ENGLISH FACULTY
correspondent department
THEORY OF ENGLISH GRAMMAR
1. Morphology and syntax as part of grammar. Units of grammar, their functions and
types of relations between them in language and speech.
Main units of Grammar are a word and a sentence. A word may be divided into morphemes, a
sentence may be divided into phrases (word-groups). A morpheme, a word, a phrase and a sentence
are units of different levels of language structure. A unit of a higher level consists of one or more
units of a lower level.
Grammatical units - 2 types of relations:
- in the language system (paradigmatic relations)
- in speech (syntagmatic relations).
In the language system each unit is included into a set of connections based on different
properties. F. ex., word forms child, children, child's, children's have the same lexical meaning and
have different grammatical meanings. They constitute a lexeme.
Word-forms children, boys, men, books... have the same grammatical meaning and have
different lexical meanings. They constitute a grammeme (a categorial form, a form class). The
system of all grammemes (grammatical forms) of all lexemes (words) of a given class constitutes a
paradigm.
Syntagmatic relations are the relations in an utterance.
Main grammatical units, a word and a sentence, are studied by different sections of Grammar:
Morphology (Accidence) and Syntax. Morphology studies the structure, forms and the classification
of words. Syntax studies the structure, forms and the classification of sentences. Morphology studies
paradigmatic relations of words, Syntax studies syntagmatic relations of words and paradigmatic
relations of sentences.
There is also a new approach to the division of Grammar into Morphology and Syntax.
According to this approach Morphology should study both paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations
of words. Syntax should study both paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations of sentences. Syntactic
syntagmatics is a relatively new field of study, reflecting the discourse.
2. Grammatical meaning and grammatical form. Means of form-building. Synthetic and
analytical forms.
The grammatical meaning and grammatical form are the basic notions of Grammar.
The grammatical meaning is a general, abstract meaning which embraces classes of words.
The grammatical meaning depends on the lexical meaning. It is connected with objective reality
indirectly, through the lexical meaning. The grammatical meaning is relative, it is revealed in
relations of word forms, e.g. speak - speaks. The grammatical meaning is obligatory. Grammatical
meaning must be expressed if the speaker wants to be understood.
The grammatical meaning must have a grammatical form of expression (inflexions, analytical
forms, word-order, etc.). The term form may be used in a wide sense to denote all means of
expressing grammatical meanings. It may be also used in a narrow sense to denote means of
expressing a particular grammatical meaning (plural, number, present tense, etc.).
Grammatical elements are unities of meaning and form, content and expression. In the
language system there is no direct correspondence of meaning and form. Two or more units of the
plane of content may correspond to one unit of the plane of expression (polysemy; homonymy).
1
Two or more units of the plane of expression may correspond to one unit of the plane of content
(synonymy).
Means of form-building and grammatical forms are divided into synthetic and analytical.
Synthetic forms are built with the help of bound morphemes, analytical forms are built with the
help of semi-bound morphemes (word-morphemes).
Synthetic means of form-building are affixation, sound-interchange (inner-inflexion),
suppletivity. Typical features of English affixation are scarcity and homonymy of affixes. Another
characteristic feature is a great number of zero-morphemes.
Though English grammatical affixes are few in number, affixation is a productive means of
form-building.
Sound interchange may be of two types: vowel- and consonant-interchange. It is often
accompanied by affixation: bring - brought.
Sound interchange is not productive in Modem English. It is used to build the forms of
irregular verbs.
Forms of one word may be derived from different roots: go - went. This means of formbuilding is called suppletivity. Different roots may be treated as suppletive forms if:
1) they have the same lexical meaning;
2) there are no parallel non-suppletive forms;
3) other words of the same class build their forms without suppletivity.
Suppletivity, like inner inflexion, is hot productive in Modem English, but it occurs in words
with a very high frequency.
Analytical forms are combinations of the auxiliary element (a word morpheme) and the
notional element: is writing. Analytical forms are contradictory units: phrases in form and
wordforms in function. In the analytical form is writing the auxiliary verb be is lexically empty. It
expresses the, grammatical meaning. The notional element expresses both the lexical and the
grammatical meaning. So the grammatical meaning is expressed by the two components of the
analytical form: the auxiliary verb be and the affix ing. The word-morpheme be and the inflexion ing constitute a discontinuous morpheme.
3. Structure of words. Grammatically relevant types of morphemes.
The smallest meaningful units of grammar are called morphemes. Morphemes are commonly
classified into free (those which can occur as separate words) and bound. A word consisting of a
single (free) morpheme is monomorphemic, its opposite is polymorphemic.
According to their meaning and function morphemes are subdivided into lexical (roots),lexico-grammatical (word-building affixes) and grammatical (form-building affixes, or inflexions).
Morphemes are abstract units, represented in speech by morphs. Most morphemes are realized
by single morphs: unselfish. Some morphemes may be manifested by more than one morph
according to their position. Such alternative morphs, or positional variants of a morpheme are called
allomorphs: cats, [s], dogs [z], foxes [iz].
Morphemic variants are identified in the text on the basis of their cooccurence with other
morphs, or their environment. The total of environments constitutes the distribution.
There may be three types of morphemic distribution: contrastive, non-contrastive,
complementary. Morphs are in contrastive distribution if their position is the same and their
meanings are different: charming - charmed. Morphs are in non-contrastive distribution if their
position is the same and their meanings are the same: learned - learnt. Such morphs constitute free
variants of the same morpheme. Morphs are in complementary distribution if their positions are
different and their meanings are the same: speaks - teaches. Such morphs are allomorphs of the same
morpheme.
2
Grammatical meanings may be expressed by the absence of the morpheme: book - books. The
meaning of plurality is expressed by the morpheme -s. The meaning of singularity is expressed by
the absence of the morpheme. Such meaningful absence of the morpheme is called zero-morpheme.
The function of the morpheme may be performed by a separate word. In the opposition work will work the meaning of the future is expressed by the word will. Will is a contradictory unit.
Formally it is a word, functionally it is a morpheme. As it has the features of a word and a
morpheme, it is called a word morpheme. Word-morphemes may be called semi-bound morphemes.
4. Grammatical categories. Method of opposition (A.I. Smirnitsky).
Grammatical category is a system of expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means
of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms. Traditional categories are: the category of gender,
number, person, case, tense, mood, voice.
The set of grammatical forms constitutes a paradigm. The paradigmatic relations of
grammatical forms in a category are exposed in the so-called grammatical opposition. In other
words, grammatical category is some total of all the oppositions of words.
E.g. the category of number. The opposition of 2 forms: pen – pens (z). The correlated
members of the opposition must possess 2 types of features: common features (the basis of the
contrast) and differential features (immediately express the function in question): pen (weak
memeber) – pens (strong member).
