Moscow University for the Humanities
Institute of Humanitarian Researches
International Academy of Science (IAS, Innsbruck)
Center of Social Projecting of
University Education and Sociology of Youth
Center of Theory and History of Culture
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL VALUE ORIENTATIONS
OF RUSSIAN YOUTH:
THE THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL RESEARCHES,
YOUTH AND MASS MEDIA
GNEVASHEVA V.
LUKOV VAL.
LUKOV VL.
NAMLINSKAIA O.
ZAKHAROV N.
Moscow
2007
Gnevasheva V. A., Lukov Val. A., Lukov Vl. A., Namlinskaia O. O.,
Zakharov N. V. Social and Cultural Value Orientations of Russian
Youth: The Theoretical and Empirical Researches, Youth and Mass
Media : Monograph. / Trans. B. N. Gaydin, Ed. N. V. Zakharov;
Institute of Humanitarian Researches. — M.: Moscow University for the
Humanities, 2007. — 77 p.
The present monograph is concerned with researches on the youth
problems in Russia, with a special emphasis on the history of the
theoretical and empirical researches devoted to the youth issues, with
development of the theories on youth and the thesaurus conception of
youth. The central focus of the research is social and cultural value
orientations of Russian youth. The study presents a detailed analysis of
impact that mass media plays in socialization of youth, its generations,
the influence on public opinion formation and priority directions of
national policy of regulation of mutual relations between youth and mass
media.
Translation by B. N. Gaydin
Translation editing by N. V. Zakharov
Copyright © 2007, by Gnevasheva V. A., Lukov Val. A., Lukov Vl. A.,
Namlinskaia O. O., Zakharov N. V., Gaydin B. N.
ABSTRACT
Gnevasheva, Vera Anatol’evna
Lukov, Valery Andreevich
Lukov, Vladimir Andreevich
Namlinskaia, Oksana Olegovna
Zakharov, Nikolai Vladimirovich (Ed.)
Gaydin, Boris Nikolaevich (Trans.)
Social and Cultural Value Orientations of Russian Youth: The
Theoretical and Empirical Researches,
Moscow: Moscow University for the Humanities, 2007
Monograph.
The present monograph is concerned with the problem of the Russian
youth, with a special emphasis on the history of the theoretical and
empirical researches devoted to the youth issues. The authors’ attempts
to provide a comprehensive account on the development of theories on
youth in Russia and the thesaurus conception of youth from the early
1920s up to the present time. The research delineates the term thesaurus
and its connection with the formation of Youth’s outlook.
The central focus of the research is social and cultural value
orientations of the young Russian. The study presents a detailed analysis
of impact that Mass Media plays in Socialization of youth, its
generations, its influence on public opinion formation and priority
directions of National Policy of regulation of mutual relations between
youth and Mass Media.
This monograph attempts to examine the presence of Mass Media in
Youth’s every day life. The research provides a detailed analysis of
contemporary state of the Youth’s trust to the Mass Media and degree of
dependence on it. The study presents a detailed analysis of the traces of
mass media’s influence on one young Russians.
The essence of the problem can be summarised as follows: mass
media impact is so overall and all-purpose that technological and social
progress of a state, its position in the world economy and economical
competitiveness, effective realization of a role in the international labour
distribution and development of democratic institutes depend on it. The
mass media represents one of the main socializing institutes and is one
the most accessible and influential mechanisms of personality formation,
as well as the formation of value orientations. As we can see, any
component, any function of mass media has both a positive and a
destructive component to the youth and to the society in whole. Mass
media promotes both the integration of a society and its disorganization.
The completed research is fundamental for the sociological and the
philosophical generalisations that underline comparative research on the
youth problems in Russia, its social and cultural value orientations and
the influence on public opinion formation and priority directions of
National Policy of regulation of mutual relations between youth and
Mass Media.
Key words: Youth problems in Russia, value orientations, the thesaurus
conception, the influence on public opinion formation, priority
directions of National Policy, Mass Media.
THE CONTENTS
1. RUSSIAN YOUTH: THE THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL
RESEARCHES
1.1 Early Russian Researches
1.2 Researches of the “second wave”
1.3 Development Problems of Theories on Youth
1.4 The Thesaurus Conception of Youth
2. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL VALUE ORIENTATIONS OF
RUSSIAN YOUTH
2.1 Values: problems of theory
2.2 Russian youth in the mirror of its value orientations
3. YOUTH AND MASS MEDIA: INTERACTION, TRUST AND
EXPECTATIONS
3.1 The Importance of Video Culture in Socialization of Youth
3.2 Influence of Periodicals on Young Generation
3.3 Mass Media Influence on Public Opinion Formation
3.4 Youth and Mass Media: Bases of Trust
3.5 Priority Directions of National Policy of Regulation of
Mutual Relations between Youth and Mass Media
3.6 Discussion
1
RUSSIAN YOUTH: THE THEORETICAL AND
EMPIRICAL RESEARCHES
There are deep-rooted traditions of researches on the youth problems in
Russia. By their trends and purposes they partly concur with the
traditions of the humanities in Europe and America. In Russia in
different times –it was the same way in the West – diverse youth
concepts had been conveying and continue to express the society’s
expectations for new generations. This is in a sense a theoretical mirror
of the natural process of generation change. Under modern conditions
these concepts can be reduced to three directions: youth – “no man’s
land”, youth – social danger, youth – hope of society. At the same time
youth theories have the mark of the socio-cultural contexts and contexts
of the development of the humanities in Russia. In this article these
similarities and distinctions will be examined.
The development of youth theories in the world on the whole and
in Russia in particular progresses in discrete steps. The three main
schools of theoretical understanding of youth1[1] were formed in the
1920s – the beginning of the 1930s. Indeed, there were minor
deviations: for instance, the book “Adolescence” by an American
sociologist G. Stanley Hall was published in 1904, the publications by a
German psychologist K. Gross, which contained important states for the
formation of youth theories, appeared in 1912, the “Diagnosis of Our
Time” by a German sociologist K. Manheim, in which his earlier stated
theses were evolved, was issued in 1943, etc.
The first school defines youth as a bearer of psychophysical
features of adolescence. The researchers investigate not essentially
youth, but adolescence as a life period of an individual (G. Stanley Hall,
Charlotte Bühler, W. Stern, A. Freud, W. Reiche).
The second school interprets youth as a cultural group – through
the aggregate of cultural characteristics and functions (E. Spranger,
R. Benedict, B. Malinowsky, M. Meed and others).
The third school studies youth as an object and subject of the
process of succession and change of generations – the social function of
youth is in the foreground here (the sociologists of the Marxist school,
K. Manheim).
The ascent of the youth sociology in the 1960s – the beginning of
the 1970s (also with minor deviations beyond this period) proceeded in
1[1]
According to our classification. See: Kovaleva and Lukov, 1999.
the same ways, primarily in the second (S. Eisenstadt, F. Tenbruck,
T. Roszak and others) and third (H. Schelsky, L. Rosenmayer)
directions.
We see the circumstances of the great advance in the theoretical
understanding of youth in these two periods, because just at that time
youth showed its worth through self-reference in the forms of youth
movement especially vividly. The theoretical presuppositions for
determination of youth as an object of special research had already been
in the 19th century, but nevertheless they were not realized in the youth
theories. There are the theoretical possibilities of development of the
conceptions on youth in modern sociology, which has changed greatly
with the propagation of phenomenological sociology and strengthening
of the postmodern tendencies, but these possibilities remain mostly
potential. In this fact we find the peculiarities of youth self-realization
and its self-reference. Apparently, what is ascribed to the present youth
subcultures is not enough for youth self-reference and in these forms
what was typical for the mass youth movement of the 1920s and the
1960s is not attained.
1.1 Early Russian Researches
They began to conduct researches on youth problems in Russia quite
long time ago. At least, from the beginning of the 20 th century they were
carried out in the order of the known autonomy in the context of social
sciences
being
formed
in
that
time
–psychology,
sociology,
anthropology, criminology, etc. In particular, there were such researches
on the student youth in several Russian universities, which were
conducted in the 1910s2[2]. But both the number of researches on youth
problems and their range were very insignificant at that time, and as a
consequence of it no youth theory was formulated.
Nevertheless, at the empirical level the material was being
collected, which subsequently gave the impulse for framing of original
theoretical concepts, connected with the comprehension of phenomenon
of young people.
The main directions of the youth studies in Russia at the beginning
of the 20th century reflect the new processes, which were expanding
under the dynamic conditions of revolutionary changes. The Russian
youth – an active participant in the three Russian revolutions, and any
revolutionary transformation on the scale of the entire society leads to
the renovation of the ruling elites due to the coming of young
generations of politicians, public figures. The October Revolution of
1917 is not the exception.
Against the new public background the youth researches have
followed the three main directions.
The first direction is elaboration of working youth problems. This
category was practically beyond the field of scientific interests in the
pre-revolutionary period of Russian history (some attention was paid to
separate aspects – chiefly in the connection with analysis of child labour
problems – by Russian Marxists, but it is better to call them just
2[2]
To the description of the modern student body, 1911, and others.
fragments than proper researches). In the 1920s a wide range of
literature on studying of working teenager, young workers in the aspect
of psychology, pedagogy and sociology was being formed. Among the
works of this kind there are books of interest even for today, e.g.,
I. A. Ariamov “Working Teenager”, V. A. Zaitsev “Labour and Life
of Working Teenagers”4[4], B. B. Kogan and M. S. Lebedinskii “Way
3[3]
of Life of Working Youth”5[5], etc. Quite often working youth was
studied beyond exact disciplinary frames in these works. It is especially
typical of pedological researches, in which pedagogical, psychological
and sociological aspects of studies on young workers were interlaced.
Taking integral tendencies in the field of modern social knowledge into
consideration the interdisciplinariness of many 1920s works seems to be
of current importance.
The second direction is research on studying youth. In the 1920s
the tendency to integral generalization more often on the basis of the
pedological
concepts
is
also
discovered
here.
Despite
the
controversiality of these concepts the most important for the further
researches on youth theoretical and methodological positions (e.g., of
such outstanding scientists as P. P. Blonskii (1925) and L. S. Vygotskii
(1928)) were formulated within their frames.
The criticism at “pedological perversions”, which was leveled in
the USSR, and the prohibition against pedology in the 1930s changed
the key points of studies on pupils and students. Not all of the changes
3[3]
Arjamov, 1928.
4[4]
Zaitsev, 1926.
