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:
IMPACTS
OF OIL POLLUTION ON LIVELIHOODS IN NIGERIA
By
Nenibarini Zabbey
Head, Conservation
Rivers State, Nigeria. ( HYPERLINK "mailto:zabbey1@yahoo.com"
zabbey1@yahoo.com )
INTRODUCTION
“The number of registered oil spillages is increasing…Depending on the
area, oil pollution could cause adverse impact on people (water quality),
vegetation (smothering mangrove trees, crops, shore vegetation and fauna
(fish, shellfish, soil fauna). This is demonstrated in several post
impact studies on the recent or old spill sites. The 25 year old ‘mystery
spill’ of the trunkline in the Ejama-Ebubu caused during the Civil War is
a well-known – but not sufficiently studied yet – example”.
SPDC, Nigeria (1993)
I, deliberately, chose to start with the above excerpts from Shell
Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria (SPDC) Handbook of 1993 because,
qualitatively, it highlights to some extent, the degree of disempowerment
and frustrations that oil production had and is still causing the peoples
of oil and gas-rich Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Above all, it exposes
the extent of corporate negligence being perpetrated by the oil and gas
based multinational corporations who delight in neglecting their primary
social and corporate responsibilities towards the host communities. After
thirty-nine (39) years since the Ebubu-Ejama (located at Eleme in the
Ogoni speaking area of Rivers State, Nigeria) oil spill incident, the
spill site still remains a very sorry sight to behold, inadequately
studied, and incredibly unclean.
Available records indicate that, the Niger Delta region of Nigeria
experiences on the average 273 oil spills resulting to about 115,000
barrels of crude oil worth US$5.64 million (valid the current rate of
US$49 per barrel) spilled annually from 1976-2001, making the region most
vulnerable to oil spill than anywhere else in the world. These spills and
other environmental threats associated with oil production in the region,
tremendously, impact on the fundamental rights to existence of local
communities. This is, especially, so when we consider the fact that their
normal sources of sustainable livelihoods are continually being disrupted
by these structures coupled with the lack of the relevant legislative
backings required to protect them from these man-made environmental
destructions and degradations with their associated social exclusion.
This paper discusses the magnitude of oil pollution and oil-related
environmental damages in the Niger Delta. Attempt is also made herein to
highlight the nexus between oil production and rights violations, and how
accumulated years of oil-induced frustrations and neglects have deepened
insecurity and crises in the oil-rich Niger Delta. Ultimately, it
challenges the European Union (member countries) to evolve deliberate
schemes for stricter monitoring of their Trans-National Oil Corporations
(TNCs) operating in Nigeria with regard to environment friendly
operations and best practices as is applicable in the industry elsewhere
around the global community. Thus, provision of platforms that will
enable communities whose rights have been violated to have access to
justice, through the EU Countries’ arguably fairer justice system is a
minimum demand passionately recommended.
OIL PRODUCTION IN NIGERIA
It is no news that Nigeria is one of the leading oil producers in the
World (the 9th), and that the fragile Niger Delta region is the seat
bench (or hub) of oil and gas production of the country. Presently, 90%
of Nigeria’s gross domestic product (GDP) comes from revenues accruing
from crude oil sales. The country operates a joint venture with the TNCs.
The government, through the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation
(NNPC), owns 55% share in the Joint Venture; SPDC 30%, ELF Petroleum
Nigeria Limited (a subsidiary of TotalFina) 10% and Agip 5%. Table 1
below shows the physical presence of the oil industry in the Niger Delta.
As at 2005, Nigeria’s daily production of crude oil reached 2.2 million
barrels (b.p.d.) and was still on the increase. In recent times, however,
production rates keep fluctuating due to insecurity occasioned by threats
of local militias in the delta.
Table 1: The physical presence of the oil industry in Nigeria.
1) Land area within which the networks of pipelines are located 31,000
km2 2) Number of oil wells drilled 5,284 3) Number of flowstations 257 4) Length of main oil and gas pipelines in the region
(flowlines between oil wells and flow-stations not included)
7,000km 5.) Number of export terminals
6). Number of communities hosting oil/gas facilities 10
1,500 Source: After Steiner (2008)
NIGER DELTANS: WHAT DO THEY LIVE ON?