Oppositions can be classified into qualitative types:
- privative: one member has a certain distinctive feature; this member is called marked, or
strong ( + ); the other member is characterized by the absence of this distinctive feature. This
member is called unmarked, or weak (-): (study (-) - studied (+),
- gradual: members of the opposition differ by the degree of certain property: (large - larger largest),
- equipollent: Both members of the opposition are marked (am+ - is+ - are+),
Most grammatical oppositions are privative. The marked (strong) member has a narrow and
definite meaning. The unmarked (weak) member has a wide, general meaning.
In certain contexts the difference between members of the opposition is lost, the opposition is
reduced to one member. Usually the weak member acquires the meaning of the strong member: We
leave for Moscow tomorrow. This kind of oppositional reduction is called neutralization. The strong
member may be used in the context typical for the weak member. This use is stylistically marked:
He is always complaining. This kind of reduction is called transposition.
By the number of opposemes - into binary, ternary, quaternary, etc.
Types of categories:
- notional (of quantity, agent);
- semantic (of gender, modality);
- morphological (number and case of nouns; degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs;
tense, voice, aspect, correlation, mood of verbs);
- syntactical (of predicativity, of agent).
Grammatical categories may be influenced by the lexical meaning. Such categories as number,
case, voice strongly depend on the lexical meaning. They are proper to certain subclasses of words.
As grammatical categories reflect relations existing in objective reality, different languages
may have the same categories. But the system and character of grammatical categories are
determined by the grammatical structure of a given language.
3
5. Parts of speech as lexico-grammatical classes of words. 3 principles of classifying
words into parts of speech.
Parts of speech are grammatical classes of words distinguished on the basis of 3 criteria:
semantic, morphological and syntactic, i.e. meaning, form and function.
1. Meaning (Semantic Properties).
Each part of speech is characterized by the general meaning which is an abstraction from the
lexical meanings of constituent words. (The general meaning of nouns is substance, the general
meaning of verbs is process, etc.)
This general meaning is understood as the categorial meaning of a class of words, or the partof-speech meaning.
Semantic properties of a part of speech find their expression in the grammatical properties. To
sleep, a sleep, sleepy, asleep refer to the same phenomenon of objective reality, but they belong to
different parts of speech, as their grammatical properties are different.
So meaning is a supportive criterion which helps to check the purely grammatical criteria,
those of form and function.
2. Form (Morphological Properties)
The formal criterion concerns the inflexional and derivational features of words belonging to a
given class, i.e. the grammatical categories (the paradigms) and derivational (stem-building, lexicogrammatical) morphemes.
This criterion is not always reliable as many words are invariable and many words contain no
derivational affixes. Besides, the same derivational affixes may be used to build different parts of
speech: -ly can end an adjective, an adverb, a noun: a daily; -tion can end a noun and a verb: to
position.
Because of the limitation of meaning and fonn as criteria we mainly rely on a word's function
as a criterion of its class.
3. Function (Syntactic Properties)
Syntactic properties of a class of words are the combinability of words (the distributional
criterion) and typical functions in the sentence.
The three criteria of defining grammatical classes of words in English may be placed in the
following order: function, form, meaning.
Parts of speech are heterogeneous classes and the boundaries are not clearly cut especially in
the area of meaning. Within a part of speech there are subclasses which have all the properties of a
given class and subclasses which have only some of these properties and may have features of
another class. So a part of speech may be described as a field which includes both central, most
typical members, and marginal, less typical members. Marginal areas of different parts of speech
may overlap and there may be intermediary elements with contradictory features (statives, modal
words, pronouns). Words belonging to different parts of speech may be united by a common feature
and constitute a class cutting across other classes (f. ex., determiners). So the part-of-speech
classification involves overlapping criteria and scholars single out from 9 to 13 parts of speech in
Modern English.
6. Morphological and syntactico-distributional classifications of words into parts of
speech (H.Sweet, O.Jespersen, Ch. Fries.)
Alongside of the three criteria principle of dividing words into grammatical classes there are
classifications based on one principle, morphological or syntactic.
The founder of English scientific grammar H.Sweet finds the following classes of words:
noun-words, including some pronouns and numerals; adjective-words, including pronouns and
numerals; verbs and particles. O.Jespersen names substantives, adjectives, verbs, pronouns and
4
particles. In both cases the term particles denotes words of different classes which have no
categories.
The opposite criterion, distributional, is used by the American scholar Ch. Fries. Each class of
words is characterized by a set of positions in the sentence, which are defined by substitution
testing.
As a result of distributional analysis Ch.Fries singles out four main classes of words, roughly
corresponding to nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs, and 15 classes of function words.
7. Notional and functional classes of words.
Notional parts of speech are open classes - new items can be added to them, they are
indefinitely extendable. Functional parts of speech are closed systems, including a limited number of
members. They cannot be extended by creating new items.
The main notional parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Members of these
four classes are often connected by derivational relations: strength - strengthen.
Functional parts of speech are prepositions, conjunctions, articles, particles. The distinctive
features of functional parts of speech are: 1) very general and weak lexical meaning; 2) obligatory
combinability; 3) the function of linking and specifying words.
Pronouns constitute a class of words which takes an intermediary position between notional
and functional words. On the one hand, they can substitute for nouns and adjectives, on the other
hand, pronouns are used as connectives and specifiers. There may be also groups of closed-system
items within an open class (notional, functional and auxiliary verbs).
A word in English is very often not marked morphologically and it is easy for words to pass
from one class to another (round as a noun, adjective, verb, preposition). Such words are treated
either as lexico grammatical homonyms or as words belonging to one class.
8. The category of number of the Engliss noun.
The category of number is proper to count nouns only. Usually words which lack a certain
category, have only one form, that of the weak member of the opposition. Non-counts may be
singular or plural. So subclasses of non-count nouns constitute a lexico-grammatical opposition
“singular only - plural only”: snow, joy, news - contents, tongs, police.
The general meaning revealed through the grammatical opposition a book - books is number,
or quantity, or “oneness - more than-oneness”. The general meaning revealed througli the lexicogrammatical opposition is “discreteness - non-discreteness”. The opposition “discreteness - nondiscreteness” is semantically broader than the opposition “oneness - more-than-oneness”. It
embraces both countable and uncountable nouns. Singular presents the noun-referent as a single
indiscrete entity. Plural presents the referent as a multiplicity of discrete entities (separate objects houses; objects consisting of separate parts - scissors; various types - wines, etc.).
9. The category of case of the English noun.
boy – boy’s
boys – boys’
Approaches to the category of case in English:
English has 2 cases (the limited case theory).
The number of cases in English is more than 2 (the theory of positional cases, the theory of
prepositional cases).
There are no cases at all with English nouns.
5
These approaches are possible due to a difference in the interpretation of case as a grammatical
category.
It is based on explicit oppositional approach to the recognition of grammatical categories.
H.Sweet, O.Jespersen, Prof. Smirnitski, Prof. Ilyish: Case is a category of a noun expressing
relations between the thing denoted by the noun and other things and properties, or actions, and
manifested by some formal sign in the noun itself (an inflexion or a zero sign). Case can’t be
expressed by the phrase preposition+noun or by word order.