5[5]
Kogan and Lebedinskii, 1929.
were fruitless for science (although it is evident that under the
circumstances of strict ideological control and political repressions a
certain part of researches was a kind of imitation and they were solving
the problem of survival for the scientific society). Among the most
productive for the further decades theoretical and socio-design
constructions, which have their heuristic significance even today, we
should mention the A. S. Makarenko’s conception of child’s and
youthful collectives6[6]. Nowadays in Russian science it is interpreted
ambiguously. Accusations against Makarenko as the author of the
conception, which allegedly leads to totalitarian submission of person,
were especially typical in the beginning of the 1990s. The period of
faultfinding has passed, but a new understanding of Makarenko’s
conception in the connection with the tasks of work with children and
youth in the modified Russian conditions (including the phenomenon of
increasing number of homeless children and teenagers) has not appeared
yet. We consider it to be a serious omission in both the scientific and
practical/applied aspects7[7].
The third direction is research on youth movement. In the 1920s an
unusual attention was paid to this question. This was clear not just by
accident. Firstly, exactly at that time the beginning of youth movements
assumed a clear organizational form on the different poles of the
ideological and political spectrum. The political youth organizations and
other organized forms of youth activity were rapidly developing. There
was an increase of contacts of youth organizations on the international
6[6]
Makarenko, 1983.
7[7]
Lukov Vl., Lukov Val., Kovaleva, 2006.
level. The international youth associations were being formed. Secondly,
in the early period of Soviet history the social subjectivity of youth had a
great potential for possibilities and diverse forms of realization. Activity
as a trait of personality and collective was claimed. It was the most
important ideological direction and could not be beyond the scientific
understanding.
On the whole the researches on youth in the 1920s, partly in the
1930s – a wide field for different scientific experiments, explorations,
theoretical innovations. Some themes were introduced into the circle of
scientific subjects under the obvious impact of Freudism. The
psychoanalytical inclination was very evident in those years 8[8]. The
ideas of psycotechnics were being broadly used, pedagogical
experiments were being conducted. Scientific exaggerations (vulgar
sociologism, pedology) and a strict discussion in the scientific
community were usual phenomena of those years.
From the beginning of the 1930s the authorities were increasingly
interfering in the scientific polemics. Adherence to that or another
scientific theory was more and more often evaluated from the position of
political loyalty and reliability. So, the analysis of the scientific
achievements in the investigation on youth problems in the USSR in
1934 (the year S. M. Kirov was killed and the mass repressions in the
milieu of scientists in the sphere of social sciences followed) can be
made today only when the real conditions of the Stalin epoch for the
scientific creative work in the field of social sciences are taken into
account.
8[8]
Zalkind, 1925
1.2 Researches of the “second wave”
For the contemporary knowledge about youth the researches –
theoretical and empirical – which were being conducted from the mid
1960s, when new conditions for the development of social sciences
appeared in the USSR, are of great importance. Sociology revived and
the situation in psychology, pedagogy, etc. considerably changed. The
group of the sociologists attached to the Komsomol Central Committee,
established in 1964, became the first (after the long interruption of
several decades) proper sociological laboratory in the country. It is not
occasionally that the development of sociology as a field of science is
closely connected with the elaboration of youth problems and providing
the researches, which were being carried out under the organizational
and financial support of the Komsomol bodies9[9].
Empirical researches on youth problems obtained a grand vim in
the 1960s–1980s. Conducting of All-Union, regional and local surveys
of youth (namely question surveys were associated with sociology as a
field of knowledge) became constant and customary for Party and
Komsomol work. Scientific groups and separate scientists were
specializing in different thematic blocks. The problems of labour and
working education, ideological and political training, social activity,
value orientations of youth, start of life, and so on were the most
9[9]
Sotsiologiia molodezhi, 1996.
actively studied. The scientific authority of such nowadays prominent
Russian sociologists as N. M. Blinov, B. A. Grushin, S. N. Ikonnikova,
I. M. Il’inskii,
A. I. Kovaleva,
I. S. Kon,
V. F. Levicheva,
V. T. Lisovskii, M. N. Rutkevich, M. H. Titma, V. N. Shubkin, and
others was formed in these researches.
It is very important for today’s state of researches on youth problems
that for several decades – sometimes in the competition of scientific
schools, but more often in the joint collaboration – firstly, the academic
institutes, and mainly the sociological institutes of the USSR Academy of
Science (nowadays – of the Russian Academy of Science), secondly, the
leading universities and institutes of higher education of the country – in
Moscow, Leningrad (St. Petersburg), Barnaul, Ekaterinburg, Krasnoiarsk,
Novosibirsk and in some other Russian cities and, finally, thirdly, the
biggest specialized in the field of youth problems studies scientific
complex in Moscow Veshniaki Area, – the Highest Komsomol school
(1969–1990) and its Scientific-research center (1976–2002), the Institute
of Youth, which was sooner established on this basis (1991–2000),
Moscow Humanitarian and Social Academy (2000–2003), and today
Moscow University for the Humanities (since 2003) – all them have been
concurrently working out on these problems as their basic.
These “three whales” of Russian sociology of youth were in
desperate straits in the beginning of the reforms (especially in 1990–1993),
but mainly they did not lose their scientific potential and recently have
begun to conduct All-Russian and regional researches again. The revival of
youth sociology in pithy and scientific-organizational sense is evident.
The state reports on the condition of young people in Russian
Federation have become a special form of scientific knowledge
development. The first report was written out under the scientific direction
of I. M. Il’inskii in 1993, the second is under the scientific direction of
I. M. Il’inskii and A. V. Sharonov in 1995, the third is under the direction
of Val. A. Lukov in 1996, the fourth and fifth were made out under the
direction of Val. A. Lukov, V. A. Rodionov, B. A. Ruchkin in 1998 and
2000, the sixth is under the direction of V. A. Rodionov and
E. Sh. Kamaldinova in 2002, the seventh is under the direction of
Iu. A. Zubok and V. I. Chuprov in 2003. It should be mentioned that if in
other countries quite often such reports are not of vital significance as
forms of scientific knowledge presentation (it is essentially considered to
be a reference book in which a departmental viewpoint of little interest for
a researcher is expressed) then there is a different situation in Russia. The
state reports (and regional in the same pattern) have determined the
present-date mechanism of collection and analysis of great amount of
various information on youth. The original All-Russian researches were
carried out because of preparing of the reports. The work on the text of the
reports is being carried on in the atmosphere of scientific polemics among
outstanding scientists in this field are representatives of different schools in
sociology, social psychology, demography, criminology, etc.
After the collapse of the USSR and radical transformation of the
social system in Russia new thematic spheres were outlined in the
researches on youth.
Firstly, projects on organization of social work with young people in
the new conditions appeared on the basis of the researches. They began to
attach significance to the analysis of the world experience in social youth
work and its adaptation for the Russian situation10[10].
Secondly, the research practice in the study of different kind of
problem points in the state of young people has essentially broadened. In
the textbooks on youth sociology there are extensive sections about
deviative behaviour of youth11[11]. Thorough researches on narcotization,
alcoholization of young people and so on have appeared.12[12] The impact
of new information situation on young generation is being actively
studied13[13]. Youth socialization is being investigated on more
fundamental basis, including the specificity of socialization of such
categories of youth, which had not been analyzed in this aspect before, for
instance, deaf youth14[14], youth with specific needs15[15].
New aspects of researches on youth showed up as the assertion of
phenomenological concepts and qualitative research methods were being
made in several Russian scientific schools. Micro researches on youth
communities16[16] became more well-grounded in this aspect.
10[10]
Kolkov, 1997.
11[11]
Lisovskii, 2000; Volkov and others, 2001.
12[12]
Sheregi and Arefiev, 2003; Actual problems of narco-situation in the youth
milieu, 2004.
13[13]
Karpukhin and Makarevich, 2001.
14[14]
Kovaleva and Reut, 2001.
15[15]
Zhulkovska, Kovaleva, Lukov, 2003.
16[16]
Omel’chenko, 2004; Lukov and Agranat, 2005.
1.3 Development Problems of Theories on Youth
The empirical researches on youth problems have been conducted since
the 1960s with close relation to theoretical understanding of social
phenomenon of youth. Before the 1990s the searches in these fields had
been being made on the basis of recognition of the Marx-Lenin theory and
methodology of study of society. At least, the historical materialism was
declared as a methodological basis of such researches (although in practice
it was not always so). The class approach to youth was being elaborated
most thoroughly. The dogmatic interpretation of Marx’s theses was
widespread, but this did not impede the researchers of real processes to
deepen their theoretical understanding of youth in the Soviet society. They
did it through the analysis of its social structure, the interpretation of
reproduction of social and professional structure with specificity of
professional orientation17[17], the working out of the theory of youth social
development18[18], the study on the problems of the difference between
generations19[19], etc.
In some works, in which their authors try to represent the historical
way of sociology of youth development in Russia, the idea that two
orientations were typical for the researches on youth of the 1960s–1980s is
approved. The one consisted in the implementation of the authorities’
ideological order, the other – in the active opposition to this order and the
development of researches, which were aimed at the study on youth as a
17[17]
Cherednichenko and Shubkin, 1985.
18[18]
Chuprov, 1992, 1994.
19[19]
Filippov, 1989.
subject of social life20[20]. This myth is not created on the reality. In the
actuality the leading sociologists of the country, who were working in the
field of youth problems, were cooperating with the officials. And only
because of this they had an opportunity to conduct painstaking researches
on youth problems. In particular, this circumstance contributed to the
development of sociology of youth in the country and its recognition in the
world scientific community (in the framework of Research Committee 34
“Sociology of youth” of the International Sociological Association,
international symposiums in Primorsko and others). There is no sense to
draw the political watershed between the Soviet scientists who were
specialists in the sphere of youth problems.
It is more righteous to divide them among scientific schools, where
one can see some nuances of the interpretation of the theoretical theses
concerning youth, even when the authors stated in one accord that they
adhered to the Marx-Lenin methodology of social analysis. The
differences appeared in the resumptive (обобщающих работах) works on
youth, published as early as in the end of the 1960s – beginning of the
1970s21[21]. The I. S. Kon’s position confirmed in the understanding of
youth at that time. According to it youth is a social-demographical group,
which is distinguished on the basis of totality of age-specific descriptions,
features of social status and determined themes, and other social and
psychological traits22[22]. V. T. Lisovskii’s approach, which relates the
conception of youth with the socialization process, remained without
20[20]
Semenova, 1998, Volkov and others 2001.
21[21]
Lisovskii, 1968; Boriaz, 1973; Ikonnikova, 1974.
22[22]
Kon, 1974.
proper attention. (It is related to the fact that representatives of the official
bodies were leveling criticism at the term “socialization”).
