Sound Advertising
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Sound Advertising: A Review of the Experimental
Evidence on the Effects of Music in Commercials on
Attention, Memory, Attitudes, and Purchase Intention
David Allan, Ph.D.
Department of Marketing
Saint Joseph's University
Online Publication Date: October 23, 2007
Journal of Media Psychology, Volume 12, No. 3, Fall, 2007
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Abstract
This article reviews the empirical studies on the interaction of music and the hierarchy of
advertising effects, or specifically attention, memory, attitudes and purchase intention. The most
relevant literature is analyzed through the formation of two comprehensive tables of theories and
experiments. Music variables such as appeal, fit, melody, mood, tempo, texture, tonality, and
valence are shown to influence consumer attitude toward the ad and the brand, recall, pleasure
and arousal, and purchase intention. This review provides a summary of the results and the
foundation for future research into sound advertising.
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Introduction
It is almost impossible to turn on the radio or the television, or walk into a retail establishment
and not witness the marriage of art and commerce. Even before the days of media and malls,
music was a major force in consumer marketing. Without exception, music plays a vital role in
the interactive process of consumer behavior. The commercial uses of music in marketing
account for billions of dollars nationwide. Not surprisingly, this area of study has received
considerable attention primarily focused on the impact of music on consumer responses to
commercial advertising.
There are many stimuli, or environmental cues, that retailers use to affect consumer behavior
including music, color, scents, etc. Music is considered to be the most commonly studied
stimulus variable (Turley & Milliman, 2000). Most retailers would agree that music is one of
their most important considerations and expenses (Yalch & Spangenberg, 1993). Billions of
dollars are spent worldwide on music in the retail environment (North & Hargreaves, 1998). Past
reviews of experimental evidence in this area have included music as part of a larger review of
atmospheric effects (Lam, 2001; Turley & Milliman, 2000), and more narrowly focused on just
its effect on shopping behavior (Allan, in press).
There are also many stimuli, or executional cues, that advertisers use to affect consumer
response to commercials including music, spokespersons, animation, etc. Music is also
considered to be the most used executional cue in commercials (Yalch, 1991). Dunbar (1990,
p. 200) argued that “music makes you watch or listen [to advertising] in a different way” than
commercials without music and adds an emotional dimension to the consumer response to the
brand.
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While it should not be surprising that the effect of music on advertising has been extensively
researched, it should be surprising that a current, comprehensive, and critical review of the
literature has not been completed. Bruner (1990) provided an early collection of relevant
research involving music and advertising as part of the literature review for his “Music, Mood
and Marketing” but that is now more than a decade old. North and Hargreaves (1997) updated
the list as part of a larger chapter (“Music and Consumer Behaviour”) on the commercial and
industrial uses of music (advertising, shops and the music industry) in The Sociology of Music. T
This article then, has three purposes. First, it is a review of the most important studies
involving music and advertising beginning with the most relevant definitions (Table 1). Second,
it is a synthesis and comparison of variables and results. Third, based on what has been done and
how it has been executed, it is a foundation and facilitation for future research.
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Table 1
A Summary of Relevant Definitions_______________________________________
Definition________________________________________
Citation__________________
Fit
The music’s relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message.
MacInnis & Park (1991)
Indexicality
The extent to which the music arouses emotion-laden memories.
MacInnis & Park (1991)
Jingle
Unique, novel lyrics written for a particular advertisement.
Wallace (1991)
Modality
A pitch-related variable that is the configuration of intervals between notes
in the scale such as major and minor modes.
Kellaris & Kent (1991)
Mood
A fleeting, temporary feeling state, usually not intense and not tied to a
specifiable behavior.
Gardner (1985)
Music
A complex chemistry of three main controllable elements (time, pitch and
texture).
Bruner (1990)
Needledrop
Music that is prefabricated, multipurpose, and highly conventional.
Scott (1990)
Placement
The position of the music in the advertisement.
Brooker & Wheatley (1994)
Popular
Music
Music that is “well-liked” by “ordinary people” (Shuker, 1994) that has
had wide exposure and appeal but usually for a fixed period of time.
Shuker (1994)
Tempo
A time-related variable that controls pace.
Kellaris & Kent (1991)
Texture
Comprised of timbre and orchestra.