Prof.Blokh: Case is an immanent morphological category of the noun manifested in the forms
of noun declension and showing the relations of the nounal referent to other objects and phenomena.
It is a morphological-declensional form. So, this is the traditional grammar approach.
The theory of positional cases (Nesfield, Deutschbein, Bryant): the unchangeable forms of the
noun are differentiated as different cases due to the functional positions occupied by the noun in the
sentence.
e.g. Мать(Им.) видит дочь(Вин.). Дочь (Им.) видит мать(Вин.).
e.g. The mother bought her boy a coat: mother – the Nominative case, boy – Dative, coat –
Accusative.
e.g. The mother bought a/the coat for her boy: boy – Dative.
Thus, the English noun would distinguish, besides the inflexional Genitive case, also purely
positional cases: Nominative, Vocative, Dative and Accusative. The number of cases can be reduced
to 3 (M.Bryant): Nominative, Genitive and Objective in accordance with pronouns I – me.
J.Lyons:
1) Nominative - Bill died.
2) Accusative – John killed Bill.
3) Dative – John gave the book to Tom.
4) Genitive – It was Harry’s pencil.
5) Instrumental – John killed Bill with a knife.
6) Agentive – John was killed by Bill with a knife.
7) Comitative – John went to town with Mary.
The weak point lies in the fact that they substitute the functional characteristics for the
morphological features of the word class.
The strong point: it rightly illustrates the fact that the functional meanings can be expressed in
language by other grammatical means, in particular, by word-order (rose garden – garden rose).
The theory of prepositional cases (analytical theory or the theory of analytical forms):
combinations of nouns with prepositions in certain object and attributive collocations should be
understood as morphological case forms. Prepositions - according to Curme – are grammatical
elements equivalent to case forms. There can be as many cases as there are prepositions. e.g. of
Peter, with Peter, to Peter – of, with, to are lexically empty words like has done.
Weak points:
1. There can be no oppositions, they are synonyms.
2. A paradigm is limited and there are too many prepositions.
3. Prepositions are not empty words; they are relational words (they show relations).
4. Each prepositional phrase would bear then another, additional name of ‘prepositional case’
and the total number will expand greatly.
The theory of possessive postposition: the case category has been destroyed. The –‘s is a
syntactical element which is similar to prepositions. But a preposition begins the construction while
the element –‘s closes it. So it can be called post-position.
Strong points:
1. This postpositional element may not be applied to all the nouns, but mostly to nouns
denoting living beings. The use of –‘s is optional.
6
2. One and the same element is used both with nouns in the Singular and in the Plural (manman’s, men-men’s/ boy-boy’s, boys-boys’). This morpheme is not dependent on the meaning of
plurality. Number and case are expressed separately. 3. The post-positional element can be applied
not only to nouns: yesterday’s lecture, somebody else’s book, Mary and Peter’s parents (Mary’s and
Peter’s parents).
4. There are instances of Absolute Genitive: chemist - chemist’s
Weak points: -‘s can be added to phrases, but these are occasional examples. 94% comprise
instances where –‘s is added to single nouns. The function of these nouns is always definite – an
attribute.
A compromising view: splitting into 2 (Helen’s book and somebody else’s book are 2 different
instances). In some examples –‘s is not a case-forming morpheme. We can’t deny that.
What to choose: the theory of limited cases, positional, analytical theories or to deny the
existence of the category of case in modern English?
The theory of limited cases may be more seriously justified: Case is a morphological category,
revealing relations of the noun in the sentence. These relations must be rendered through the form of
the noun itself. All other means (word order or prepositions) are not morphological means. That’s
why they can’t be treated as case forms.
If we recognize the existence of cases in English, there is one more problem: terminology. The
term Possessive can’t be applied to all the cases, the meaning of the case is broader than pure
possession:
e.g. children’s book - destination
Peter’s kindness - a bearer of some quality
Peter’s friend- social relations
a mile’s walk, an hour’s delay – measure, quantity
a chemist’s – locative meaning
Peter’s voice – partitive relations
Peter’s insistence – Subjective Genitive
the Titanic’s tragedy – Objective Genitive
an officer’s cap - qualification
evening’s newspapers, Moscow’s talks, winter’s rest – adverbial relations.
10. The category of article determination.
Many scholars recognize the category of definiteness/mdefiniteness (article determination).
Though the article is used as the morphological marker of the noun, it can hardly be treated as a
word-morpheme. The position of the article may be occupied by other words (demonstrative and
possessive pronouns, etc.). Words, which have a distribution including the article position, are called
determiners. The role of determiners is to specify the range of reference of the noun by making it
definite or indefinite.
Meaningful absence of the article (zero article), presupposes generalization.
In discussing the use of the articles it is essential to distinguish between specific, or particular
reference, and generic reference (R.Quirk et al.):
Tlhe telephone is broken. (Specific reference)
The telephone is useful. (Generic reference)
The distinctions, which are important for countable nouns with specific reference, disappear
with generic reference:
1) A telephone is useful.
2) The telephone is useful.
3) Telephones are useful.
7
The article plays an important role in structuring information. It is one of the means of
distinguishing between facts already known (the theme) and new information (the rheme). The
definite article is the marker of the theme, the indefinite article is the marker of the rheme.
Certain determiners (articles, demonstrative pronouns) can be used to show that a noun phrase
is referentially equivalent to a previous noun-phrase. In such cases the article expresses coreference, which is one of the means of sentence-connection.
11. Adjective. The category of degrees of comparison.
Adjective is a part of speech characterized by the following typical features:
- the lexico-grammatical meaning of “attributes (of substantives)”.
- the morphological category of the degrees of comparison.
- the characteristic combinability with nouns, link verbs, adverbs.
-the stem-building affixes -ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -ive, -ic, un-, pre-, in-, etc.
- Its functions of an attribute and a predicative complement.
Classification of adjectives.
With regard to the category of the degrees of comparison adjectives fall under 2 lexicogrammatical subclasses: comparables and non-comparables. The nucleus of the latter is composed of
derived adjectives like wooden, Crimean, mathematical, etc. Theses adjectives are called relative as
distinct from all other adjectives called qualitative.
Most qualitative adjectives build up opposemes of comparison, but some do not:
- adjectives that in themselves express the highest degree of a quality: supreme;
- those having the suffix –ish which indicates the degree of quality: reddish;
- those denoting qualities which are not compatible with the idea of comparison: deaf, dead.
The category of degrees of comparis:
The category of the degrees of comparison of adjectives is the system of opposemes (long –
longer – longest) showing qualitative distinctions of qualities. More exactly it shows whether the
adjective denotes the property of some substance absolutely, or relatively as a higher or the highest
amount of the property in comparison with that of some other substances.
‘Positive’, ‘comparative’ and ‘superlative’ degrees.