We see a potential in the Lisovskii’s approach, which is not realized
enough. Although in some recent works the emphasis on the structural
characteristics of youth remains, the analysis of dynamical characteristics
is becoming more productive. It reflects the paradigmatic transfer from
social and economical to the socio-cultural orientation of sociology of
youth. In Russian practice the analogous transfer took shape in the end of
the 1980s and was most noticeable in the researches on the informal youth
movements (V. F. Levichev, E. E. Levanov, E. A. Orlova, S. I. Plaksii and
others), mental culture of youth (T. A. Kudrina, A. I. Shendrik), and also
was spreaded in the researches on wider fields of problems (I. S. Kon,
V. T. Lisovskii, in the analysis of delinquent youth subcultures (G. M.
Minkovskii) and foreign youth movements and subcultures (Iu. N.
Davydov, V. Ts. Khudaverdian) and others.
At the same time the main part of the researches on youth stayed
within the course of interpretation of social determination of behaviour and
youth consciousness in labour activity (E. D. Katul’skii, V. I. Mukhachev,
O. V. Romashоv, I. M. Slepenkov, N. S. Sleptsov, V. G. Kharcheva and
others), during the change of educational status (N. A. Aitov, F. R.
Filippov, V. N. Shubkin), in the political process and management activity
(I. M. Il’inskii, Iu. P. Ogegov), etc. The fact that sociology of youth
development consisted of even opposite viewpoints, but it nevertheless did
not lead to the war between scientific schools and currents, should be
considered to be a certain advantage.
On the break of the 20th and 21st centuries, as one would expect,
the tendency towards the theoretical understanding of youth appeared
again. It is noted that there was an aspiration to sum up the long-term
researches. Such are the mentioned above V. N. Lisovskii’s book23[23],
summarizing works by I. M. Il’inskii24[24], the book on the theoretical
questions of youth sociology by A. I. Kovaleva and Val. A. Lukov25[25],
the collective monograph “Russian Youth: the Problems and Decisions”
(2005) and others. These works – some more, the others less – advance
the theoretical understanding of youth from the viewpoint of the new
social experience of the last decade. I. M. Il’inskii in his books gives, in
particular, a meaning of philosophy of youth afresh, interpreting it as a
value, and raises the question about new generations in the light of the
global challenges of the 21st century. Il’inskii conceptualizes the youth
problems on the basis of the experience of the past and the present and
forms the approaches to youth policy, which is adequate to our times.
In several recent summarizing works the understanding of the
empirical material, which reflects new aspects of social life of the last
decade, is presented more thoroughly on the theoretical level. Such are,
particularly, the results of studies on risks26[26].
The broadening of problems of researches on youth and the
arrangement of theoretical generalizations of empirical material in the
context of modern social science have revived the elaboration of the
integral science of youth. This position, being discussed actively as early
23[23]
Lisovskii, 2000.
24[24]
Il’inskii, 2001; 2006.
25[25]
Kovaleva and Lukov, 1999.
26[26]
Chuprov, Zubok, Williams, 2001; Zubok, 2003.
as the 1970s, became the subject of substantiation in the works by V. V.
Pavlovskii again. He suggested guiding the integration of knowledge
about youth in the framework of a special science of juventology27[27].
E. G. Slutskii and his colleagues28[28] are developing the same idea,
although in some other interpretation. In the context of the integration of
the modern humanitarian knowledge such a position is natural, though it
is not essential, because any of the social sciences, which have no severe
limits (as it was typical for the beginning of the 20th century) on an
object, subject and method of investigation, can serve as the integral
function in reference to problems of youth.
1.4 The Thesaurus Conception of Youth
The theoretical elaboration of youth problems, as we understand it,
must chiefly follow the path of solution of a number of contradictions,
which have been formed in the practice of empirical researches. It is also
closely connected with the question about the sociological providing of
youth policy, social and youth work and other theoretical scope of
scientific knowledge about youth. Many attempts of Russian researchers
are aimed at the development of a theory of youth, which would be more
adequate to practical purposes. One of such theories is based on the
27[27]
Pavlovskii, 2001.
28[28]
Slutskii, 2002; 2004.
thesaurus approach29[29]. Within this theory, the youth is interpreted as a
social group consisting of:
(1) People, who assimilate and appropriate a social subjectivity,
have the social status of young people and identify themselves as being
young;
(2) Thesauruses, which are prevalent in this social group;
(3) The symbolical and physical world, which expresses and
reflects these thesauruses.
Such components of the concept and such a connection between
them, which is understood as reflection of the social reality, change the
very view on sociology of youth.
The thesaurus concept of youth gives an opportunity to make the
ways of development of youth social subjectivity clear and find out its
controversial traits both as an “objectivated” activity and in facts of selfconsciousness, which perform an important regulative function.
The circumstance that institutionalized world is not much
assimilated by a young person demands compensatory actions from
himself, i.e. self-independent and predetermined interaction in peer
group. Gradually he is familiarizing with area, rules, realities of this
world. The mechanisms of this familiarization are construction and
projecting of social reality. The constructions and projects of a young
man can essentially differ from constructions and projects of a
“responsible adult” (parents, teachers, etc.) and besides dynamically
29[29]
Lukov, 2003.
change. One of the peculiarities of youth milieu is combination of
several thesauruses. It causes event-trigger hyperbolization of one of
them, which is considered to be the most suitable in this particular life
situation.
The general arrangement of social reality construction includes:
(1) adaptation for conditions of environment (trial and mistakes;
recognition of parts of environment and rules; alteration of behaviour
according to rules; understanding and legitimation of a part of
environment through “our”);
(2) completion of building of reality (symbolization through
“good” and “evil”, construction of symbolic universe; compensation for
the inaccessible; activities for protection of “my world”, separation of
independence zone);
(3)
restructuring
of
environment
conditions
(ignoring
of
unimportant; change of proportions and combinations according to
thesaurus; action beyond “my world” in compliance with own symbolic
universe).
These positions realize themselves as a factual result of vital
functions and fulfillment of the project.
Reality construction is obvious in the actions of different youth
groups. The aim is not to settle on these well discernible behavioural and
symbolic complexes, which are quite often distinguished by an exterior
observer with negative evaluative attitude. Activity of youth in social
construction of reality constitutes the most important condition of its
socialization and in this respect refers not to separate, but all youth
communities.
2. SOCIAL AND CULTURAL VALUE ORIENTATIONS OF
RUSSIAN YOUTH
In this monograph under the term “value orientations” we will
understand the direction of a subject (personality, group, community) on
the goals realized by him/her as positive and significant (good, correct,
exalted, etc.) in accordance with accepted in society (community)
models and available life experience and individual preferences. This
direction is an aggregation of stable motives that lay in the basis of a
subject’s orientation in social environment and his/her evaluation of
situations. It can be realized to a variable degree and expressed in facts
of behaviour, faith, knowledge. It has a form of stereotype, opinion,
project (programme), ideal, and world outlook. At the same time having
directivity on accepted positive life intentions and purposes does not
mean automatically active actions of a subject upon achievement of
them in the reality.
The study on value orientations in Russia has been conducted from
the middle of the 1960s when the theoretical works by a psychologist
B. G. Anan’ev, sociologists A. G. Zdravomyslov, V. A. Iаdov and others
appeared, as well as empirical studies. The biggest one was the
sociological and social-psychological study on workers’ value
orientations
(including young people), carried out by Leningrad
scientists under the direction of V. A. Iadov30[30] in the beginning of the
1970s. During the Soviet time the study on youth value orientations to a
considerable degree was directed toward the revelation of their
accordance with the communist ideal, to the socialist lifestyle 31[31]. At
the period of the Perestroika (1985–1991) the problem field was
noticeably extended due to the studies on the informal youth
associations (actually it was the way to the switch to study on the youth
subcultures). Finally, during the last 15 years value orientations of the
Russian youth have been investigated by considerable number of
individual scholars and scientific groups. The situation of social order
change and “re-comprehension of values” on the national scale has
encouraged the scientists to interpret the transformation of value
orientations of the Russians. The extensive study on dynamics of the
value orientations of the Russians that was conducted under the direction
of N. I. Lapin32[32] is of a great scientific significance. There have been
30[30]
Zhuravleva 2006, 22, 57.
31[31]
Shendrik 1990.
32[32]
Lapin and Beliaeva 1996.
dozens of empirical studies carried out in Russia for the last 15 years,
several hundreds theses defended on the problem of the youth value
orientation33[33]. Although quite often the scopes of such studies, their
methodical correctness and opportunities for the data comparison remain
to be a subject of criticism.
We will consider the trends of changes in value orientations of the
Russian student youth, which are stated on the empirical level. However,
in the beginning we will define what the theoretical meaning of the
study on the Russian youth value orientations is. Also we will specify
what the essence of the value aspect of the youth studies is.
2.1 Values: problems of theory
In the conceptual dictionary for the humanities the term “value”
was introduced by Rudolph Lotze. In his opinion, value exists only in its
significance for a subject, but at the same time it is objective and
possesses general significance for individuals. As H. Rickert explained,
“Lotze wanted not only ‘calculate’ the world, but also “understand”
it34[34]. In other words, in philosophy the new category was being linked
with the problem of understanding. Lotze noted the ambivalence of
value and its subjective and objective nature. In the following
interpretations of this category the stress was laid sometimes on the
subjectivity of value, sometimes – on its objectivity. The objectivistic
33[33]
The information on them could be found in: Zhuravleva 2006, 258–315.
34[34]
Rikkert 1998, 336.
interpretation of value was reflected in Gordon Allport’s dispositional
conception of person who elaborated “the test of values’ study” in the
1930s–1960s. In the Russian sociological school the dispositive concept
of personalities have been offered by V. A. Iadov and it is still accepted
by many other researchers.
The works by O. G. Drobnitskii35[35] have had a considerable
impact on modern Russian researchers of values and value orientations.
Recently the traces of the approaches that were accepted in their time by
the classics of the Sociological school of Chicago36[36] have been
noticeable.
During numerous researches on values as a theoretical problem,
scholars of different countries, representatives of various scientific
schools have expressed many original ideas that allow us to speak of a
high level of the elaboration of this matter. The development of the
theory of values in modern Russia and in the world as well is expected
to continue in the direction of preciseness. The life situation introduces
this clarity into it when there are the period of transition and the birth of
a new type of civilization – information-oriented. Also they expect the
development towards applying of new scientific methods that are being
shaped nowadays. In a number of cases it is necessary to follow the path
of very general argumentation again in order to define the initial
positions of the empirical study.
35[35]
Drobnitskii 1967; 1970.
36[36]
Thomas and Znaniecki 1918.
