Persistent Organic Pollutants
Developing Countries
General Information
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are a class of organic compounds frequently used
in the industry as chemical insulators, for electrical systems, in the production carbonless
copy paper, and for pesticides. POPs are relatively stable chemicals which don’t degrade
easily. As we will see, this principal characteristic has the potential cause enormous
environmental devastation. The most common POPs are Polychlorinated Biphenyls
(PCBs) and Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane (DDTs), which we will examine in
depth.
Common Characteristics of PCB’s:
 Heat resistance
 Chemically Stable
 Bioaccumulative
 Carcinogenic
 Endocrine disruptor
 Odorless and Tasteless
 Man-made compounds
 Volitalization
 Persistent (resistant to being broken down)
 Frequently used for insulating and coolant materials
PCB contamination has been found virtually
everywhere around the globe, including snow and ice
samples from the artic. As of 2001, the production of
these contaminants has been banned globally.
However, since PCB’s are so stable they are able to
remain in the environment for prolonged periods of
time, they still persist in our environment. Although
PCB’s are typically classified as point source
pollution, easy dispersal allows for movement in the
soil, air, and water. While the primary concern with
PCB contamination is in food from water
resources, it can also be inhaled from the air or even
absorbed through the skin. PCBs typically occur in the environment in extremely low
concentrations (ppb), but they still represent a significant threat to human and wildlife
health.
DDT molecule
Common Characteristics of DDT’s:
 Used as a pesticide
 Can control diseases such as malaria and typhus
 Endocrine disruptor
 Bioaccumulative
 Slight odor
 Carcinogenic
 Persistent (resistant to being broken down)
“Effective, inexpensive, and persistent!”
Before 1970, DDT was used extensively as a pesticide for agricultural lands. Using DDT
was very beneficial to farmers as it wasn’t expensive to buy, and had very long lasting
effects. Since the 1940’s the pesticide has also been widely known to be effective in
preventing malaria outbreaks. In developing countries in Africa, malaria represents a
serious human suffering and tremendous economic costs (See below figure). Globally,
the use of DDT has been declining with the exception of South Africa and India. Due to
DDT’s continuing effectiveness, and the need to rotate insecticides (thereby preventing
insect resistance) it is still in use today.
Annual number of notified cases and deaths due to malaria in South Africa (1971–2003)
DDT contamination
(India)
PCBs and DDTs both have similar deleterious effects on humans and wildlife. This
is mainly due to their similar chemical structure.
How PCBs and DDTs get in the Aquatic Environment:





Poorly maintained waste sites allow easy infiltration to ground and surface water
resources
Illegal dumping in surface water
Leaks for old electrical transformers
Burning of wastes in incinerators (PCB’s become volatile)
Air Circulation



Water Cycle
Runoff
Soil Leaching
Pollution Effects
Once POP’s have been exposed to the environment, they generally end up in water
reservoirs by runoff, atmospheric transport, drift, or by direct application (mosquito borne
malaria). At this point they are ingested by bottom-feeding benthic organisms and work
their way up the food chain into larger animals. As POPs aren’t easily degraded by
animal digestive systems, they accumulate in the fat molecules of the animal. Typically,
humans are exposed to POPs in air, water, and food. In most cases humans are affected
by POP contaminated foods ingested, especially from seafood. (Remember that POPs
readily bioaccumulate in the fatty tissues of living organisms)
Main POP Contaminated Seafood
 Fresh Tuna
 Swordfish
 Herring
 Sardines
 Salmon
 Anchovies
Human Health Effects
If humans consume contaminated by POPs some serious health effects can result
(especially in children and pregnant women.)
“In addition, PCBs have been correlated with miscarriages, premature births, birth
defects, weakened immune systems and increased liver, skin, brain, and breast
cancer in exposed people. PCBs are linked to heart disease, diabetes, autoimmune diseases, liver damage, mood disorders, Parkinson's disease and
reproductive/sexual effects. PCBs may also damage our hearing, by affecting the
structure of the inner ear.” (CWAC website)
“Like DDT, many POPs were later found to have serious endocrine disrupting
effects which can potentially lead to cancers, immune system dysfunction,
abnormal sexual, cognitive and physical development, trans-generational cancers
and other diseases such as asthma and endometriosis.” (DDT contamination SA)
Wildlife Effects
Scientists typically categorize specific animals as bioindicators of PCB and DDT
contamination. In the area of PCB research Mussels, oysters, and squid represent the
most common examples. The biology of these organisms allows for an accurate
assessment of contaminant concentrations. Mussels are able to accumulate high
concentrations of the toxin as they are able to filter-feed.