The positive degree is not marked. We may speak of a zero morpheme. The comparative and
superlative degrees are built up either synthetically (by affixation or suppletivity) or analytically
(with the help of word-morphemes more and most), which depends mainly on the structure of the
stem.
Some authors treat more beautiful and the most beautiful not as analytical forms, but as free
syntactical combinations of adverbs and adjectives. One of the arguments is that less and least form
combinations with adjectives similar to those with more and most: e.g. more beautiful – less
beautiful, the most beautiful – the least beautiful.
In order to prove that more beautiful is an analytical form of the comparative degree, we have
to prove that more is a grammatical word-morpheme identical with the morpheme -er.
More an –er are identical as their meaning of ‘a higher degree’. Their distribution is
complementary. Together they cover all the adjectives having the degrees of comparison. Those
adjectives which have comparative opposites with suffix –er have usually no parallel opposites with
more and vice versa.
Less and –er have different, even opposite meanings. The distribution of –er and less is not
complementary. One and the same lexical morpheme regularly attaches both less and –er: prettier –
less pretty, safer – less safe.
Besides, unlike more, less is regularly replaced by not so: less pretty = not so pretty.
8
These facts show that more in more beautiful is a grammatical word-morpheme identical with
the morpheme –er of the comparative degree grammeme а more beautiful is an analytical form.
A new objection is raised in the case of the superlative degree. In the expression a most
interesting theory the indefinite article is used whereas a prettiest child is impossible а there is some
difference between the synthetic superlative and the analytical one.
One must not forget that more and most are not only word-morphemes of comparison. They
can be notional words. They are polysemantic and polyfunctional words. One of the meanings of
most is ‘very, exceedingly’ (a most interesting book).
The notional word more in the meaning ‘to greater extent’ can also be used to modify
adjectives, as in It’s more grey than brown. More grey here is a combination of words.
The positive degree does not convey the idea of comparison. Its meaning is absolute.
Jespersen: the positive degree is, a matter of fact, negative in relation to comparison.
The comparative degree and the superlative degree are both relative in meaning (Peter is older
than Mary – Peter is not old).
Statives. Among the words signifying properties of a nounal referent there is a leximic set
which claims to be recognied as a separate part of speech, a class of words different form the
adjectives in its class-forming features. These are words built up by the prefix a- and denoting
different states, mostly of temporary duration. Here belong lexemes like afraid, agog, adrift, ablaze.
These are treated as predicative adjectives in traditional grammar. Statives are ‘adlinks’ (on analogy
with adverbs), they are opposed to adjectives
12. The category of tense.
3 basic categories of the verb: aspect, correlation and voice. They are constituted by 2 forms of
the verb – analytical and non-analytical. The categories of mood, tense and person are basically
different. They are characteristic of only finite forms of the verb. The category of tense, being a
predicative category, differs from other categories in its structure, grammatical meaning and its
syntactic function because it is connected with the essence of the speech act, with interpersonal
relations.
The opposition of past and present is not the opposition of just 2 verbal forms but the
opposition of 2 systems of forms:
Present:
Past:
works
worked
is working
was working
has worked
had worked
has been working
had been working
is going to work
was going to work
is to work
was to work
Functionally all the forms, entering these two systems, are the same. They’re used in the
syntactic function of the predicate in the sentence. But in speech in the plane of communication the
present forms reveal their specific character: they reflect facts and evens as actual, immediately
related to the participants of the speech act. On the contrary, the forms of the past reflect something
that is already the past, history, not immediately related to the participants of the speech act. What is
represented by the past forms is of some cognitive interest to the addressee.
If we admit that the tense forms of the present express reality and make the information actual
for the participants of the speech act, it is possible then to account for the rule ‘in clauses of time and
condition forms of the present are used instead of the future’ (though the verb expresses a future
9
action). The same is relevant for the use of the forms of the present in object clauses after the verbs
with the meaning know, learn, find, imagine, see (that), look, take care, mind, etc.:
The problem of the future tense: will+Infinitive.
- An instant or spontaneous decision to do something.
- Predictions of a general character
- Requests, promises, threats, offering help, etc.
Other ways to express a future action: Present Continuous, going to.
13. The category of order.
In Modern English there are also special forms for expressing relative priority - perfect forms.
Perfect forms express both the time (actions preceding a certain moment) and the way the action is
shown to proceed (the connection of the action with the. indicated moment in its results or
consequences). So the meaning of the perfect forms is constituted by.two semantic components:
temporal (priority) and aspeetive (result, current relevance). That is why perfect forms have been
treated as tense-forms or aspect-forms (come - has come; is coming - has been coming).
Members of these oppositions are not opposed either as tenses or as aspects (members of each
opposition express the same tense and aspect). These oppositions reveal the category of order
(correlation, retrospect, taxis).
Tense and order are closely connected, but they are different categories, revealed through
different oppositions: comes – came; comes - has come. The fact that the verbals have the category
of order (to come - to have come, coming - having come) and have no category of tense also shows
the difference of these categories.
The meaning of perfect forms may be influenced by the lexical meaning of the verb
(limtive/unlimitive), tense-form, context and other factors.
14. The category of aspect.
English verb have special forms for expressing actions in progress, going on at a definite
moment or period of time, i.e. for expressing limited duration - continuous forms.
Continuous forms have been traditionally treated as tense forms (definite, expanded,
progressive) or as tense-aspect forms.
Members of the opposition are not opposed as tenses (tense is the same). They show different
character of an action, the way in which the action is experienced or regarded: as a mere fact or as
taken in progress. The opposition common-continuous reveals the category of aspect.
Tense and aspect are ciosely connected, but they are different categories, revealed through
different oppositions: comes — came; comes — is coming.
The fact that the Infinitive has the category of aspect (to come — to be coming) and has no
category of tense also shows, that these are different categories.
The category of _asgect is closely connected with the lexical meaning. R.Quirk divides the
verbs into dynamic (having the category of aspect) and stative (disallowing the continuous form).
Stative verbs denote perception, cognition and certain relations: see, know, like, belong. Dynamic
verbs may be terminative (limitive), denoting actions of limited duration: close, break, come, and
durative (unlimitive), denoting actions of unlimited duration: walk, read, write, shine. With durative
verbs the aspect opposition may be neutralized.
So temporal relations in Modem English are expressed by three categories:
1) tense (present - past),
2) prospect (future - non-future),
10
3) order (perfect - non-perfect)/
The central category, tense, is proper to finite forms only. Categories denoting time relatively,
embrace both unites and verbals.
The character of an action is expressed by two categories: aspect (common - continuous) and
order.
15. The category of voice.
The category of voice is revealed through the binary opposition “active - passive” (love - is
loved). Voice denotes the direction of an action as viewed by the speaker.
Voice is a morphological category but it has a distinct syntactic, significance. Active voice has
obligatory connections with the doer of the action. Passive voice has - with the object of the action.
In the active construction the semantic and the grammatical subject coincide. In the passive
construction the grammatical subject is the object of the action.