The specificity of the humanitarian knowledge37[37] presupposes
that the used terminology will be submitted by some parameters to other
rules in comparison with the terminology of so called exact sciences. At
this point there is a possibility of polysemy of terms and, in addition,
historical mutability of their content. Therefore, it is important to trace
down the history of their origin and understanding in various scientific
schools. In essence, in the most cases in the humanitarian knowledge a
scientist deals not with terms, but with concepts, i.e. with words. In
these words aside from a certain content of literal, lexical, figurative,
cultural and philosophical meaning there is another image that appears
in one’s consciousness, and, in its turn, causes an emotional reaction. In
contrast to terms, it is very difficult to translate concepts from one
language into another. They bear imprints of language history and
cultural history. This leads to difficulties in understanding of
humanitarian concepts, which were created in different countries. The
same concepts can be absolutely identical in diverse cultures seldom.
Exactly such a concept is the notion “value”. In the Russian
language it traces back to adjective tsennyi (‘valuable’), which is formed
from the noun tsena (‘price’). The etymology of this All-Slavonic word
can be determined in comparison with Avestian kaēnā – mest’
(‘revenge’), originally it meant vozmezdie, vozdaianie (‘retribution,
requital’) (cf. verb kaiat’sia – ‘to repent’), then shtraf (‘fine’) and finally
– ‘cost of something’38[38]. If we refer to the dictionary of V. I. Dahl that
registers usage of the word “tsena” (‘price’) and its derivatives in the
37[37]
Gumanitarnoe znanie 2006.
38[38]
Shanskii, Ivanov and Shanskaia 1961, 366.
XIX century, it becomes clear that word “tsennost'” (‘value’) by those
times had not yet occupied a noticeable place in the Russian language
and is defined “kak svoistvo po prilagatel’nomu” (‘as characteristic on
adjective’)39[39].
In new European languages there are two meanings of the word
value – as “cost” and as “concernment” – which are usually separated.
Thus, in French there is a word prix – a price, worth (in meaning of the
cost) and there is a word valeur, which was fixed in the texts for the first
time in 108040[40], obviously, originated from the Latin word valeo – to
be healthy, strong, mighty, which is used in the scientific texts in the
meaning of “value”. In English things looks the same: price and value
(valuables). As well as it is in German – Kostbarkeit (the subject) and
Wert (the concept). Though the English value and the German Wert can
correlate with the meaning of ‘cost’, usually they do so not in a direct,
but in a figurative sense. Still, it seems unlikely that the Nietzsche’s
thesis about “revaluation of values” means the same what such a slogan
meant in the Diogenes’s times. The same motto pronounced in the
Russian language and perceived by the Russian cultural thesaurus
(ordered by the totality of social and cultural orientations) means
something different. It should be underlined that even the most detailed
explanations on their meaning in the first primary sources cannot
conceal the fact that “value” is not a term, but a concept. So, on the
emotional, almost unconscious level a representative of the Russian
39[39]
Dal’ 1955, 578.
40[40]
Robert 1967, 1873.
culture puts into this word a certain additional meaning, which is
determined by the history of its existence in the Russian environment.
Even today as before the concept “value” is closely connected with
the notion of price and payment. Its filling with a foreign philosophical
content which comes from the West culture occurs without any support
from the native scientific tradition of its interpretation. The Russian
tradition of explanation of concepts in sociological sense has began to
form only recently. This leads to the fact that Russian scientists in the
field of the humanities accept those meanings, which at first was offered
by different western scientific schools, and apply them for their needs
very easily.
However, it is possible to emphasize a certain general meaning,
which unites the initial centuries-old understanding of the concept
“value” in the Russian culture and to some extent its scientific
interpretation, which have appeared during the last decades: “value” is
“something” what one cannot buy for money. If it is a thing then one
does not grudge giving the required money for it. But if we are talking
about people (parents, relatives, friends, beloved, heroes, idols, etc.) or
concepts (Motherland, liberty, friendship, love, youth, health, art,
science, etc.), in this case they belong to values if they are perceived as
priceless, i.e. more significant than any money in the world. Finally, if
money is understood as a value then it becomes priceless too and it loses
the quantitative side.
These aspects will be taken into account for the generalization of
the data we collected during the empirical researches.
2.2 Russian youth in the mirror of its value orientations
According to many conducted public opinion polls of the last 15
years they state in their conclusions that there is a general valuenormative crisis concerning the Russian youth. This crisis consists in the
revaluation of cultural, ethical and spiritual values of the preceding
generations. The collected data is quite often interpreted as a breach in
succession and sharing in the social and cultural experience from the
senior generation to the following one41[41]. These deductions reflect the
situation of untimeliness in the first years after the collapse of the USSR.
There was also a noticeable movement from the hard regulation toward
the support for a free self-determination of a young person in the youth
policy of this time. Eventually the youth policy in Russia degraded to
the state when young people had to count on their own abilities and
talents. The youth and the youth policy turned out to be on the periphery
of the governmental interests. Russia during “Jeltsin’s era” was simply
not ready to respond to a great number of new economical, political and
social challenges. The youth was left to the mercy of fate.
In this period the importance of integral values that gave the
orientations to the youth in the Soviet time was falling drastically in the
midst of the young Russians. For instance, according to the research data
on the political culture of the Soviet youth that was conducted in 1984
under the direction of E. E. Levanov and A. I. Shendrik, from 60 to 84
41[41]
Karpukhin 2006.
% of the young people (in different categories of the youth) considered
Marxism-Leninism to be a solely authentic theory, which reflected the
regularities of the development of nature, society and person. The major
part of the Soviet young people who thought so according to the results
of this public opinion poll were students, the creative intelligentsia and
the young engineers. Five years later, the research data that
A. I. Shendrik quotes showed that only 29 % of the interrogated young
people shared the same Marxism-Leninism ideology, 36 % were agree
with these ideals only to some extent, but 26 % were convinced that this
was a wrong statement42[42]. Such drastic and sudden changes in the
orientation complexes only partly reflect the transformation in the
structure of values (which took place on the scale of the whole Russian
society). In fact, the researches of the beginning of the 1990s reflect
mainly the changes of value markers, in other words – concepts that
were correlated with the common social norm. At the same time the
basic values were being reproduced from generation to generation in
sufficiently stable configurations.
The researches, including the Russian ones, have shown that with
an extremely small share of young people who evaluate communism
positively (this share was about 2–5 %), the number of those who agree
with the positions that are attributive to communism (the equality in the
sphere of distribution and consumption, the applying the principle «from
each according to the abilities – to each according to the needs», etc.) is
much larger, in some cases ten times larger. Let us cite as an example
the data of an All-Russian poll by the All-Russian Public Opinion
42[42]
Shendrik 1990, 255.
Research Centre (November 1997). Amongst the ideas that, in the
opinion of the respondents, are able to unite the Russian society, only
1.3 % of the interrogated mentioned communism (among the
respondents at the age under 29–0.9 %). Yet, 14.0 % of the respondents
(12.7 % in the youth group) acknowledged the idea of the “equality and
justice” that actually should be interpreted as a procommunist
orientation (Informatsiia: rezul'taty oprosov, 1998). As it follows from
the cited example, the reaction on the marker, which had been
discredited by then in the Russian society and was expressed by the
word “communism” might not reflect the expectations of the youth from
the society and, consequently, the real value orientations of the young
people.
Such indirect circumstances are important in the researches on
value orientations of youth, which are evident in projective questions.
The significant results are presented in the answers to the question on
youth expectations from the future. The empirical studies have shown
that the majority of respondents counts on the chosen professional path,
but believes that basically the choice of a working career will be
imposed by the pragmatic approach. Such is, in particular, the research
data of the public opinion poll conducted under the supervision of B.A.
Ruchkin: 59.9 % of the 17-year olds, 65.3 % of the 24-year olds and
64.4 % of the 31-year olds among the young Russian respondents
acknowledged that the “handsome salary” was the decisive reason for
the choice of their place of work. However, only half of the respondents
(50. 5 %) hoped to find a job without assistance. For a greater
confidence in success with job hunting 51.4 % of the young people were
eager to get a higher education, 30.4 % – to become proficient in foreign
languages, 29.5 % – in computers, 27.7 % – to acquire the skills of work
under the conditions of market economy, 14.6 % – to get a legal
training. Every fourth young person among the respondents planned to
open his own business after the graduation. The professions of a
manager and a businessman were among the most prestigious
occupations according to the views of the youth (16.6 % and 27.7 %
correspondingly), however, this did not prevent 4.3 % of the young
Russians from the inclusion of gangsterism and racket into this list43[43].
Finally, the indirect data on the value orientations of the youth
demonstrates the actual preferences of the young people more exactly
than direct questions about their values. This, in particular, is related to
the characteristics of the studied social group –– the youth. When we
speak of the “value revaluation” then this is most probably the attitude
of the adults who have already gained a certain life experience and have
been subjected to the impact of socialization for quite a long time.
Formation of value-normative system is more typical for youth. It means
the action of another mechanism than in the situation of “value
revaluation”. In this case, the comparisons of value scales of different
age groups (including youth), which are used in the Russian sociological
school, give information on a variety of values that is shared in the
Russian society, but they do not adequately fix the world of values and
strategic preferences of youth.
In our researches on the student youth we study the value
orientations on the basis of several indirect characteristics taking the fact
43[43]
Ruchkin 1998, 93.
that students undergo the active stage of their secondary socialization
into consideration. According to the definition by A. I. Kovaleva,
socialization is a “process of formation and development of a person that
consists in the mastering of social norms, cultural values and models of
behaviour during the whole of his/her life, which allows to function in
this given society”44[44]. This is a double-sided process. One of its sides
consist in the fact that society constantly assigns an orientation of
socially acceptable behaviour and thinking for a person in different
forms, by different means and with various effects. The other side of the
process of socialization is personal mastering of these organizing and
orientating impulses that society initiates. The result of the socialization
is resultant of many differently directed influences. Since we examine
the period of life when people are getting education, we can speak only
about a certain level of socialization. This level of socialization is
exposed to changes because any educational system directly acts as an
institute of socialization. Besides, the macro-social environment begins
to exert greater influence on a person during student years. This macrosocial environment begins to be realized as essential and as a source of
orientations and regulator of the choice of an outlook on life. Therefore,
in many respects value orientations will reflect the accepted in society
life orientations, depend on an actual situation and change, sometimes
significantly. At the same time value orientations are autonomous
enough and can be reproduced from generation to generation not only in
44[44]
Kovaleva 2003, 445.
order of direct inheritance (through family), but also through mass
media and network communication in various social communities45[45].
This, in particular, can be confirmed by the monitoring research
“Russian Institute of Higher Education Through the Eyes of Students”
(the project supervisor, I. M. Il’inskii; the supervisor of the IV–VI
stages, Val. A. Lukov), which is conducted by Moscow University for
the Humanities since the year 2000. The purpose of this project is to
reveal the important features of a new type of educational institutions for
Russia – the nongovernmental institutes of higher education. In the
course of the studies it was very important to found out what were the
problems of this new subsystem of the Russian higher education, what it
manages to obtain, where its unrealized resources are and what the
prospects of its development are. Within the framework of the
monitoring two groups of institutes of higher education were compared
– State and nongovernmental. Both groups consist of the best Moscow
institutes of higher education and institutes of more than ten other
Russian cities in the closing stages.