The rich alluvial soil of the delta coupled with copious web of fresh and
salt-water bodies provide the necessary incentives for the people who
are, predominantly, farmers and fishers. Loubser (1995) defined
livelihood as the totality of means by which people secure a living, have
or acquire in one way or another, the requirements for survival and the
satisfaction of needs as defined by the people themselves in all aspects
of their lives. According to the UNDP (2006) Niger Delta Human
Development report, the environment is very important for the Niger Delta
people where 60% of the population depends on the natural environment –
living and non-living – for livelihoods. The degree of dependency upon
one livelihood structure or the other will be a determining factor for
how a household is affected when the proceeds from that activity are
blocked. Regardless of the conditions that tend to limit the socioeconomic opportunities available to a large proportion of the population,
people will, out of necessity, look for means to ensure their survival
needs are met (Olawoye, 2000).
FREQUENCY OF OIL SPILLAGE IN NIGERIA
According to Steiner (2008), oil spills in the Niger Delta have been
extensive, difficult to assess (?) and often under-reported. In my
opinion, one uncomplimentary value shared by the bulk of oil companies
operating in Nigeria is the deliberate under-reporting of the actual
environmental impacts of such oil spills, especially those resulting from
equipment failures, in terms of volume of crude oil spilled into the
already fragile and over-stretched ecosystem. Government and the
operating companies maintain their own data on spills but these cannot be
considered reliable as both the government and operators seek to limit
their legal liability for commensurate claims and compensations from oil
spill damage (Steiner, 2008). In worst cases, oil spillages in the delta
are never reported or merely branded minor without minimum post-spill
containment, recovery and remediation responses.
Recordes between 1976 and 2001 alone indicate that 6,817 oil spills
occurred in Nigeria resulting in the loss of approximately three million
barrels of oil (UNDP, 2006). This represents an average of 273 oil spills
and 115,000 barrels/year spilled in the Niger Delta during the
aforementioned period. However, Shell’s report for the period 1990-2007
has it that a total volume of 284,000 barrels of oil were spilled or
about 28,000 barrels were spilled/year. In a related report by IUCN/CEESP
(2006), it was shown that between 9 and 13 million barrels of oil were
spilled into the Niger Delta ecosystem over the past 50 years. Some
notable oil spills recorded in Nigeria include Bomu 11 oil well blowout
(1970), GOCON’s Escravos spill (1978), Forcados Terminal Spillage (1980),
Oyakama pipelines spill (1980), Texaco Funiwa 5 blow out in (1980), Abudu
Pipeline Spill (1982), Ikata Pipeline Spill (1984), Okoma Pipeline
Spillage (1985) and Oshika Pipeline Spill (1993), the massive Oloibiri
Well 14 oil spill (2004), and very recently, Bodo oil spills (August
2008 and February 2009) and K. Dere spill (April 2009) – I chose to refer
to the latter spill as SPDC ‘Easter Gift’ to the Ogonis because while
others were celebrating Easter this year, the Ogoni people of K. Dere
were running helter shelter to escape the deadly flame from Bomu flow
station which exploded on Easter eve.
OTHER
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
SOURCES OF OIL CONTAMINATION IN NIGERIA
Discharges from nearshore operations.
Urban and industrial effluents discharge.
Ballast water from oil tankers.
Accidental spills during loading.
Equipment failure at loading sites.
OIL POLLUTION IN NIGERIA: DOES IT REALLY MATTER GLOBALLY?
Situating country-specific oil pollution within the context of global
concerns, I have noticed an unfortunate trend of lopsided priorities.
Apparently, it seems the rate of attention given to oil spills on the
global scale depends greatly on the place of occurrence. For instance,
Exxon Valdez Spill (260,000 barrels) of 1989 is highly referenced,
probably, because it occurred in the United States, whereas there are
numerous spills of higher magnitude than the said Exxon Valdez oil spill
(that is, in terms of volume spilled, sensitivity of impacted ecosystem,
etc), that had occurred in underdeveloped countries but are, rarely,
considered as bench marks. Cases in point for Nigeria include the GOCON
Escravos spill of 1978 (300,000 barrels), Forcados Terminal tank failure
of 1978 (580,000 barrels) and the Texaco Funiwa 5 blowout of 1980
(400,000 barrels) yet, with such untold devastation to plants, birds,
fisheries resources and ultimately livelihoods of the people no serious
attention was paid to their impacts till date.