The direction of the action may be also expressed lexically, and the lexical and the
grammatical meaning may or may not coincide.
The category of voice characterizes both finite forms and verbals: to love - to be loved; loving
- being loved.
Participle I may be also opposed to participle II: loving - loved (active - passive). But
participle II may also have perfect meaning: writing - written (non-perfect - perfect). Meanings
rendered by participle II depend on transitivity/intransilivity and teminativity/durativity.
The category of voice is closelv connected with lexico-syntectic properties of verbs.
According to the number and character of valencies verbs fall into subjective and objective, the
latter being transitive and intransitive. In English all objective verbs havejhe category of voice.
Transitivity in English it is a property of the lexico-semantic variant of the verb.
The main difficulty in defining the number of voices in modern English is the absence of direct
correspondence between meaning and form. Three more voices have been suggested in addition to
active and passive:
1. Reflexive: He hurt himself.
2. Reciprocal: They greeted each other.
3. Middle: The door opened.
Passive constructions in English are used more frequently than in Russian. In English not only
transitive but also intransitive objective verbs have the category of voice. Here belong:
1. Ditransitive verbs with 2 direct objects.
2. Ditransitive verbs with the direct and the indirect object.
3. Verbs taking a prepositional object.
4. Phraseological units of the type to take care of, to set fire to, to lose sight of.
4. Some intransitive subjective verbs followed by prepositional phrases.
5. The combination be + participle II may denote a state as a result of the previous action.
A.I.Smirnitsky: passive constructions have corresponding active constructions: Tables are usually
made of wood. - People, usually make tables of wood. But the sentence “The table is made of wood”
has no parallel active construction. The combination be+participle II, denoting state, is a compound
nominal predicate. Likewise the combination get (become) + participle II is a compound nominal
predicate and not the form of the passive voice: got married, became influenced.
16. The category of mood.
The category of mood denotes modality or the relation of the contents of the utterance to
reality as viewed by the speaker. Modality is a wide notion which characterises every sentence.
11
Means of expressing modality: lexical (modal verbs), lexico-grammatical (modal words),
morphological (mood), syntactic (structure of the sentence), phonetic (intonation). Linguists
distinguish between objective modality (expressed by mood-forms) and subjective modality
(expressed by lexical and lexico-grammatical means). The category of mood is proper to finit forms
of the verb. It is closely connected with the syntactic function of the predicate. The category is
revealed both in the opposition of forms and syntactic structures. So the category of Mood has a
strong syntactic significance.
Linguists distinguish from 2 to 16 moods in Modem English. The reasons are as follows:
1. The category of mood is in the state of development. Some forms have a limited sphere of
use (he, be), new forms are coming into the system (let).
2. There is no direct correspondence of meaning and form. There are no special forms for
expressing unreal actions (with the exception of the forms he be, he were). The same forms are used
to express facte and non-facts: should/would do, did. They are treated either as homonymous or as
polysemantic.
3. It is difficult to distinguish between mood auxiliaries and modal verbs: may, let.
All the scholars recognize the opposition of 2 moods: indicative and imperative.
Indicalive is represented by a system of categories, (tense, order, aspect, voice, etc.). It is a
fact-mood or a direct mood. Imperative is represented by one form, which is used in sentences with
implied subject.
G.N.Vorontsova recognizes the analytical form of the imperative, expressed by let+ Infinitive.
Problematic and unreal actions are expressed by 4 sets of forms. The form (he) be/come/take,
expressing a problematic action, is the only form which differs from the forms of the indicative.
There is one more form of the verb to be, different from the forms of the indicative: (he) were. But
this difference disappears in all other verbs, and besides, the form (he) was is now being replaced by
the form (he) was. The combinations (he) should be, (he) should have been do not differ from modal
phrases.
Forms expressing unreal actions are the same as the forms of the past indicative. These forms are
often treated as polysemantic, i.e. forms of the indicative, which express unreal actions in certain
syntactic structures (R.Quirk, L.S.Barkhudarov). Forms of the past indicative denote actions, not
connected with the moment of speaking, not “relevant” for the speaker, “not real” now. That is why
they may be used to denote unreality. In this case subjunctive will be represented by 2 forms of the
verb to be: (he) be, (he) were and 1 form of other verbs: (he) do, come, go.
A.I.Smimitsky: these forms are homonymic, denoting real and unreal actions: they were ... real, past; if they were ... - unreal, non-past. Subjunctive is represented by 4 sets of forms. In this
system of 4 sets of forms, denoting different degree of unreality, there is no direct correspondence of
meaning and form:
a) one meaning - different forms: I suggest you do (should do) it.
b) one form - different meanings: I suggest you should do it. In your place I should do it.
The number of oblique moods will depend on the basic principle for distinguishing between
them: a) meaning; b) form; c) both meaning and form,
a) B.A.llyish treats these 4 sets of forms as forms of one mood - subjunctive. The difference of
form and particular meanings is disregarded: only the common component of meaning
(unreality) is taken into account.
b) A.I.Smirnitsky takes into account the difference in form and recognizes 4 oblique moods:
Subjunctive I (he be), Suppositional (he should be), Subjunctive II (he were), Conditional
(should/would be).
c) The system of forms, expressing different degrees of unreality, will be subdivided into 2
parts:
12
1. Forms, denoting problematic actions (he be, should be) may be treated as forms of one
mood (Subjunctive I), the analytical form ousting the synthetic form in British English.
2. Forms, denoting unreal actions (were, should/would be) are treated as different moods,
expressing independent and dependent unreality, or unreal condition and unreal consequence. But
their modal meaning is the same and were - should be are not opposed as moods. This opposition
reveals the category, which also exists in the system of the indicative mood.
So the wide divergence of views on the number of oblique moods can be accounted for:
a) by different approaches to the problem of polysemy/homonymy;
b) by the absence of mutual relation between meaning and form.
In the system of the indicative mood time may be denoted absolutely (tense) and relatively
(order, posteriority). In the system of the subjunctive mood time may be denoted relatively (order,
prospect). Perfect forms denote priority, non-perfect forms - simultaneousness with regard to other
actions. The category of order may acquire the meaning of the category of tense.
17. The dual nature of non-finite forms of the verb. Morphological categories of verbals.
The main division inside the verb is that between the finite verbs (finites) and non-finite verbs
(verbals). Through the opposition of finite and non-finite forms the category of finitude is revealed.
Finites present marked and intensive member of the opposition. Non-finite forms present unmarked
and extensive member of the opposition.
Verbals possess some verbal and some non-verbal features. Lexically verbals do not differ
from finite forms. Grammatically non-finites may denote a secondary action or a process related to
that expressed by the finite verb.
The finites can be subdivided into 3 systems - moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive.
The verbids can be subdivided into 3 systems: infinitive, gerund, participle.
Formal morphological characteristics. Verbals possess the verb categories of voice, perfect,
and aspect. They lack the categories of person, number, mood, and tense. None of the forms have
morphological features of non-verbal parts of speech, neither nominal, adjectival or adverbial.