The results of this research show that with all the difference
between the students of the State and nongovernmental institutes of
higher education their attitude to the studies, their satisfaction with the
student life, integration in the life of his/her institute of higher education,
the level of material well-being, belief on their future life prospects and
plans and – what is important most of all – the basic values of the
Russian students have a similar configuration. This configuration is
45[45]
Lukov Val. and Lukov Vl. 2004, 93–100; Lukov Val. 2006, 106–109.
determined by the features of economical situation, by social and
cultural processes and by public spirits in a country.
According to the research, which was not especially devoted to
analysis of students’ value orientations, we obtained a significant
material for sociological generalizations. The most important indicators
were outspoken by the students in the form of answers table to the
question: “What does a ‘good life’ mean for you?” In the research that
took place in 2006 (N = 3261), the answers of the students were
distributed in the following way (refer to table 1; the amount of the
percent indices exceeds 100 % since there was a possibility to choose
several answers).
Table 1. Distribution of students’ answers to the question: “What
does a ‘good life’ mean for you?” (%)
Moscow
Regions
Higher Education
Higher Education
N=1036
(N=1926)
State
Nongovernme
State
Nongovernme tota
Institut
ntal
Institut
ntal
es
Institutes
es
Institutes
N=471
N=565
N=1237
N=689
l
N=
326
1
to be well-
72.6
81.2
82.3
84.3
8
to-do
to have a
good job
1.2
64.5
65.8
70.4
78.0
68.4
70.4
76.8
73.6
to have a
good
family
not to
work at all
1.7
5.3
1.3
1.5
11.5
19.1
16.0
20.0
7
0.9
7
3.2
2.
2
to possess
power, to
occupy a
high
1
7.1
position in
society
to love
and be
65.0
62,7
70.1
60.1
loved
to be
healthy
60.9
68.7
75.5
75.1
6
4.7
7
1.7
to live not
for
myself,
but for
6.6
4.4
3.5
3.2
22.3
18.9
19.6
31.5
4.
1
other
people
to have a
2
good
3.6
education
to feel
itself safe
24.4
23.0
24.1
20.7
40.3
37.5
41.4
35.9
and secure
to be
independe
nt, free
2
2.9
3
8.8
The achievement of material well-being is the most wide-spread value
orientation in the student community. However, it does not close the
belief about a “good life”, in respect of which such values as a “good
family” (73 % in total), a “good work” (71 %), health (71 %), love (65
%) are still quite significant too. These components form per se
understanding of happiness of the contemporary youth and draw the
picture of expected life quality in the future.
The tendency toward a spiritual side of their vital activities
(family, health, love) is noted in the answers of the students from the
regional institutes of higher education. At the same time, both groups
have evaluated the factor of possessing political power as less
significant. Although, seemingly, the image of a rich chief especially in
the regional understanding is still identified in mass consciousness with
stability and prosperity. Both groups of the questioned students strive for
liberty and independence, safety and security. As regards to the question
on altruistic beliefs – to live not for myself, but for other people –
although they are present in the students’ answers, but represent rather
small group of the respondents.
Concerning of such values as labour and education a certain
picture could be drawn by the data presented in the tables 2 and 3.
Table 2. Distribution of the student’ answers on the question: “In
your opinion, is it possible today to reach the top position in the
society due to honest and conscientious work?” (%)
Moscow
Regions
total
yes
40.7
51.1
46.3
no
24.8
17.5
19.5
hard to tell
34.5
31.4
34.2
total
100.0
100.0
100.0
Table 3. Distribution of the student’ answers on the question: “Is the
higher education can be considered to be a life success warranty
nowadays” (%)
Moscow
Regions
total
yes
21.9
26.4
24.4
no
50.8
44.3
47.0
hard to tell
27.3
29.3
28.6
total
100.0
100.0
100.0
In this case it is not values’ denomination or their hierarchy what
interests us the most, but rather the act of putting values into the context
of the modern Russian reality. Eventually this seems to be the way to a
more exact reflection of value orientations. Similarly we consider the
problem of patriotic values. We avoid the use of the word-marker
“patriotism” and reveal the problem-solving situation in the collation of
answers on the two following questions: “Are you proud of your
country?” and “If they offered a profitable contract, which would
propose leaving your Homeland for permanent residence abroad, would
you agree?” Essentially, the presence of many positive responses on the
first and on the second question means the presence of a certain conflict
in the value orientations (refer to tables 4 and 5). Brought in the contexts
of the present state of life quality in the capital and in the region and
prospects for a realization of acquired education, it is possible to
consider these answers to be the indicators of the patriotic spirits in the
midst of the Russian students.
Table 4. Distribution of the students’ answers on the question: “Are
you proud of your country?” (%)
Moscow
Regions
Higher Education
Higher Education
State
Nongovernment
State
Nongovernment total
ye
s
no
Institute
al
Institute
al
s
Institutes
s
Institutes
59.7
57.5
68,4
68.8
13.5
13.9
7.6
9.3
26.8
28,6
24.0
21.9
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
har
d to
tell
to
tal
65.
0
10.
3
24.
7
10
0.0
Тable 5. Distribution of the students’ answers on the question: “If
they offered a profitable contract, which would propose leaving
your Homeland for permanent residence abroad, would you agree?”
(%)
yes
no
Moscow
Higher Education
Higher Education
Regions
State
Nongovernmental
State
Institutes
Institutes
Institutes
41.2
23.4
44.6
19.8
49.6
19.1
Nongovernmental total
Institutes
48.8
20.7
47.
0
20.
5
don
’t
35.4
35.6
31.3
30.5
32.
5
know
tota
l
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100
The presented fragments of the research show that the students of all
four groups of the institutes of higher education approximately to the
same extent are divided in the expression of their own opinions,
estimations, viewpoints, level of political activity, etc. It confirms once
again that the generalizing word “student body” represents the reality in
its exactness. Indeed, the 28 Russian institutes of higher education that
were examined during the course of the research are very dissimilar to
each other. But student community shows one very significant and firm
trend:
though
there
are
presented
miscellaneous,
sometimes
diametrically opposite standpoints, but in what that concerns the value
orientations and social norms the distribution of answers mainly differs
on the gender and age bases, on the specific features of professions they
have chosen, in some cases depends on the territorial specificity (that is
why we distinguish the city of Moscow from the rest of Russian regions)
and almost is not connected with the legal status of a institute of higher
education (State or nongovernmental). This is the question of vital
importance for the Russian educational system: hitherto the public
prejudice exists regarding the nongovernmental institutes of higher
education.
.0
If the students of Moscow and other regional institutes of higher
education have differences in the value orientations then they are not
exceeding the scale to speak of some significant gap between them and
what actually separates the capital from the province. Patriotic
aspirations are more typical for students from the regions as well as
intentions to work in the professional field, willingness to wait for a job
placement guaranteed by a native institute of higher education after the
graduation, slightly higher level of optimism in the view on the future
and others. But as a rule these differences are too insignificant.
To draw a conclusion it is important to mention that the researches
of the Russian youth that have been carried out during the last decade
show that even the new conditions in every day life have not caused a
full rejection of the traditional Russian cultural and historical values of
the preceding generations among the young people. Furthermore, it is
possible to expect that in the situation of globalization and power of
mass media, which reflects the dominant position of the American
culture in the modern world and, certainly, has an impact on the Russian
youth, the value system in the thesauruses of the young Russians must
gain more autonomous nature. This is a form to express the efforts and
possibilities of the Russians to defend their own identity.
3. YOUTH AND MASS MEDIA: INTERACTION, TRUST AND
EXPECTATIONS
The human being of the 21st century lives in the media space, which is
his new habitat, the reality of the modern culture. Mass communication
media has penetrated into the all spheres of life. Media has become the
main mean of modern culture production and not only a transmissive
mechanism. Media has begun to determine many parameters of society,
industry, policy. The globalization of the information technologies’ net
has occurred. The Russian communication systems are gradually
involving in it being assimilated.
The information boom, which has become reality of life of the
Russian society, has led, on the one hand, to the inclusion of Russia in
the global information space, which is one of the most major
components of modern civilization, and on the other, it has become in
many respects a defining factor in formation of young man personal
characteristics among which system of value orientations plays the
essential role.
Especially it is necessary to designate the importance of media for
formation of social values of contemporary youth. Today mass media
has become one of the social institutes, which influence the basic
processes of society forming. It can be quite easily explained by means
of thesaurus approach to socialization46[46].
According to this approach thesaurus is a peculiar organization of
information of an individual, which is closely connected with his/her
position in society both in macro and micro social spaces. Arising during
socialization process a combination of elements (models of behaviour,
aims, values, information, etc.) is built from fragments of thesauruses of
significant others. These fragments bear traces of earlier thesaurus
formations also apprehended from significant others of another
generation. The general part of thesaurus fragments, from which
individual thesauruses are actually being formed, is called thesaurus
constructions. They can be compared with roots of words, which get
exact meaning in a combination with other blocks (with prefixes,
affixes, etc.)47[47]. Concatenation of thesaurus constructions into
thesauruses is caused by aims of orientation in socio-cultural space-time.
From the very first years of life human being falls into an
information field created by a network of mass communications. Mass
media includes all kinds of means of mass transfer of information
46[46]
Lukov 1999.
47[47]
Lukov and Lukov 2004.
streams functioning in globalized cultural space, in the information field,
which is created with the use of new technologies. This information field
unites socio-cultural meanings of its diverse elements. Because of that
there is a problem of interference of information environment and
system of values of a young man as a social agent.
3.1 The Importance of Video Culture in Socialization of Youth
The most significant part of information environment today is
video culture. Various spheres of vital activity of youth – school and
system of vocational training, youth centers, work and sphere of leisure
– are included into the field of its influence. It becomes the most
important agent of socialization and a powerful factor of value system
formation.
The analysis of TV as a mean of reflection of the external world in
the context of the modern theory is based on the thesis about
conditionality of representation: all our attempts to represent the reality
are determined by language, culture and ideology. If we agree that we
perceive the world through systems of representations then the very
raising of the problem of TV objectivity or subjectivity will change and
instead of the question – “Do we learn the truth about the world
watching TV?” – there will be the question: “How does it represent the
world?”
The expansion of video culture sphere leads to the change of
leisure structure of teenagers and youth. If in the recent past the culture
institutions played a greater role both in socialization and training in
creative activity and spiritually-aesthetic qualities of young generation
then from the mid 1980s more opportunities for satisfaction of many
cultural needs in house conditions began to appear. By the second half
of the 1980s the changed living conditions have given basically
recreational character to spare time. The mass media rushed powerfully
into the sphere of leisure of youth, becoming its basic and structuring
component.