Kellaris & Kent (1994)
Tonality
The configuration of intervals between pitches on a scale.
Kellaris & Kent (1994)
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Literature Review
The review of literature is divided into two parts. The first part is a discussion of the most
cited theories and models including the terms and concepts. The second part is an analysis of the
most relevant empirical studies of the effects of music on advertising. A summary table follows
each section.
Theories and Models
Advertising and music have been investigated through many variables with a wide range of
outcomes. An analysis of these studies begins with a discussion of the most relevant theories and
models. These theories and models provide the foundation of music in advertising
experimentation and include attitude theory, classical conditioning theory, involvement theory
especially the elaboration likelihood model (ELM), and music theory.
Attitude Theory. Fishbein’s (1963) attitude theory, that a person’s attitude is a function of his
salient beliefs activated from memory at a point in time in a given situation, is the primary
consideration with all research dealing with attitude toward the ad and attitude toward the brand.
As will be apparent in the results section, many researchers have studied music’s effect on
attitude toward the brand in regard to product preference (Allen & Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982;
Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt, 1988; Zhu,
2005) and purchase intention (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998). Others have
also considered attitude toward the ad and product preference (Macklin, 1988; Shen et al., 2006)
and purchase intention (Morris & Boone, 1998; North et al., 2004). The music variables with
regard to attitude toward the brand and the ad that have been most studied are indexicality, or
“the extent to which the music arouses emotion-laden memories,” and fit, or “the music’s
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relevance or appropriateness to the central ad message,” and its effect on the processing of the
commercial (MacInnis & Park, 1991).
Classical Conditioning Theory. Pavlov’s classical conditioning, as it relates to advertising,
suggests that positive attitudes towards an advertised product or a conditioned stimulus, usually
the brand, might develop through its association in a commercial with stimuli that are reacted to
positively, such as music, celebrities, or color. But, research has produced conflicting results.
Gorn (1982) concluded that positive attitudes towards an advertised product, in this case colored
pens, might develop through its association in a commercial with other stimuli like music (he
used the theme from “Grease” and classical Indian music). The results of two experiments
supported the notion that the simple association between a product and another stimulus such as
music can affect product preferences as measured by product choice. Furthermore, an individual
who is in a decision-making mode when exposed to a commercial is more affected by the
information therein than an individual who is not in a decision-making mode. Many researchers
have attempted to extend Gorn’s study but have been unable to replicate his findings (Allen &
Madden, 1985; Alpert & Alpert, 1990, Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). As it stands,
classical conditioning appears to occur unreliably (Kellaris & Cox, 1989) and then only in case
of low involvement consumers.
Involvement Theory. Involvement Theory in general, and the Elaboration Likelihood Model
(ELM) in particular, have been suggested as keys to understanding how music affects responses
to advertising. Krugman (1965) defined involvement as “the number of conscious bridging
experiences, connections, or personal references per minute that a viewer makes between his or
her own life and a stimulus” (p. 356). Salmon (1986) added that “involvement, in any form,
seems to mediate both the acquisition and processing of information through activating a
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heightened state of arousal and/or greater cognitive activity in an interaction between an
individual and a stimulus” (p. 264). Petty and Cacioppo’s (1986) concept of elaboration
likelihood refers to “the likelihood one engages in issue-relevant thinking with the aim of
determining the merits of the arguments rather than the total amount of thinking per se in which
a person engages” (p. 674). ELM assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing
begins. Depending on the personal relevance of this information, the receiver will follow one of
two “routes” to persuasion: “central” and “peripheral.” When the consumer gives the message a
high degree of attention, there is high involvement and thus a central (active) processing route.
When the consumer gives the message a low degree of attention, there is low involvement and a
peripheral (passive) processing route. Petty and Cacioppo suggested that high involvement was
the result of a message with high personal relevance. Researchers that have studied involvement
with regard to advertising and music have found that it can positively affect message processing
in low involvement conditions (MacInnis & Park, 1991; Park & Young, 1986).
Music theory. The idea that music has the potential to enhance attention (stimulate awareness)
and memory (recall) has been widely speculated and researched (Adorno 1941, 1976; Bartlett &
Snelus, 1980; Bower & Bolton, 1969; Galizio & Hendrick, 1972; Hecker, 1984; Macklin, 1988;
Rothschild, 1987; Rubin, 1977; Schulkind et al., 1999; Wallace, 1994).
