgenic Crops and
Recombinant DNA Technology." Nature.com. Nature Publishing Group, n.d.
Web. 19 May 2014. <http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/geneticallymodified-organisms-gmos-transgenic-crops-and-732>.
"UN Announces New Measures to Boost Safety in Trade of Genetically Modified
Organisms." UN News Center. UN, 27 Feb. 2004. Web. 19 May 2014.
<http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp?NewsID=9909&Cr=Health&Cr1=GMO
s#.U3ocgy_gUrU>.