In the study “Features of Labour Socialization of Teenagers”
conducted by the Institute of Humanitarian Researches and the faculty of
sociology of Moscow University for the Humanities 48[48], the teenagers’
answer distribution concerning spending of their spare time shows that
the TV occupies one of the priority places.
The list of actions in the spare time is quite traditional for modern
teenagers: 41.2 % watch TV and video, 37.4 % meet friends at home or
at their apartment. Approximately equal parts (not much more than the
third of the interrogated) spend leisure time in book reading, exercises
and trainings in gyms, going to the cinema: 27 % attend parties, discos,
student clubs. Shopping and playing computers are activities of 25 % of
teenagers. Approximately a quarter of them “has their sleep out” at their
spare time, and about 16 % surf the Internet, “hang around” the streets.
Almost the same number of them is engaged in self-education, go to the
theatre, museum, library, 10.7 % play on musical instruments. Lessons
in theatrical circles, art and dancing studios, driving, motorcycling,
48[48]
Kol. Monografiia. Pod obsh. red. Kovalevoi A.I., Lukova Val.A. [v sost. avt.
kol.: … Gnevasheva V.A. 2005.
bicycling; visiting sick relatives – these activities fill leisure time of less
than 10 % of teenagers.
There is an interrelation between belonging to an educational
institution and a way of leisure spending. As a matter of fact, belonging
to a type of an educational institution, as well as a kind of leisure, to
some extent is the evidence of amount of teenagers’ family income and
value orientations, which are customary in them. Computer games as a
form of leisure are more widespread among lyceum students (29.8 %)
and students of institutes of higher education (27.6 %), then among
pupils of colleges and schools. As to pupils of technical training
institutions only 12.5 % of them devote spare time to computer games,
6.9 % of pupils of technical training colleges and 27.7 % of lyceum
students surf on the Internet.
Mass media are filling personal space of people in society more
and more swiftly. Orientations to the opinions generated in mass media
are spreading and the trust for its information and estimations is
growing. To a greater extent young generation is subject to it. The AllRussian Public Opinion Research Center49[49] surveys show that as a
whole the Russian mass media are estimated positively by the majority
of the Russians (53 %). At the same time the level of approval of mass
media work is higher than of many state and public institutes (such as,
for instance, the Government, the State Duma, the Council of
Federation, political parties, law enforcement bodies). The interest in
information and information-analytical broadcasting is keen enough.
The third of the interrogated people (31 %) watch TV news and
49[49]
Press-vypusk, 2004.
information-analytical
programmes
on
political
themes
daily.
Approximately the same number of people (32 %) watches them a few
times a week. However there are not few of those (35 %) who either
watch these programmes occasionally or do not do it at all. As one
would expect, these programmes arouse essentially deeper interest
among respondents of the senior age groups and more passing among
young people.
Nowadays one type of human being is finishing to exist and
develop. The conditions for the formation of the type with another kind
of mentality, spirituality and system of aesthetic values are appearing.
Now they speak of “the second Copernican Revolution”, which is
connected with the penetration of «new technologies» into all spheres of
social life. Under these conditions the purposes of upbringing of youth
are directly related to the context of formation of a human being of the
approaching culture and civilization. New forms of life, new experience
in contacts in many respects are connected both with mass
communication media development, which play a huge, even a leading
role in the formation of value priorities and personal qualities of young
generation.
3.2 Influence of Periodicals on Young Generation
Among all mass media of nowadays market of information
services periodicals are the least popular among youth. Every tenth
student approves that he/she does not take newspapers in his/her hands
(except for a TV schedule); among schoolboys and schoolgirls this share
is considerably larger. According to the sociological data 70–80 % of
young people look into newspaper articles casually, looking through the
newspapers, which they have got accidentally. Probably their parents
have subscribed to them or they find free copies in a café or in the
underground waiting for a friend.
The reason of such a low popularity of periodicals lies in the
nature of information channels and also in opportunities of information
processing with the purpose to transfer a maximum of content, which
may interest a listener, in the shortest possible time and also, it is
desirable, with the use of proper means of attraction of consumers to the
information flow. It is more convenient to gather social and political
information from the TV screen. Glossy magazines tell more thoroughly
and colourfully about cultural life and “high life parties”. By separate
estimates youth more likely will read “yellow press” than a serious
political edition. As a bearer of operative information newspaper cannot
compete with electronic mass media, besides (it is important for modern
“running” youth) it is inconvenient for reading “on the move». As a rule
magazine reading is superficial. They do not really read articles and
interviews, but mainly scan them. Only a few can name the authors they
are fond of. For the overwhelming majority of young readers journalism
is nameless.
The ideal model of an edition for youth should contain the
following basic thematic directions: social and political analytics;
articles about job placement, dwelling, health (social block); information
on clubs, cinema, concerts and books with brief summaries; cognitive
materials (about countries, celebrities, events of the past); interviews
with
different
heroes;
crossword
puzzles,
humour;
narrations,
documentaries, artistic and imaginary literature (sentimental melodrama
is in popular demand); criminal; sports; special advices to girls and
young housewives; computer and automobile page; and, at last,
something pathetic, “about eternal”, “about meaning of life”.
It is significant that female magazines are in the lead, 3/4 of girls
read them, and schoolgirls are noticeably more active than female
students. According to girls, young men are not averse to concern
themselves with this sort of periodical press, but they hesitate to confess
that they do. As a rule young men demonstrate indicative reading of
computer and automobile magazines.
3.3 Mass Media Influence on Public Opinion Formation
By separate estimates mass media influence on the formation of
“public opinion” is profound enough. E. Dennis assumed that “massmedia ‘forms’ our thinking, ‘influences’ on our opinions and aims,
‘pushes’ us to the certain kinds of behaviour, for example, to voting for
a definite candidate”50[50].
At the same time not all of researchers are assured of mass media
power. The co-author of E. Dennis D. Merrill opposes to him: “Probably
50[50]
Dennis 1997, 139.
mass media possess force to focus our attention on certain things, but it
is not that power which makes us act»51[51]. Further he comes up with the
following quite moderate estimation: “Mass media impact is more likely
to point out what society should reflect on and not to tell what it should
think of...” In other words, mass media power in many respects consists
in determination of a corresponding «agenda» in a specific moment of
time.
Mass media is capable of having a special impact on young
generation under the formation of public consciousness. Here the main
problems of young age – fear of loneliness; associates’, parents’,
teachers’, contemporaries’ misunderstanding of teenagers; unrequited
sympathy; inability to organize leisure time, to find an interesting
pastime, activity – are the categories, which contribute to suggestibility.
In adolescence there is a desire to create an «idol» and to imitate him/her
entirely. Nowadays a young man – whose mentality develops in the
information environment, i.e. not only under the influence of norms and
values, taught in sphere of interpersonal contacts, but mainly because of
various kinds of mass media – often turns out to be unable to get correct
guiding lines in the flood of strongly awry information transferred by
different channels of mass media. As the ideological vacuum exists an
extreme partiality and discrepancy between information streams
contributes to the fact that outlook of young men becomes less integral
and appears to be more subject to manipulation, impact of propagation
of false ideals and life values.
51[51]
Merill 1997, 155.
During last decades all over the world the interest in concepts of
identification and identity has been more and more increasing. Identity
is becoming a kind of prism through which many important features of
modern life are examined, estimated and studied52[52]. In this case we
will discuss the Russian national identity.
According to theoretical notions, ethnic consciousness is a wider
concept presented by a wider identification, including actually not only
ethnic but also other forms of identification corresponding to relevantly
existing objects of an ethnic reality: territorial, cultural, language,
religious, ceremonial, racial, anthropological, psychological, etc.53[53]
Among the parameters of community ethnic development there are race
and biological (patrimonial roots), climate and geographical (historical
territory), and social and cultural (national history, ethnic symbols of
culture and religion, etc.) parameters, which are ethno-identification
markers. “What does it mean to be a Russian today?» – such was the
theme of the public essay competition among senior pupils, conducted in
March–July, 2003 in Russia formulated. (The founders of the contest
were the Committee of Culture and Tourism of State Duma of the
Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation, the Federal Russian
National and Cultural Autonomy of Russia, the League of National
Property Protection, the Russian Intellectual Club, the Russian Club of
Art and Culture, “Natsional’naia gazeta” (‘National Newspaper’), the
Regional Public Fund of Assistance to Russian Culture “Russian Fund”.
The essays of young authors in amount of 565 letters were sent to the
52[52]
Bauman 2002.
53[53]
Hotinets, 2000.
contest.
Among
the
examined
questions
concerning
national
identification the questions about distribution and formation of national
culture were raised. In youth’s opinion, mass media plays one of the key
roles. In particular, mass media can be an effective weapon for obtrusion
and formation of a general national idea in the attempt to unite a nation
as well as it can unleash international dissention and form a negative
image of a particular nation and even a country as a whole in the
external world.
“It is impossible to allow propagation of radical ideas, which exalt
one nation above another […]” – Anna P. (Republic of Tatarstan) marks
in the competitive essay. There are works in which authors think that
«being born a Russian it is not only dangerous to walk on the earth […]
of ancestors, but fatally dangerous for Russianness has become the
verdict which has been brought in by the forces of Evil […] They write
about that in newspapers and magazines, they talk about it on the radio
[…] All these media persistently drum into heads of young people: it is
the end of Russians!” (Irina S., Moscow region). Many authors write
about the role of mass media and the influence of the West: “It is
necessary not to imitate the West and its values completely as the main
thing there is money” (Taras L. Shugan village); “[…] together with
good patterns we adopt the bad ones in the West”; «TV – continuous
violence, drugs, weapon. Children learn advertising slogans» (Anna P.,
Republic of Tatarstan, Kazan); “the aggressive attack of the blue screen”
(Vera J., Birsk). But there and then they notice: “It is a difficult
question: do we form the content of articles, reports of mass media or,
on the contrary, they impose something on us, forcing us to change […]
Mass media, first of all, is oriented on our national features, at the same
time it persistently makes the Russians to pay attention to the European
measures and standards” (Darya S., Republic of Adygea, Maikop). By
estimations of the Russian youth cultural models, which mass media
demonstrates today, are imposed on Russia from outside. These models
play a defining role in the formation of national identity of young
Russians.
3.4 Youth and Mass Media: Bases of Trust
Practically all the conducted sociological researches, the purpose
of which is determination of value orientations of the society and
modern youth, consider the question of mass media impact on the
formation of the system of their vital perception. The group of the most
popular among youth topics, demonstrated by the means of mass media,
has been empirically determined.