Macklin (1988) found that messages that were sung in a produced, original jingle that
sounded like a nursery rhyme produced the same recall from children as spoken messages.
Bartlett and Snelus (1980) found that cued recall of lyrics of popular songs from 1921 (“When
Francis Dances With Me”) to 1974 (“Morning Has Broken”) was higher in response to melodies
than in response to titles. Schulkind, Hennis, and Rubin (1999) observed a correlation between
music, emotion and autobiographical, long-term memory of older adults and songs from their
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youth when testing the Top 20 from 1935 (“On Treasure Island”) to 1994 (“That’s The Way
Love Goes”). Some researchers have also observed the enhancement of recall by music. Rubin
(1977) found that recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well known
song (“Star Spangled Banner”). Wallace (1994) found that the melody of a song (using three
ballads from “The Frank C. Brown Collection of North Carolina Folklore) could facilitate recall
of text by providing it with musical structure for learning and remembering. Serafine, Crowder,
and Repp (1984), Serafine, Davidson, Crowder, and Repp (1986), and Crowder, Serafine and
Repp (1990) suggested an integration effect where the melody or text of a song (using folksongs
from Erdei) is better recalled with original text than with different text. These results suggest that
music in ads has the potential to stimulate emotion, attention and recall but not all studies
support this theory. Galizio and Hendrick (1972) did not observe that memory for verbal
information was enhanced by presenting the information in the form of a song (the musical
accompaniment of a guitar). A summary of the most cited theories and models including terms
and concepts can be seen in Table 2.
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Table 2
A Summary of Relevant Theories and Models
___________________________
Theory____________________________________________________ __Citation________________
Attitude
Theory
Suggests that beliefs are the only mediators of attitude formation and change Fishbein
and that a person’s attitude is a function of salient beliefs at a particular
(1963)
moment.
Classical
Conditioning
The process of behavior modification by which a subject (dog) comes to
respond in a desired manner to a previously neutral stimulus (bell) that has
been repeatedly presented along with an unconditioned stimulus (food) that
elicits the desired response.
Pavlov
(1927)
Elaboration
Likelihood
Model
(ELM)
Assumes that once an individual receives a message, processing begins.
When the consumer gives the message a high degree of attention because it
is relevant there is high involvement and thus a central (active) processing
route. When the consumer gives the message a low degree of attention
because it is not relevant, there is low involvement and a peripheral
(passive) processing route.
Petty &
Cacioppo
(1986)
Hierarchy of
Advertising
Effects
The processes of attending to a commercial, learning and remembering its
content, developing attitudes, and generating conative [tendency to
move towards] responses occur in a sequential causal chain.
Thorson et al. (1992)
Involvement
The number of conscious bridging experiences, connections, or personal
references per minute that a viewer makes between his or her own life and a
stimulus.
Krugman (1965)
Music
Theory
The recall of information is improved when cued with the melody of a well
known song. The melody of a song can facilitate recall in certain
environments. There is a correlation between music, emotion and memory.
Rubin (1977)
Wallace (1994)
Schulkind et al. (1999)
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Variables
While the amount of consumer behavior theories and models used in the investigation and
explanation of music’s effect on advertising may be relatively few, the variables have been many
and varied. The following is a summary of the most widely observed independent and dependent
variables including a continuum, followed by a comprehensive review of the results of the
interaction of these variables.
Independent Variables. The impact of music on advertising has been observed with a variety
of behaviors when mediated either individually or through the interaction of certain variables.
Music appeal (like or dislike) has been observed in relation to product preferences (Allen &
Madden, 1985; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The effect of music
arousal or mood (a temporary feeling or state) was studied with purchase intention (Alpert &
Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Music fit has been observed in
relation to message processing (MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006).
Different types of music placements/treatments (vocals, instrumentals, jingles, etc.) and recall
have been researched (Allan, 2006a; Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). Music
presence has positively affected product preference and purchase attention when interacting with
attitude (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Park & Young, 1986;
Wheatley & Brooker, 1994) and recall (Macklin, 1988; Olsen, 1995; Wheatley & Brooker,
1994). Finally, music tempo (speed or pace), texture (timbre and orchestration), modality
(intervals between notes), and tonality (intervals between pitches in a scale) have been shown to
have the potential to enhance pleasure and arousal resulting in a greater purchase intention
(Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991, 1994; Kellaris & Rice, 1993).