There are also many consequences to the wildlife affected by PCBs. Birth rates among
many fish and bird species experience a significant decline. It has also been found that
the affected populations experience an abnormal amount of cancer, deformities, and
developmental failures. For example, research documentation shows a significant
eggshell thinning in DDT contaminated alligator species. Studies on Phytoplankton in the
Mediterranean and Caspian seas have indicated that DDT can reduce primary production
of algae by up to 50%. (DDT contamination SA) Such a drastic change in the production
of algae reverberates through the ecosystem.
Key Actors
Although different factors and nature disperse POP from the initial source, several actors
play a role in POP pollution:
People/Organizations
-Transnational Corporations (India)
-Agriculture/Farmers (India and Africa)
-South African Govt. (Little infrastructure for POP testing)
-Indian Govt.
-State Pollution Control Board (India)
-World Health Organization
Economy
-Development of jobs (India)
Vector Control of Diseases/Pest Control
-Need for sustainable crop yields
-Locusts
-Malaria (levels lessened using DDT)
-Typhus (levels lessened using DDT)
Civil Society
-Green Peace
-Periyar Malineekarana Virudha Samithy
The needed control of malaria is very significant in the use of POPs. Not only does
malaria claim millions of African lives every year, but it also becomes a significant drag
on the economy. Over 900,000 people die from the disease annually, and slow the
economic growth rate by around 1.3%. In this respect, DDT represents a means for
disease control, greater agricultural productivity, and more economic prospects. In many
ways, it’s quite understandable why some of these developing nations wish to continue
the extensive use of DDTs, even knowing the environmental and health consequences.
Environmental protection is considered by many to be a wealth movement. Industrialized
nations have built up enough capital to pay for pollution abatement technology. This
makes perfect sense by simply examining the Environmental Kuznets curve.
As you can see, as a country’s income increases, environmental degradation can be
remediated. In a developing country however, money for environmental cleanup is not
readily available, and becomes a much lesser concern. Countries in southern Africa and
India are concerned with eradicating malaria, as it represents a huge drag on their
economy. They aren’t likely to consider subsequent health problems resulting years after
DDT pesticide use.
Currently in India, there are some serious concerns about the pollution by DDT and PCB
chemicals. However, the government is reluctant to take actions against these chemicals
as they help the economy tremendously. During a recent study, it was found that the
Hindustan Insecticides Limited company has continued manufacturing the banned
chemical. It was also discovered that the plant discharges the effluent waste products to
an adjoining stream near the Periyar River. Water samples obtained contained 100
organic compounds, 39 of which where organochlorides. Due to the high presence of
these compounds, the fishing industry has suffered tremendous losses, and put many
people out of work.
Actions Taken
Indian Civil Society in Action:
“In 2001 people took direct action against the industries by blocking a stream into which
effluents are dumped. The industries and the panchayat proposed dredging the sludge and
dumping it in a nearby wetland. The people rejected the on the grounds that it would
permanently impact the water table.” (India Together)
Miscellaneous
Case Study Fox River
Some of the most famous cases of PCB contamination occurred in the United States in
the Hudson River and near Lake Michigan. Prior to 1960, the public was virtually
unaware that PCB’s were extremely toxic to the ecosystem. Corporations dumped
millions of gallons of PCB’s into local streams and waterways without much thought to
potential environmental consequences. Over time an ecosystem can accumulate PCB’s to
extremely hazardous levels, often devastating a fishing industry and causing health
problems. In 1972, the production and manufacture of PCB materials for commercial use
was banned.
In the early 1990’s PCBs were dumped into the Fox River (In upstate Wisconsin) from
carbonless copy paper factories. Since then, the toxins have been dispersing and
contaminating areas of Lake Michigan and Green Bay.
Effects on the Economy
It is estimated that paper mill companies owe Northern Wisconsin and Michigan 333
million in compensation and restoration costs. However, this estimated has been
considered conservative as it does not include the continued losses incurred by
commercial fishing and hunting operations. In many parts of the Fox River and Lake
Michigan, charter boats are legally not even allowed to fish due to intense PCB
contamination.