IMPACT OF THE OIL INDUSTRY ON THE ENVIRONMENT
The Niger Delta is densely populated by about 20 million people. The
density in the region continues to expand as oil operators recklessly
occupy available lands, and as people, often times, are forced to migrate
when hitherto residential areas become uninhabitable due to industrial
mess. Oil exploration by seismic companies involves surveying, clearing
of seismic lines and massive dynamiting for geological excavation
(seismic testing). A thorough review of the environmental impacts of the
oil industry in Nigeria would take up an entire book! This is because,
virtually, every aspect of oil exploration and exploitation has
deleterious effects on ecosystem stability and local biodiversity – which
the peoples’ livelihoods depend upon (Zabbey, 2005). Thus, UNEP (2006)
summed the impacts of Oil spill in the Niger Delta as follows:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
High mortality of aquatic animals
Impairment of human health
Loss of biodiversity in breeding grounds
Vegetation hazards
Loss of portable and industrial water resources
Reduction in fishing and farming activity
Poverty, rural underdevelopment and bitterness
Extensive mangrove area in the delta have been converted for one form of
oil facility or the other, or degraded by oil pollution. The Niger Delta
boasts of the largest mangrove belt in Africa and the fourth largest on
the world scale. Mangroves provide coastal communities 46 ecosytem goods
(seafood, fuel wood, dye, stakes, etc) and 9 ecological services to other
productive ecosystems (such as coral reef) in the seascape, and for man.
No doubts, mangroves are a strong livelihood support-base of the delta
inhabitants, and I have argued elsewhere (Zabbey, 2008) that mangroves
are to the local communities what taxes are to national governments!
Studies have shown that 60% of fishes in the Gulf of Guinea breed in the
mangroves of the Niger Delta. A cursory look at the area of mangrove
converted in Rivers and Bayelsa States alone for oil development
illustrates the depth of erosion of communal livelihoods that have taken
place (Table 2).
Table 2: Mangrove conversion in Rivers and Bayelsa States of Nigeria by
SPDC alone.
Activity Area covered
Seismic line 66,000km Drilling 349
sites Flowline 700km Pipeline 4ookm Flowstation 22 sites Terminal 1
site Source: World Bank report (1995)
Scientific and socio-economic data abound that accord to UNEP (2006)
observations above. The explosion of dynamites in water bodies produces
narcotic effects and, readily, outright mortality of fish and other
fauna. Mortal damages arising from dynamite shooting is non-selective,
killing all stages of fishes and other edible and non-edible living
materials within the system. Powell (1998) studied impacts of the GENECO
barge, Ikata, Okoma and oshika oil spillages on fish and fisheries. He
reported 50% reduction in fish abundance, total loss of species lacking
accessory air-breathing organs and major loss of species without any
obvious physiological pattern. Moreover, oil buried in sediments due to
tidal pumping undergoes resurfacing, having long-term sublethal impacts
on growth, reproduction, predator-prey behaviour, diseases outbreak, etc
on biological communities including potential seafoods. Studies on Water
quality, species composition and abundance of phytoplankton indicated
that the condition of Ejamah-Ebubu Swampland polluted in 1970 had not
improved significantly (Hart et al., 2006).
In a study on the impact of gas flaring on the environment by Okezie and
Ekeke (1987), it was found that about 100% loss in yield of all crops
cultivated occurred 200 metres away from Izombe flow station; 45% loss in
yield of crops planted 600 metres away, and 10% loss for those cultivated
one kilometer away from the flare point. And to know that most
inhabitants in the rural areas where most of the oil facilities are
located are farmers and fisher folks makes the scenario even more
worrisome as there are significant losses in their livelihoods even as
far as one kilometer away from the source of the pollution. In a recent
study, Anyanwu and Tanee (2008) observed dramatic reductions in Cassava
yield parameters (growth, fresh weight of shoot and tubers, total fresh
weight, etc) in the Niger Delta due to oil pollution.
JUSTICE FOR IMPACTED COMMUNITIES: CAN THE EUROPEAN UNION ASSIST?
Recently, the Nigerian judiciary receives encomium for appreciable
improvement in terms of independence and quick dispensation of justice,
especially compared to the pre-1999 military era. The applauded upgrading
notwithstanding, it seems judicial mechanisms in Nigeria are still under
the recalcitrant grip and manipulation of a few individuals (within and
outside the corridors of power) and some corporate entities. This has
resulted in wide-spread distrust in the judicial system. Granted, the
prevalence of discontent and lack of confidence amongst Nigerians as to
the viability of the supposedly temple of justice (the Court) to
guarantee them fairness account for the current rising trend in the
number of people seeking justice outside the country. Four Niger Delta
communities have dragged Shell to the Dutch Court over oil pollution.
Similarly, the families of the nine Ogoni martyrs (Ken Saro-Wiwa and 8
others) just sued Shell in the US. This latter legal battle may start few
days from today if the ongoing out-of-court dialogues between both
parties crash.