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Dependent Variables. When mediated with the above variables, the effect of music in
advertising on a variety of consumer responses has also been observed. Attitude toward the ad
can be positively influenced by the presence of music (Macklin, 1988; Morris & Boone, 1998;
North et. al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006). Perception of ad time can be decreased by arousing music
(Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). Attitude toward the brand can be improved by appealing music (Allen
& Madden, 1985; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Gorn, 1982; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Kellaris &
Rice, 1993; Middlestadt et al., 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998; Park & Young, 1986; Pitt & Abratt,
1988; Zhu, 2005). Brand recall can be increased by personally relevant and significant music
(Allan, 2006a; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris et. al., 1993; Macklin, 1988; MacInnis &
Park, 1991; North et al., 2004; Olsen, 1995; Roehm, 2001; Shen et al., 2006; Wallace, 1991,
1994; Yalch, 1991; Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). Music attitude can be positively affected by
tempo (Kellaris & Rice, 1993; Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Pleasure/arousal can be affected by not
only the tempo but the tonality and texture of the music (Kellaris & Kent, 1994). Finally,
purchase intention can be affected by interaction of music and mood (Alpert & Alpert, 1990;
Alpert et al., 2005; Brooker & Wheatley, 1994; Kellaris & Kent, 1991; Morris & Boone, 1998;
North et al., 2004). A continuum of dependent variables and the corresponding independent
variables that have been observed can be seen in Figure 1.
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Figure 1
DV/IV Continuum
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Attitude Toward →→ →
the Ad
Ad→ →→
Time
Attitude Toward→→
the Brand
Brand→→→
Recall
Pleasure/→ → →
Arousal
Purchase
Intention
Music fit
Music arousal
Music appeal
Music presence
Music fit
Music melody
Music presence
Music tempo
Music tempo
Music texture
Music tonality
Music fit
Music melody
Music modality
Music mood
Music placement
Music presence
Music tempo
____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
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Results
Much has been learned about music and advertising since it was first used in commercials in
the early days of radio. Through a survey and analysis of experimental literature and a content
analyses of experimental results and their theoretical underpinnings, a better understanding of the
interaction of independent and dependent variables or more conversationally, how music affects
the processing of the ad, and how much it is being used in advertising, has been achieved. What
follows is a discussion of the results.
Attitude Toward the Ad
Shimp (1981) argued that attitude toward the ad (ATTA) is an important mediator when a
consumer makes a choice. Since then, music’s potential to affect the consumer’s ad attitude has
received some attention with conflicting results. The presence of music was shown to affect how
a viewer feels when looking at print ads (Morris & Boone, 1998). Musical fit resulted in a better
attitude toward the ad (North et al., 2004; Shen & Chen, 2006). Brooker and Wheatley (1994),
however, reported no effect of music placement on attitude toward the ad. Likewise, Macklin
(1988) reported no effect of music presence on attitude toward the ad with children.
Ad Time
It has been argued that, under some circumstances, there is a disparity between objective time
and perceived time of the ad and that the latter is affected by external stimuli like music (Kellaris
& Mantel, 1994; 1996). While not a lot of attention has been given to perceived ad time, it is still
worth mentioning. Arousal was found to moderate the influence of stimulus congruity on
perceived time such that congruity contributed positively to retrospective duration estimates
among subjects exposed to soothing (versus arousing) music (Kellaris & Mantel, 1996). The
implications of objective time versus perceived time involve the potential benefits to the
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advertiser of increasing memory for the ad while reducing its length (60-second versus 30second commercial).