Lake Michigan and the Fox River serve as reservoirs for drinking water for a large part of
the population. However, many people now must rely on groundwater resources as PCB
contaminated water is difficult to process as clean drinking water. Other plans include,
building expensive water pipelines to tap into other water reservoirs.
Recreational activities along parts of Lake Michigan and the Fox River are also limited
due to PCBs. Since news of PCBs has reached media attention in the last few years,
people are unwilling to swim and come to local beaches, which also impact the local
economy.
Ignoring PCBs contamination will NOT solve the problem or lead a suitable solution.
Unfortunately nature will not take care of the problem by itself. Scientists have estimated
that it will take approximately 100 years for PCBs to disperse enough to make the Fox
River usable. Many of the polluted stream sites are completely impaired, allowing no
wildlife and human resource use.
Finances
Most people agree that PCB’s must be cleaned from water reservoirs. However,
arguments arise when finances are called into question. In the United States, the legal
ban on dumping PCB’s arose in 1979. Because of this, corporations argue that they
should not be held accountable for incurred pollution costs (since it wasn’t illegal at the
time of the disposal!). However, evidence suggests dumping of PCBs occurred into the
early 1990’s, making the company liable for the pollution effects.
However, as we have learned, PCB’s aren’t readily degrading. Many years later, this
same contamination has caused more than just pollution problems.
The True Cost of PCB Contamination
 Economic Losses (Food Value, Fisheries, Businesses, Hunting)
 Human Health Costs
 Clean-up/Restoration
 Recreational Costs
 Drinking Water Costs
 Property Value (Lowered due to contamination)
Environmental Justice
The information presented in GEOG 3104 is extremely relevant to PCB water pollution.
The demographics of Brown County and the City of Green Bay indicated that people of
lower socioeconomic classes are much more likely to near the contaminated river. Many
of these people are immigrants or Native American and are not proficient in English. As
part of traditional culture and religious beliefs, many of these people eat waterfowl, a
common fish in the water bodies in Wisconsin. Unfortunately these individuals often fish
for the food in the Fox River, and remain unaware of the danger that these fish can pose.
Local government has recently been accused downplayed the risk and severity of the
PCB problem in an effort to boost business and tourism. The reason for this stems from
the fact that there are few warning signs posted about PCBs along the riverfronts and
docks. Also, Clean Water Action Council has claimed that fish consumption handbooks
have been under printed. It’s obvious that PCB remediation efforts still have a long way
to go before the Fox River can be restored.
To find out more about ongoing cleanup efforts on the Fox River, please visit the
following website:
http://www.indiatogether.org/2004/mar/env-periyar.htm
http://books.google.com/books?id=UvA1WQJZD5YC&pg=PA60&lpg=PA60&dq=PCB
+contamination+of+developing+countries&source=web&ots=wtyxaQ0SLL&sig=IS2FR
5C3KEXeYXQM2vt-zoIDF2s&hl=en#PPA40,M1
http://www.epa.gov/region8/toxics_pesticides/pcb/papert16polson03.pdf
http://assets.panda.org/downloads/fact_sheet___pcbs_food.pdf
http://www.ipen.org/ipepweb1/library/ipep_pdf_reports/5saf%20ddt%20contamination%
20in%20south%20africa.pdf
http://www.pollutioninpeople.org/toxics/pcbs_ddt
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Chemical_use_in_Africa:_opportunities_and_risks
http://ipmworld.umn.edu/chapters/curtiscf.htm
http://www.pan-uk.org/pestnews/Issue/pn62/pn62p12.htm
http://www.greenpeace.org/india/campaigns/toxics-free-future/toxic-hotspots/eloorkerala/history-and-chronology
PICS
http://www.fws.gov/northeast/nyfo/ec/ecdesc.htm
Figure 1:
Figure 2:
http://dnr.wi.gov/org/water/wm/foxriver/whatarepcbs.html
http://www.foxriverwatch.com/pcb_damage_maps_1.html
http://www.aei.org/publications/pubID.23617/pub_detail.asp
http://www.new-fed.com/other/2004/sci_techs/3124ddt_africa.html
http://www.indiatogether.org/2006/sep/env-periyar.htm