It must be emphasized again that the government’s lack of political will
to implement court decisions, is to say the least, very worrisome too.
For example on 14th November 2005, Justice V. C. Nwokorie delivered a
landmark judgment in Suit No. FHC/CS/153/2005 between Mr. Jonah Gbemre
(for himself and as representing Iwherekan Community in Delta State,
Nigeria and SPDC, NNPC and Attorney General of the Federal Republic of
Nigeria. The judgment proclaimed that gas flaring was both illegal and an
abridgement of human rights. Four years afterwards, the judgment has not
been implemented.
Desperate problems require desperate solutions! Thus, EU countries whose
companies operate in the Nigeria’s oil industry should respond speedily
to the cries for justice by the impacted communities of the delta. There
are two ways, in my opinion, that the EU can ensure justice for the delta
Communities: 1) by strengthening the capacity and independence of the
Nigerian Judicial system, and (2) by creating platforms for holding
operators accountable in their home countries where justice delivery is,
arguably, fairer.
More so, analyses of past and ongoing violations of community rights by
oil companies with impunity reveal over-dependence of EU countries on
subverted social and corporate responsibility data supplied by the TNCs.
My candid opinion is that reasonable difference from the unjust and
filthy status quo could be achieved if the EU can commission independent
monitors that will provide it with on-site information pertaining to TNCs
practices in Nigeria.
I surmise, therefore, that unless the EU takes urgent steps to correcting
the monstrous ills committed by the TNCs, the moral burden of
immeasurable sufferings in the Niger Delta will continue to seat heavily
on the conscience of her member states, and the respect for fundamental
rights which the organization professes will remain questionable!!!
REFERENCES
Anyanwu, D.I. and Tanee, F.B.G. (2008). Tolerance of Cassava (Var. TMS
30572) to different concentrations of Post-planting cruse Oil
Pollution.Nigeria Journal of Botany, 21 (1): 203 – 207
Hart, A. I., Amah, E. and Zabbey, N. (2007) Biocenosis of Planktonic
Flora in a 36 years Old Crude Pollution freshwater pond in the Niger
Delta, Nigeria. African Journal of Zoology and Environment Biology 9: 63
– 69.
IUCN/CEESP (2006) . Niger Delta natural resources damage assessment and
restoration Project – Phase I scoping report. May 31, 2006 report from
the IUCN Commission on Environmental, Economic, and Social Policy, 14pp
Loubser, J. (1995). Sustainable livelihoods: a conceptual exploration.
Paper presented at the workshop of civil society, sustainable livelihoods
and women in development, 6 – 8 November, 1995, Kala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Nwankwo, N. and Ifeadi, C. N. (1988). Case studies on the environmental
pollution of oil production and
marketing in NIgeira. In Sada, P. O.
and Odemorho, F. O. (eds). Environmental issues and
management in
Nigeria development. Evans Brothers, Ibadan.
Okezie, D. N. and Okeke, A. O. (1987). Flaring of associated gas in oil
industry: Impact on growth,
productivity and yield of selected
farms crops, Izombe flow station experience. Paper resented at NNPC
Workshop, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.
Olawoye, J. E. (2000). Making extension relevant to sustainable
livelihoods for poverty alleviation. Proceedings of Agricultural
Extension Society of Nigeria (AESON).
Powell, C. B. (1988). Effects of Freshwater oil spillages on fish and
fisheries. In the Petroleum Industry and the Nigerian Environment.
Proceedings of 1987 international seminar.
Steiner, R. (2008). Double Standards? International Standards to prevent
and control pipeline oil Spills, Compared with Shell practices in
Nigeria. A report submitted to Friends of the Earth, Netherlands.
World Bank (1995). Defining an environmental development strategy in the
Niger Delta.
Zabbey, N. (2005). Impacts of extractive industries on the biodiversity
of the Niger Delta region, Nigeria. Paper delivered at National Workshop
on coastal and marine biodiversity management, 7 – 9 Sept, 2005, Pyramid
Hotel, Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria
Zabbey, N. (2008). Shrimp farming in Nigeria: implications for mangroves
and rural livelihood in the Niger Delta. In: ERAction (quarterly magazine
of Environmental Rights Action/Friends of the
Earth Nigeria,
ERA/FoEN), May – August, 2008. Pg 19 – 21.
1Paper presented at the conference on “Petroleum and Pollution – how does
that impact human rights? Co-organized by Amnesty International, Forum
Syd and Friends of the Earth, Sweden. At Kulturhuset, Stockholm, Sweden,
27th April, 2009.
PAGE
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