One of the topics is youth fashion. Popularization of shocking
epatage fashion with propagation of various subcultures, styles for disco,
unisex, tattoos. Further there is the topic of deviation and crime.
Deviation is a way to leave the designated way, destruct a taboo and
common norms of behaviour. The description of various kinds of
crimes, obscene abusive language, etc. relates to it.
The next topic is drugs. It includes propagation of «madness»,
«extremenesses», extreme kinds of sport. Around a person a
mythological cover forms. It promotes full loss of orientation in life. The
verge between the real and the imagined becomes vague.
The topic of pop stars and pop music is also important. Advertising
of a pop star, information on his/her fees, admirers, description of
success, wealth, love affairs, reports about deviant acts. As image of a
«star» among young people determines their deeds and lifestyle, it is
clear what examples for imitation are imposed on them.
The topic of youth infrastructure and modes of entertainment
(advertising of clubs, rock concerts, discos, mass holidays) completes
the five popular among youth topics.
The
results
of interrogations of
students54[54] show that
representatives of the young generation estimate the role of mass media
in formation of value system of youth critically. According to the
research the share of Moscow students, who consider that publications
of mass media cause sense of fear and vulnerability in the society, has
grown from 64 % up to 70 %. From 50 % up to 60 % of students think
that mass media evokes rage and aggression, from 23 % up to 45 %
suppose that it induces to violence. Besides 65 % of Moscow students
accuse mass media of propagation of criminal slang and foul language,
and 64 % – of spreading of debauch and prostitution.
One of the hypotheses of the research was the assumption that
students put not the equal degree of trust to various kinds of mass media,
what can be proved by the data of
58 % of the respondents who
expressed confidence in mass media. The majority of the respondents
could not answer unambiguously the question on trust to the information
54[54]
Molodezh’ i ee tsennostnye orientatsii (1999).
containing on the Internet (42.7 % were at a loss to answer and 39.3 %
quite confide in the Internet). It can be explained by the fact that news
and many other kinds of information published on the Internet pages
often duplicate the information of printed press. The central purpose of
the research was to find out which values propagandize mass media and
on which values, in students’ opinion, they direct the modern Russian
youth.
To their understanding, mass media directs on the following
values, which concern the group of values of common to all mankind
character according to the degree of priority: beauty, life values, safety,
peace and on the last place – health.
Among human interrelations’ values students emphasize first of all
value orientation on love, then on professional relations and friendship,
as for marriage, in the interrogated people’s opinion, mass media almost
does not orient the modern youth on it at all. This fact has already been
noted in several sociological researches, in which the authors mention
that changes of youth views on love and marriage – made by the
transformation of social and cultural norms and traditions – have
essentially reduced the degree of parents’ influence on the formation of
their notions about these values while the role of mass media in this
matter, on the contrary, is growing.
Among the values of person self-affirmation in society on the first
place they note the value of material welfare, on the second – career,
further – social prestige and social recognition. Practically nobody
understands education as a value on which mass media directs its
audience. Thus, by students’ estimates, mass media claims that today in
society much more often people are estimated not on the basis of the
education they have acquired but of a successful career, material
welfare, and social recognition. Mass media positions it as socially
significant.
Among the values of self-realization of a person the leading one is
active life, after it there are: independence, individuality, spare time.
Mass media orientates students on creativity to a lesser degree.
As a result of the research the proposed hypothesis that among the
value orientations, which are formed by mass media, in the students’
opinion, on the first place there are values of self-affirmation and selfrealization. Among the most prevalent value orientations in this list there
is the value of material welfare: 70.7 % of the interrogated students
consider it to be a value, on which mass media orientates the Russian
youth most of all. On the second place among the all options, which
were offered – the value of career (61.3 %). It is significant that
education in comparison with the value of material welfare and career is
the least widespread value. Besides, in the students’ opinion, mass
media urges students to be active, independent and special.
3.5 Priority Directions of National Policy of Regulation of
Mutual Relations between Youth and Mass Media
During the last 10 years in Russia thousands of non-governmental
broadcasting companies have appeared, almost in 600 cities there is a
local TV station. The influence of private regional radio companies in
youth information space has sharply increased. Now there are 652 radio
companies registered in Russia (Ministerstvo obrazovaniia Rossiiskoi
Federatsii, 2002).
Under the conditions of expansion of telecasting the radio has not
only lost the audience, but has obtained a prospect for its development.
Radiocasting has overtaken the TV in terms of programme
differentiation intended for young listeners. Information and artistic
broadcasting is, as a rule, no more than 15–20 % of the general
broadcasting time, the rest of the time is reserved mainly for musical and
entertaining programmes.
Nowadays the need for legislative acts, which would regulate the
correlation of news, entertaining, cultural and educational (domestic and
foreign) programmes not only on the radio, but also on the TV, has
increased.
The Government of the Russian Federation, the State Duma, the
Council of Federation of the Federal Assembly of the RF supported the
offers of the television community to allot money for the financing of
socially significant programmes of electronic mass media from the federal
budget in 2000. In this time the system of grants for support of
programmes for teenagers and young people was used for the first time in
Russia. Paramount importance is attached to patriotic, juridical and
educational programmes devoted to social problems – preventive
measures against drug addiction, criminality.
Realization of the functions of youth world outlook formation by
the means of mass media presupposes openness and availability of
information. In the Russian Federation there are registered more than
350 periodicals for youth. The total circulation of these editions is up to 3
million copies monthly. Thematically the Russian juvenile and youth
press has become more diverse, considerably more differentiated taking
sex and age of the readers into account during the last decade.
Newspapers and magazines for family reading intended for both
teenagers and their parents have appeared.
At the same time at the modern Russian market of printed mass
media for youth editions for entertainment prevail. Their cumulative
monthly circulation is up to 75 % of the circulation of all types of the
juvenile and youth editions.
Besides in the editions, which are addressed directly to youth, the
share of the publications peculiarly mentioning its age and social
problems (especially in case of editions for teenagers of 14–15 years) is
small. In the whole spectrum of the youth press the editions of training
and cognitive content are poorly presented.
The former youth editions on the whole have become editions for
all ages. The published materials are intended for readers of different
age brackets.
The problem of information vulnerability of minors is acquiring an
increasing acuteness. The number of the periodicals, which use materials
of sexual content for commercial purposes, is growing impetuously. In
several such magazines there is a direct abuse of interests of the youth.
Hundred thousands of readers of these editions are involved in the
turnover of the printed output of sexual content.
For the last decade the Russian teenage amateur press has been
developing. This press exists officially. It is included in the mass media
system and competitive. Its polygraphic level is often very good. It gives
an opportunity for pupils and students to obtain journalistic skills. The
most important thing is that it allows to express their opinion on an
event and the present-day life.
3.6 Discussion
Mass media impact is so overall and all-purpose that, in some
researchers’ opinion, technological and social progress of a state, its
position in the world economy and economical competitiveness,
effective realization of a role in the international labour distribution and
development of democratic institutes depend on it. Moreover, all these
phenomena are accompanied by the formation of a new world outlook
and a new world culture. In this sense mass media represents one of the
main socializing institutes and is one the most accessible and influential
mechanisms of personality formation. Evaluating the global influence on
a person and opportunities for promotion of world outlook formation we
consider it is possible today to compare the information technologies
and mass media, first of all the TV, only with participation of family in
socialization of a person. Youth is especially actively involved in this
process.
Young men estimate their absorption in mass media as excessive,
sometimes harmful. As the results of many sociological researches show
the constant mass media reports on deviating from the norms common in
the society phenomena and events presented, as a rule, sensationally,
generate anxiety and fear of disturbance of a habitual world order,
habitual current of life, fear of the place in the society and future, etc. in
minds of readers, listeners, spectators. At the same time the facts
indicate that the people, who too often resort to mass media services,
have more negative aims and purposes concerning the world.
Thus, it is possible to speak about mass media as of an institute,
which plays an important role in the system of formation and
maintenance of not only numerous life processes and aspects of modern
society, but also of its value structure. It is difficult to estimate the
global role of information technologies in the personal socialization
process and in the formation of value orientations unambiguously. All
we can do is to establish the fact that any component, any function of
mass media has both a positive and a destructive component.
Accordingly mass media can promote both the integration of a society
and its disorganization.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Aktual’nye
sostoianie,
problemy
tendentsii,
narkosituatsii
profilaktika
v
(2004),
molodezhnoi
Moskva,
srede:
Tsentr
sotsiologicheskikh issledovanij.
Ariamov, I.A. (1928), Rabochii podrostok. Moskva, Novaia
Moskva.
Bauman, Z. (2002), Individualizirovannoe obshestvo. Moskva,
Logos.
Blonskii,
P.P.
(1925),
Pedologiia.
Moskva,
Rabotnik
prosveshcheniia.
Boriaz, V.N. (1973), Molodezh’: Metodologicheskie problemy
issledovaniia. Leningrad, Nauka.
Bykhovskii, B. (1960), Aksiologiia. In: Filosofskaia
entsiklopediia. Moskva, Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia. Vol. 1, 30.
Cherednichenko, G.A. and Shubkin, V.N. (1985), Molodezh’
vstupaet v zhizn’. Moskva, Mysl’.
Chuprov, V.I. (1992), Razvitie molodezhi: konceptualizacija
poniatia. In: Molodezh’ Rossii: sotsial’noe razvitie. Moskva, Nauka.
Chuprov,
V.I.
(1994),
Sotsial’noe
razvitiie
molodezhi:
teoreticheskie i prikladnyje problemy. Moskva, Socium.
Chuprov, V.I., Zubok, Iu.A., Williams, K. (2001), Molodezh’ v
obshchestve riska. Moskva, Nauka.
Dal’, V.I. (1955), Tolkovyi slovar’ zhivogo velikorusskogo iazyka.
4 Vols. Vol. 4. V sootvetstvii so 2-m izd., 1882, Moskva, GIINS.
Dennis, E. (1997), Besedy o mass-media. Moskva, Vagrius, 139.
Drobnitskii, O.G. (1967), Mir ozhivshikh predmetov: Problema
tsennosti i marksistskaia filosofiia. Moskva, Politizdat.
Drobnitskii, O.G. (1970), Tsennost'. In: Filosofskaia
entsiklopediia. Moskva, Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia. Vol. 5.
Filippov, F.R. (1989), Ot pokoleniia k pokoleniiu. Moskva, Mysl’.
Gumanitarnoe znanie: tendentsii razvitiia v XXI veke (2006). Pod
obshch. red. Val. A. Lukova. Moskva, Izd-vo Natsional'nogo instituta
biznesa.
Hotinets V.Iu. (2000), Etnicheskoe samosoznanie. SPb., Aleteya,
158.
Ikonnikova, S.N. (1974), Molodezh’. Leningrad, Izdatel'stvo
Leningradskogo universiteta.