Combinability and functions. Non-verbal character of verbals reveals itself in their syntactical
functions. Thus, the infinitive and the gerund perform the main syntactical functions of the noun,
which are those of subject, object and predicative. Participle I functions as attribute, predicative and
adverbial modifier; participle II as attribute and predicative. They cannot form a predicate by
themselves, although unlike non-verbal parts of speech they can function as part of a compound
verbal predicate.
Verbals may combine with nouns functioning as direct, indirect, or prepositional objects, with
adverbs and prepositional phrases used as adverbial modifiers, and with subordinate clauses. Nonfinites may also work as link verbs, combining with nouns, adjectives or statives as predicatives, as
in. They may also act as modal verb semantic equivalents when combined with an infinitive. All
non-finite verb forms may participate in the so-called predicative constructions.
The infinitive has the verb categories of voice (to praise – to be praised), order (to keep – to
have kept) and aspect (to bring – to be bringing).
The gerund is a non-finite form of the verb with some noun features. Morphologically the
verbal character of the gerund is manifested in the categories of voice and order.
Participle is a non-finite form of the verb with some adjectival and adverbial features. The
verbal character of participle is manifested morphologically in the categories of voice and order.
18. Finite and non-finite forms of the verb. The category of representation.
13
The main division inside the verb is that between the finite verbs (finites) and non-finite verbs
(verbals).
The finites can be subdivided into 3 systems - moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive.
The verbids can be subdivided into 3 systems: infinitive, gerund, participle.
The category of representation (A.I. Smirnitsky) is the opposition of finite and non-finite
forms. The category of representation is revealed through 3 categorial forms:
1. Verbal representation presented by predicative (personal) forms.
2. Substantive representation is characteristic to gerund and infinitive.
3. Adjectival representation is characteristic to participle.
The leading form of the category of representation is verbal representation, that is personal
forms.
L.S.Barkhudarov: The category of representation = the category of finitude. The category of
finitude (representation) is based on predicativity.
19. Phrase. Principles of classification (H.Sweet, O.Jespersen, L.Bloomfield)
A narrower definition: a phrase is a unity of 2 or more notional words. A wider definition:
phrase - any syntactic group of words. Phrases may be built by:
- combining notional words (out of),
- notional and functional words (in the corner),
- functional words (out of).
Notional phrases are more independent structurally and semantically, other types function as
part of notional phrases. A phrase is naming unit. A phrase may have a system of forms. Each
component of a phrase may undergo grammatical changes without destroying the identity of the phrase.
The naming function of the phrase distinguishes it from the sentence, whose main function is
communicative. Therefore the structure N+V is traditionally excluded from phrases. A phrase is
usually smaller than a sentence, but it may also function as a sentence (N+V), and it may be larger
than a sentence, as the latter may consist of one word.
Phrases may be classified partly by their inner structure (syntactic relations between the
components, morphological expression and position of components, or by order and arrangement)
and partly by their external functioning (distribution, functions of the components).
The components of the phrase can be connected by different types of syntactic relations.
H.Sweet: the most general type of relation is that of the modifier and modified (headword and
adjunct), or the relation of subordination. He also distinguished the relation of coordination.
The syntactic theory of O.Jespersen can be applied to phrases and sentences. The theory of
three ranks is based on the principle of determination. In the word-group a furiously3 barking2 dog1
1 is independent and is called a primary, 2 modifies 1 and is called a secondary, 3 modifies 2 and is
called a tertiary. A secondary may be joined to a primary in two ways: junction and nexus. These
terms are used to differentiate between attributive and predicative relations (relations between the
subject and the predicate), or the relations of subordination and interdependence.
The structural theory of word-groups (L.Bloomfield), divides word-groups into two main
types: endocentric (headed) and exocentric (non-headed). The criteria for distinguishing between
them are distribution and substitution. .An endocentric group has the same position as its headword:
An old man came in. - A man came in.
The distribution of an exocentric group differs from the distribution of its components: A man
came in.
14
20. Classification of phrases according to the types of syntactic relations between the
constituents.
The structural theory of word-groups (descriptive linguistics) divides word-groups into two
main types: endocentric (headed) and exocentric (non-headed). The criteria for distinguishing
between them are distribution and substitution. An endocentric group has the same position as its
headword. The distribution of an exocentric group differs from the distribution of its components.
3 types of syntactic relations within word-groups: subordination, coordination,
interdependence. Accordingly, phrases are usually classified into subordinate, coordinate and
predicative. Sometimes a fourth type, appositive phrases, is mentioned.
Subordination:
1) agreement (concord);
2) government;
3) adjoinment;
4) enclosure.
21. Predicativity. Predication. Constructions with secondary predication.
The communicative function of the sentence distinguishes it from phrases and words, which
have one function – naming.
Predicativity - the correlation of the thought expressed in the sentence with the situation of
speech. Its components are modality, time and person, expressed by the categories of mood, tense
and person.
Means of expressing predicativity: predicate verb, subject-predicate group (predication),
intonation. Predication constitutes the basic structure of the sentence. A sentence may contain
primary and secondary predication. I heard someone singing. The group someone singing is called
the secondary predication, as it resembles the subject-predicate group (= the primary predication),
structurally and semantically: it consists of two main components, nominal and verbal, and names
an event or situation. But it cannot be correlated with reality directly and cannot constitute an
independent unit of communication, as verbals have no categories of mood, tense and person. The
secondary predication is related to the situation of speech indirectly, through the primary
predications.
22. Syntactic structure of the claus (simple sentence). The model of the members of the
sentence.
The process of analysing sentences into their parts, or constituents, is known as parsing.
The syntactic structure of the sentence can be analysed at 2 levels: pre-functional (constituents
are words and word-groups) and functional (constituents are parts of the sentence).
Parts of the sentence are notional sentence constituents which are in certain syntactic relations
to other constituents or to the sentence as a whole.
Parts of the sentence:
1) principal parts of the sentence - the predication (the basic structure of the sentence),
2) secondary parts of the sentence extend or expand the basic structure.
Parts of the sentence are notional constituents: they name elements of events or situations
denoted by the sentence: actions, states, participants and circumstances. The formal properties of
parts of the sentence are the type of syntactic relations and the morphological expression.
Principal parts of the sentence are interdependent. The subject is structural centre of the
sentence. The predicate agrees with the subject in person and number. The predicate is the semantic
and communicative centre of the sentence.
15
Secondary parts of the sentence are modifiers of principal and other secondary parts: attributes
are noun-adjuncts, objects and adverbial modifiers are primarily verb adjuncts. Besides the three
“traditional” secondary parts, two more are singled out: the apposition and the objective predicative.
Accordingly to the structure parts of the sentence:
1) simple expressed by words and phrases;
2) compound, consisting of the structural and notional part (compound verbal and nominal
predicate, subject with the introductory it and there);
3) complex, expressed by secondary predications (typical of secondary parts of the sentence).