Attitude Toward the Brand
Mitchell and Olson (1981) argued that a consumer’s attitude or “internal evaluation” of a
brand has always been an important consideration in marketing research. It is not surprising then,
that a considerable amount of investigation into music’s effect on attitude toward the brand
(ATTB) has been undertaken with a variety of variables and results. Gorn (1982) observed that
hearing liked or disliked music can affect product preferences but his results were never
replicated (Allen & Madden, 1985; Kellaris & Cox, 1989; Pitt & Abratt, 1988). The presence of
music (Blondie’s “Tide Is High”) had a facilitative effect on brand attitude (shampoo and their
functional performance) in the low involvement condition and a distracting effect for those in the
cognitive involvement condition (Park & Young, 1986). Music presence was also shown to have
either no effects (Morris & Boone, 1998) or negative effects (Shen et al., 2006) on attitude
depending on its fit. As to how the process of attitude change toward the brand occurs, it has
been suggested that it might be a belief-based rather than an affect-based change (Middlestadt et
al., 1994). Brooker and Wheatley (1994) reported no effect of placement on attitude toward the
brand. Macklin (1988) reported no effect of the presence of music on attitude toward the brand
with children.
Brand Recall
Recall of the brand is obviously a primary consideration in the evaluation of the effectiveness
of music in advertising. When the music fit, the message processing of the ad was enhanced
(MacInnis & Park, 1991; North et al., 2004). Different music treatments (original and altered
vocals, instrumentals, jingles, silence) did affect recall differently under varied conditions (Allan,
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2006a; Olsen, 1995: Roehm, 2001; Wallace, 1991, 1994; Yalch, 1991). The presence or absence
of music was shown to be both attention-getting (Park & Young, 1988) and distracting
(Wheatley & Brooker, 1994). The placement (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994) or the presence of
music (Macklin, 1988) was not observed to affect recall. Musical fit, however, was shown to
stimulate better recall of brands (North et al., 2004; Shen et al., 2006).
Pleasure and Arousal
It has been argued that music is an especially powerful stimulus for affecting moods (Bruner,
1990). Thus, it is maybe a bit surprising that music’s potential to affect moods primarily through
pleasure and arousal garnered a significant amount of attention in the 1990’s but not much since.
During that time, it was observed that arousing music was found to produce greater degrees of
mood enhancement thus positively affecting purchase intention (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et
al., 2005; Kellaris & Mantel, 1996; Morris & Boone, 1998). Music tempo (fast) was shown to
have positive effects on behavioral intent (Kellaris & Kent, 1991).
Purchase Intention
Since purchase intention or conation was first defined as “behavior directed toward action”
(Shanteau & Ptacek, 1983, p. 149), it has been one of the most difficult advertising effects to
research but arguably the most important. With regard to purchase intention and music, the
results varied with some observing significant effects (Alpert & Alpert, 1990; Alpert et al., 2005;
Kellaris & Kent, 1991) and some observing no significant effects (Brooker & Wheatley, 1994;
Morris & Boone, 1998). The placement of music was shown to invite attention to the message
and motivating consumers to process the message and facilitate the potential to purchase
(Brooker & Wheatley, 1994). The combination of music with silence also has been shown to be
attention-getting resulting in the enhancement of purchase intention (Olsen, 1995). The effect of
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music tempo was shown to have had contradictory results with some reporting a passive effect
on purchase intention (Kellaris & Kent, 1991), and some reporting no effect (Brooker &
Wheatley, 1994; Morris & Boone, 1998).
Content Analyses
Only a few studies have dealt with the amount of commercials on television and radio with
music. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) found music featured in slightly more than 40% of 1000
television commercials they studied, but that only 12% of those used lyrics to directly convey the
advertising message. Similar frequencies were obtained in a follow-up study (Stewart & Koslow,
1989, p. 29). Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993) analyzed international commercials and found
music in 89% of their sample (p. 237). Allan (2006b) analyzed commercials in prime-time
television and reported that 86% of the unique ads contained some type of music. A summary of
the most relevant qualitative and quantitative studies on the effects of music on advertising can
be seen in Table 3.
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Citation
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Table 3
Summary of Relevant Effectual Research Involving Advertising and Music___________________
Sample
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Results______________________
Gorn 1982
244
undergraduates
Music appeal
Brand attitude
Hearing liked or disliked
music while being exposed to
a product can directly affect
product preferences.
Allen &
Madden
(1985)
60 undergraduates
Music appeal
Brand attitude
Hearing liked or disliked
music while being exposed to
a product did not directly
affect product preferences.
Park & Young 120 women
(1986)
Music
presence/absence,
Involvement
(high/low)
(TV ads)
Brand attitude/information
Music had a facilitative effect
on brand attitude for subjects
in the low involvement
condition and a distracting
effect for those in the
cognitive involvement
condition.