Il’inskii, I.M. (2001), Molodezh’ i molodezhnaia politika. Moskva,
Golos.
Il’inskii, I.M. (2006), Obrazovanie. Molodezh’. Chelovek. Moskva,
Izdatel'stvo Moskovskogo gumanitarnogo universiteta.
Informatsiia: rezul'taty oprosov (1998). Monitoring
obshchestvennogo mneniia: Ekonomicheskie i sotsial'nye peremeny. №
1.
K kharakteristike sovremennogo studenchestva: Po dannym
perepisi 1909–1910 gg. v Peterburgskom tekhnologicheskom institute
(1911), 2-e izd. Peterburg, Peterburgskij tekhnologicheskij institut.
Karpukhin, O.I. (2006), Molodezh' Rossii: osobennosti
sotsializatsii i samoopredeleniia. Retrieved [11.1.2007] from
http://studlib.ru/article/a-84.html.
Karpukhin, O.I. and Makarevich, E.F. (2001), Formirovanie mass.
Kaliningrad, Iantarnyi skaz.
Kh'ell, L. and Zigler, D. (1999), Teorii lichnosti: Osnovnye
polozheniia, issledovaniia i primenenie. Perevod s angl. SPb., Piter,
300–301.
Kogan, B.B. and Lebedinskii, M.S. (1929), Byt rabochei
molodezhi. Moskva, Molodaja gvardia.
Kolkov, V.V. (1997), Teoreticheskie osnovy formirovaniia
sotsial'noi raboty s molodezh’iu za rubezhom. In: Sotsial’nomolodezhnaia
rabota:
mezhdunarodnyi
opyt.
Moskva,
Institut
molodezhi, 8–44.
Kon, I.S. (1974), Molodezh’. Bol’shaia Sovetskaia Entsiklopediia:
V 30 tomakh, 3-e izd. Vol. 16. Moskva, Sovetskaia Iuntsiklopediia, 478.
Kovaleva, A.I. (2003), Sotsializatsiia. In: Sotsiologicheskaia
entsiklopediia. 2 Vols. Vol. 2. Ivanov V.N. and Semigin G.Iu. (eds.).
Moskva, Mysl'.
Kovaleva, A.I. and Lukov, Val.A. (1999), Sotsiologiia molodezhi:
Teoreticheskie voprosy. Moskva, Sotsium.
Kovaleva,
A.I.
and
Reut
M.N.
(2001),
Sotsializatsiia
neslyshashchei molodezhi. Moskva, Sotsium.
Lapin, N.I. and Beliaeva, L.A. (eds.) (1996), Dinamika tsennostei
naseleniia reformiruemoi Rossii. Moskva, Editorial URSS.
Lisovskii, V.T. (1968), Metodologiia i metodika izucheniia idealov
i zhiznennykh planov molodezhi. Dissertatsiia na soiskanie uchenoi
stepeni kandidata… kand. filosofskikh nauk. Leningrad, Leningradskii
gosudarstvennyi universitet.
Lisovskii, V.T. (2000), Dukhovnyi mir i tsennostnye orientatsii
molodezhi Rossii. Sankt-Peterburg, Sankt-Peterburgskii universitet
profsoiuzov.
Lukov,
Val.
A.
(1999),
Tezaurologicheskaia
kontseptsiia
molodezhi. Sotsiologicheskii sbornik. Vyp. 5 Institut molodezhi.
Moskva, Socium.
Lukov, Val. A. (2003), Tezaurusnaia kontseptsiia molodezhi. In:
Tezisy dokladov i vystupleniia na II Vserossiyskom sotsiologicheskom
kongresse. Vol. 3. Moskva, Al'fa-M, 71–72.
Lukov, Val. A. (2006), Vospitanie kak otvet na vyzovy
globalizatsii. In: Znanie. Ponimanie. Umenie. Vol. 1, 101–109.
Lukov, Val. A. and Lukov, Vl. A. (2004), Tezaurusnyi podkhod v
gumanitarnykh naukakh. In: Znanie. Ponimanie. Umenie. Moskva,
FGUP «PIK VINITI». №1, 93–100.
Lukov, Val. A. and Lukov, Vl. A. (2004), Tezaurusnyi podkhod v
gumanitarnykh naukakh. In: Znanie. Ponimanie. Umenie. Vol. 1, 93–
100.
Lukov, Val.A. and Agranat D.L. (2005), Kursanty: Plats. Byt.
Seks. Moskva, Nauka-Flinta.
Lukov, Vl. A., Lukov Val. A., Kovaleva A. I. (2006), Uroki
Makarenko. Moskva, Kliuch T.
Makarenko, A.S. (1983), Opyt metodiki raboty detskoi trudovoi
kolonii. In: Pedagogicheskie sochineniia. Vol. 1. Moskva, Pedagogika,
166–190.
Merill, D. (1997), Besedy o mass-media. Moskva, Vagrius.
Molodezh’ i ee tsennostnye orientatsii (1999), Sovremennaia
molodezhnaia politika (Pravovye aspekty realizatsii). In: Sbornik
nauchnykh statei. Moskva, Nauchno-issledovatel’skii tsentr pri Institute
molodezhi. 54-58.
Omel'chenko, E. (2004), Molodezh’: otkrytyi vopros. Ul'ianovsk,
Simbirskaia kniga.
Pavlovskii, V.V. (2001), Iuventologiia: Proekt integrativnoi nauki
o molodezhi. Moskva, Akademicheskiy proekt.
Press-vypusk VCIOM (2004), № 99.
Rikkert, G. (1998), Nauki o prirode i nauki o kul'ture. Moskva,
Respublika.
Robert, P. (1967), Dictionnaire alphabetique et analogique de la
langue francaise (Le Petit Robert). P., SNL.
Rossiiskaia molodezh’: problemy i resheniia (2005), Moskva,
Tsentr sotsiologicheskikh issledovanij.
Ruchkin, B.A. (1998), Molodezh' i stanovlenie novoi Rossii. In:
Sotsiologicheskie issledovaniia. Vol. 5, 90–98.
Semenova, V.V. (1998), Sotsiologiia molodezhi. In: Sotsiologiia v
Rossii. Pod red. V.A. Iadova. 2-e izd., pererab. i dop. Moskva,
Izdatel'stvo Instituta sotsiologii RAN, 130–147.
Shanskii, N.M., Ivanov, V.V. and Shanskaia, T.V. (1961), Kratkii
etimologicheskii slovar' russkogo iazyka. Moskva, Uchpedgiz.
Shendrik, A.I. (1990), Dukhovnaia kul'tura sovetskoi molodezhi:
sushchnost', sostoianie, puti razvitiia. Moskva, Molodaia gvardiia.
Sheregi, F.E. and Aref'ev, A.L. (2003), Narkotizatsiia v
molodezhnoi srede: struktura, tendentsii, profilaktika. Moskva, Tsentr s
sotsial'nogo prognozirovaniia.
Slutskii,
E.G.
(ed.)
(2002),
Osnovy
iuventologii:
Opyt
kompleksnye mezhdistsiplinarnye issledovaniia. Sankt-Peterburg, BISprint.
Slutskii, E.G. (ed.) (2004), Iuvenologiia i iuvenal’naia politika v
XXI veke. Sankt-Peterburg, Znanie.
Soros, Dzh. (1999), Krizis mirovogo kapitalizma: Otkrytoe
obshchestvo v opasnosti. Perevod s angl. Moskva, INFRA-M.
Elektronnaia kopiia. Retrieved [11.1.2007] from
http://capitalizm.narod.ru/.
Sotsiologiia molodezhi (1996), Otv. red. V.T. Lisovskii. SanktPeterburg, Izdatel'stvo Sankt-Peterburgskogo universiteta.
Thomas, W.I. and Znaniecki, F. (1918), The Polish Peasant in
Europe and America. Vol. I. Boston, Richard G. Badger.
Trudovaia
sotsializatsiia
podrostkov:
Po
materialam
sotsiologicheskogo issledovaniia, (2005), Kol. Monografiia. Pod obsh.
red. Kovalevoi A.I., Lukova Val.A. [v sost. avt. kol.: … Gnevasheva
V.A.]. Moskva, Izd-vo Mosk. gumanit. un-ta.
Volkov, Iu. G., Dobren’kov, V.I., Kadariia, F.D. et al. (2001),
Sotsiologiia molodezhi. Rostov na Donu, Fenins.
Vygotskii, L.S. (1928), Pedologiia shkol’nogo vozrasta. Moskva,
Izd-vo BZO pri pedfake 2-go MGU.
Zaitsev, V.A. (1926), Trud i byt rabochih podrostkov. Moskva,
Voprosy truda.
Zalkind, A.B. (1925), Revoliutsiia i molodezh’. Moskva,
Kommunisticheskiy Universitet im. Sverdlova.
Zhulkovska,
T.,
Kovaleva,
A.I.,
Lukov,
Val.A.
(2003),
«Nenormal’nye» v obshchestve: Sotsializatsiia liudei s ogranichennymi
intellektual’nymi
vozmozhnostiami.
Moskva–Shetsin,
Izdatel'stvo
Moskovskogo gumanitarnogo universiteta.
Zhuravleva, N.A. (2006), Dinamika tsennostnykh orientatsii
lichnosti v rossiiskom obshchestve. Moskva, Institut psikhologii RAN.
Zubok, Iu.A. (2003), Problemy riska v sotsiologii molodezhi.
Moskva, Moskva, Izdatel'stvo Moskovskoy gumanitarno-sotsial'noy
akademii.
On authors:
Vera Anatol’evna Gnevasheva–– The Head of the Center of
Social Projecting of University Education and Sociology of Youth,
Institute of Humanitarian Researches, Moscow University for the
Humanities, Ph. D. (economics).
Valery Andreevich Lukov –– Vice-rector of the Moscow
University for the Humanities, the Head of the Institute of Humanitarian
Researches Ph.D., professor.
Vledimir Andreevich Lukov –– The Head of the Center of
Theory and History of Culture, Moscow University for the Humanities,
Ph.D., professor.
Okasana Olegovna Namlinskaja –– Junior Scientific Research
Worker, Institute of Humanitarian Researches, Moscow University for
the Humanities.
Nikolai Vladimirovich Zakharov –– Chief Scientific Research
Worker, Institute of Humanitarian Researches, Moscow University for
the Humanities, Ph.D.
Research series
GNEVASHEVA V.
LUKOV VAL.
LUKOV VL.
NAMLINSKAIA O.
ZAKHAROV N.
SOCIAL AND CULTURAL VALUE ORIENTATIONS
OF RUSSIAN YOUTH:
THE THEORETICAL AND EMPIRICAL RESEARCHES,
YOUTH AND MASS MEDIA
Monograph
Moscow
2007