The model of parts of the sentence shows the basic relations of notional sentence constituents.
It does not show the linear order of constituents.
23. Structural models of sentence analysis. Distributional model and types of distribution.
IC-model.
Methods of of structural linguistics are based on the notions of position, co-occurrence and
substitution (substitutability).
The total set of environments of a certain element is its distribution. The term distribution
denotes the occurrence of an element relative to other elements. Elements may be in:
1) non-contrastive distribution (the same position, no difference in meaning; variants of the
same element): hoofs - hooves;
2) contrastive distribution (the same position, different meanings): She is charming. She is
charmed.
3) complementary distribution (mutual exclusiveness of pairs of forms in a certain
environment; the same meaning, different positions; variants of the same element): cows - oxen.
The distributional model (Ch.Fries) shows the linear order of sentence constituents. The
syntactic structure of the sentence is presented as a sequence of positional classes of words.
Showing the linear order of classes of words the model does not show the syntactic relations of
sentence constituents. It does not show the ambiguity of sentence.
This drawback is overcome by the IC-model. A sentence is a structured string of words,
grouped into phrases. So sentence constituents are words and word-groups. The basic principle for
grouping words into phrases (endo- or exocentric) is cohesion, or the possibility to substitute one
word for the whole group without destroying the sentence structure. The sentence is built by 2
immediate constituents: NP+VP, each of which may have constituents of its own. Constituents
which cannot be further divided are called ultimate (UC). The IС model exists in 2 main versions:
the analytical model and the derivation tree. The analytical model divides the sentence into IC-s and
UC-s. The derivation tree shows the syntactic dependence of sentence constituents.
So the IC-model shows both the syntactic relations and the linear order of elements.
24. Transformational model of sentence analysis. Types of transformation.
Different sentence types are structurally and semantically related. So the syntactic structure of
a given sentence may be described by making these relations explicit. Sentences, in which all
constituents are obligatory, are called basic structures (= elementary sentences = kernel sentences).
Linguists single out from 2 to 7 kernel sentences: 1) NV 2) NVN 3) NVPrepN 4) N is N 5) N is A
6) N is Adv. 7) N is PrepN. The structure of all other sentences is a result of certain transformations
of kernel structures. This analysis, showing derivational relations of sentences, is called
transformational (N.Chomsky). TM is based on IC-model and it goes further showing semantic
16
and syntactic relations of different sentence types. TM describes paradigmatic relations of basic
and derived structures, or the relations of syntactic derivation. Kernel sentences, which serve as the
base for deriving other structures, are called deep (= underlying structures), opposed to surface
structures of derived sentence types (= transforms). So both the deep and the surface structure belong
to the syntactic level of analysis.
Transformations may be subdivided into intramodel = single-base (changing the kernel
structure) and two-base (combining 2 structures).
Single-base transformations:
1) modifying the kernel structure: She is working hard. → She is not working hard
2) changing the kernel structure: (2) She is working hard. → Her working hard. → Her hard
work.
Some basic types of intramodel transformations:
1) substitution, deletion: Have you seen him? → Seen him?;
2) permutation or movement: He is here. → Is he here?;
3) nominalization: He arrived → His arrival;
4) two-base transformations:
- embedding: know that he has come,
- word-sharing: saw him cross the street.
TM shows that sentences with different surface structures paraphrase, because they are
derived from the same deep structure: He arrived → his arrival → for him to arrive → his arriving.
TM shows that some sentences are ambiguous, because they derive from distinct deep
structures: Flying planes can be dangerous. → 1. Planes are dangerous. 2. Flying is dangerous. So
TM is an effective method of deciding grammatical ambiguity.
A grammar which operates using TM is a transformational grammar (TG). In TG the ICanalysis is supplemented with rules for transforming one sentence into another. TG became an
extremely influental type of generative grammatical theory, also called generative grammar.
25. Semantic structure of the sentence (Ch. Fillmore).
Generative semantics. Case Grammar.
In Case Grammar deep (underlying) structure is semantic and surface structure is syntactic.
Deep structure has 2 main constituents:
1) modality (features of mood, tense, aspect, negation, relating to the sentence as a whole);
2) proposition (a tenseless set of relationships): “S → M + Pr”.
The proposition is constituted by the semantic predicate (the central element) and some
nominal elements, called arguments or participants: “P → V + N1 + N2 + N3 …” The proposition is a
reflection of situations and events of the outside world. The semantic predicate determines the
number of arguments, or opens up places for arguments. Accordingly we may distinguish
- one-place predicates (She sang),
- two-place predicates (She broke the dish) and so on.
Arguments are in different semantic relations to the predicate. These relations are called
semantic roles or deep cases (P+V+C1+C2+C3 ...). The choice of semantic roles depends on the
nature of the predicate.
W.Chafe divides predicates into
1) states
2) non-states (events):
- actions
17
- processes:
1. The wood is dry. - state
2. She sang. (What did she do?) - action
3. The wood dried. (What happened?) - process.
Semantic roles (deep cases) are judgements about the events.
The most general roles are agent (doer of the action) and patient (affected by the action or
state). Actions are accompanied by agents and states. Processes - by patients. Predicates, denoting both
actions and processes - by agents and patients: She broke the dish.
The original set of deep cases includes 6 cases (by Ch.Fillmore): agentive, objective,
beneficiary, instrument, locative, factitive. E.g.: 1. He dug the ground. (Objective). 2. He dug a hole.
(Factitive). Sentences (1) and (2) have the same surface structure, but different deep structure.
On the other hand different syntactic structures may refer to the same deep structure:
1. John opened the door with the key.
2. The door was opened by John.
3. John used the key to open the door.
4. The key opened the door.
26. Communicative structure of the sentence.
Communicative structure of the sentence refers to the way the speaker structures the
information, the way he identifies the relative importance of utterance parts. Usually the utterance
consists of 2 parts:
- the topic of discussion: something about which a statement is made (theme = topic)
- the new information, which adds most to the process of communication (rheme =
comment).
Some sentences contain only the rheme, they are monorhematic: It is getting dark. In the
majority of sentences the constituents are either rhematic or thematic. There are also transitional
elements. Sentences containing the theme and the rheme are called dirhematic.
Thematic elements are indicated by the definite article, loose parenthesis, detached parts of
the sentence; rhematic elements - by the indefinite article, particles, negations, emphatic
constructions. But in the majority of sentences the rheme is also placed at the end, which is achieved
by changing the syntactic structure of the sentence.
Means of preserving the progressive information structure:
1) passive transformations,
2) the use of conversives,
3) the use of the personal subject and the nominal predicate.
Means of making the subject rhematic:
1) the constructions there is/there are, it is necessary,
2) inversion.
Thematic elements contribute little to the meaning of the utterance as they reflect what has
already been communicated: they have the lowest degree of communicative dynamism (CD).
Rhematic elements, containing new information which advances the communicative process have
the highest degree of CD.
27. Functions of word order in English and types of inversion.
Words in an English sentence are arranged in a certain order, which is fixed for every type of
the sentence, and is therefore meaningful. Modern English is characterized by a rigid word-order in
18
accordance with which the subject of declarative sentences, as a rule, precedes the predicate. This is
the so-called direct order of words.
The most common pattern for the arrangement of the main parts in a declarative sentence is
Subject - Predicate - (Object), which is called direct word order.
An unusual position of any part of the sentence may be treated as inversion in the broad
sense of the word. There is 2 structural types of inversion: full (predicate + subject) and partial
(auxiliary verb (operator) + subject + notional part).
The main functions of word order.
1. G r a m m a t i c a l f u n c t i o n expresses grammatical relations. Peter saw John.
Cases of inversion:
Full inversion marks the second part of a sentence of proportional agreement (not
obligatory) The more he thought of it, the less clear was the matter.
Partial inversion is used
to distinguish types of sentences: questions, exclamations or imperative
sentences having the form of a negative question. Is it really true? Don't you do it!
to indicate subordination in conditional and concessive clauses introduced
asyndetically. Were she asked, she would say.
2. C o m m u n i c a t i v e f u n c t i o n indicates information focus (end-focus)
Cases of inversion:
Full inversion is used
after introductory there. There was a girt whom he loved, there goes our bus.
after fronted adverbial expressions of place (direction). Here comes Edward.
Partial inversion is used
- after so , neither, nor in a “second clause”, or “short response”. He's hungry. So am I.
- after as, than, so. She was well-read as were most of her friends.
3. E m p h a t i c f u n c t i o n makes part of the sentence prominent by placing the rheme before
the theme.
Cases of inversion:
Full inversion is used
after fronted postpositions (adverbs or prepositions). I stopped the car and up
walked a policeman.
after fronted predicatives. Tall and graceful was Ann.
Partial inversion is used
after fronted negative and/or restrictive adverbs or expressions: hardly,
seldom, rarefy, little, never, expression with only. Only after we met her, did we realize
how clever she was.
after adverbs, adverbial phrases or clauses (often of manner). Well do I
remember the day.
after as, than, so: So shocked was he that he hardly said a word.
after fronted objects, especially Not /No + Object. Not a single word did she
say.
28. Principles of classification of simple sentences.
Definitions. Logical: A sentence is a proposition expressed by words. A proposition is the
semantic invariant of all the members of modal and communicative paradigms of sentences and
their transforms. But besides sentences which contain propositions there are interrogative and
19
negative sentences. Speech is emotional. There is no one to one relationship. Then a sentence can be
grammatically correct, but from the point of view of logic it won’t be correct, true to life (Water is a
gas). Laws of thinking are universal but there are many languages. Grammar and Logic don’t
coincide.
Structural: A sentence is a subject-predicate structure. Grammatical subject can only be
defined in terms of the sentence. Moreover the grammatical subject often does not indicate what we
are “talking about” (The birds have eaten all the fruit. It is getting cold). Besides, this definition
leaves out verbless sentences. There are one-member sentences. They are non-sentences?
Conclusion – a sentence is a structural scheme.
Phonological: A sentence is a flow of speech between 2 pauses. But speech is made up of
incomplete, interrupted, unfinished, or even quite chaotic sentences. Speech is made up of utterances
but utterances seldom correspond to sentences.
Thus, it is more preferable to describe a sentence than to define it. The main peculiar features
of the sentence are:
- integrity,
- syntactic independence,
- grammatical completeness,
- semantic completeness,
- communicative completeness,
- communicative functioning,
- predicativity,
- modality,
- intonational completeness.
Principles of classification of simple sentences. According to the purpose of the utterance:
declarative, interrogative, imperative, exclamatory. Prof. Ilyish: before dividing sentences into 3
classes we should divide them into emotional and non-emotional and within emotional we can
establish 4 classes.
As to their structure:
1) simple (sentence with only one predication);
2) composite (sentence with more than one predication):
- compound (composite sentence with coordinated clauses);
- (composite sentence containing subordinated clauses);
3) two-member (sentence with full predicate) and one- member
4) extended (sentence containing some words besides the predication), unextended (sentence
containing only subject and predicate) and contracted (sentence with several subjects to one
predicate or several predicates to one subject);
5) elliptical (incomplete)
As to their cathegories.
According to the grammatical (syntactical) cathegory of presentation: statement, question.
According to the cathegory of information: affirmation, negation.
According to the cathegory of expressiveness: emphatic, non-emphatic.
29. Compound sentence. Logico-semantic relations between clauses.
Coordinate clauses are units of equivalent syntactic status. Each of them has the force of an
independent statement (proposition).
Main types of logico-semantic relations between coordinate clauses are copulative,
adversative, disjunctive, causative, consecutive. They can be also found between simple sentences.
This has given cause to some scholars to deny the existence of a compound sentence as a special
20
structural type and treat it as a sequence of simple sentences. This idea is usually rejected, as a
compound sentence is a semantic, grammatical and intonational unity. Each coordinate clause
functions as part of this unity.
As coordination reflects the logical sequence of thought, the order of coordinate clauses is
usually fixed: He came at 5 and we had dinner together.
The opening clause is most independent structurally, the following clauses may be to a
certain extent dependent on the first clause - they may be elliptical, may contain anaphoric
pronouns, etc.
Coordinating conjunctions and meanings rendered by them are described in Practical
Grammar.
30. Complex sentence. Structural and functional classification.
The classification of complex sentences is usually based on the classification of subordinate
clauses. Subordinate clauses are classified either on analogy with classes of words (structural
classification) or on analogy with parts of the sentence (functional classification).
Structural classification. Clauses are subdivided into
- noun clauses (substantive clauses),
- adjective clauses,
- adverb clauses, etc.
But as words of the same class may perform different syntactic functions, the functional
classification seems preferable. A subordinate clause can occupy any position but that of the
predicate (though it may fill in the position of the predicative). There is no complete similarity
between parts of the sentence and subordinate clauses. Especially this is the case with adverbial
clauses.
There is a correlation between structural and functional classifications.
Accordingly to the type of clausal connection (close or loose, obligatory or optional)
complex sentences may be:
The classification of complex sentences may be also based on the type of clausal connection,
which may be close or loose, obligatory or optional.
Sentences with obligatory clausal connection:
1) Sentences with Subject and Predicative clauses. The subordinate clause occupies a
syntactic position in the predication. It is fused, or merged with the principal clause, which is
incomplete semantically and structurally: What you say is true.
2) Sentences with Object clauses. The subordinate clause is obligatory due to the obligetory
valency of the predicate verb in the main clause.
3) Sentences in which there are correlative elements in both main and subordinate clauses
(hardly... when; as... as; the more... the more): He was so tired, that...
Some attributive and adverbial clauses are loosely connected with the main clause and may
be optional.
Composite sentences may include a number of coordinate and subordinate clauses.
21