Sewall &
Sarel (1986)
200 mall
shoppers/
832 radio ads
Music background
Brand recall
Background music had no
significant effect
Pitt & Abratt
(1988)
172 undergraduate Music appeal
students
Brand attitude
Hearing liked or disliked
music while being exposed to
a product did not directly
affect product preferences.
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Citation
Sample
19
Table 3
(continued)________________________________________________________
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Results___________________________
Macklin
(1988)
75 preschoolers
Music background
Presence
Ad attitude
Brand attitude
Brand recall
Music did not enhance outcomes.
Stout &
Leckenby
(1988)
1498 mall
shoppers/
50 TV ads
Music
tempo; mode;
volume;
presence
Cognitive/
Affective responses
Music had only minor effects.
Kellaris & Cox 302
(1989)
undergraduates
Music appeal
Brand attitude
No evidence that product preferences can
be conditioned through a single exposure
to appealing or unappealing music.
(Classical Conditioning)
Alpert &
Alpert (1990)
48 undergraduate
students
Music
Mood
Purchase intention
Music had a significant effect on moods
and purchase intention.
Kellaris &
Kent (1991)
180
undergraduates
Music tempo/
modality
Music evaluation
Purchase intention
Tempo and Modality influenced arousal
and intent.
MacInnis &
Park (1991)
178 undergraduate
women
Music fit/
indexicality
(TV ads)
Message processing
Indexicality and fit affect the processing of
both high- and low-involvement consumers,
influencing message- and non-messagebased processing.
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Table 3
(continued)____________________________________________________
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Results_______________________
Citation
Sample
Wallace
(1991)
120 subjects
Music placementSung/
spoken words
(jingles/
ballads)
Brand recall
Music provides a retrieval cue.
Music acts as a frame which the text is
tightly fit.
Yalch (1991)
103
undergraduates
Music placementslogans with and
without music
(jingles)
Brand recall
Music enhances memory for advertising
slogans when the slogans were
incorporated into an advertisement in the
form of a jingle or song.
Kellaris &
Rice (1993)
52 undergraduates
Music tempo,
Loudness,
Gender
Music responses
Gender moderates the influence of
loudness resulting in females responding
more positively to music at lower
volumes
Kellaris et. al.
(1993)
231
undergraduates
Music-message fit,
Attention-gaining
value
Brand recall/
Recognition of brand
name and messages
Increasing audience attention to music
enhances message reception when the
music evokes message-congruent
thoughts.
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Table 3
_________________________________________ (continued)__________________________________________________
Citation
Sample
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Results_____________________
Brooker &
Wheatley
(1994)
100 participants
Music tempo/
placement
(radio ads)
Ad attitudes
Brand attitudes
Purchase intention
Brand recall
Tempo had effects on perception
of music but no effect on DV’s.
Placement had a stronger effect
on DV’s.
Kellaris &
Kent (1994)
288
undergraduates
Music tempo/
Tonality/
Texture
Pleasure/Arousal
Tempo affected pleasure and
arousal.
Tonality affected pleasure and
surprise.
Texture moderated tempo and
tonality on pleasure.
Middlestadt et
al. (1994)
97 undergraduates
Music presence
Brand attitude
Belief-based change
Wallace
(1994)
64 undergraduates
Music melody
Brand recall
Text is better recalled when it is
heard as a song rather than as
speech, provided the music
repeats so that it is easily
learned.
Wheatley &
Brooker
(1994)
144 undergraduate Music
students and their presence/absence
parents
Spokespersons
(radio ads)
Brand recall
Cognitive response
Music hindered message recall
and did not enhance attention.
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Table 3
(continued)_________________________________________________
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Results______________________
Citation
Sample
Olsen (1995)
144 undergraduate
students
Music
presence/absence
(music/silence)
Brand recall/
attribute importance
Silence effectively increases
listener retention of ad
information especially when the
highlighted information was the
last item of a series.
Kellaris &
Mantel (1996)
85 undergraduate
students
Music arousal/
congruity
(radio ads)
Ad time
Arousal was found to moderate
the influence of stimulus
congruity on perceived time such
that congruity contributed
positively to retrospective
duration estimates among subjects
exposed to soothing (versus
arousing) music.
Morris &
Boone (1998)
90 undergraduates
Music
presence/absence
(print ads)
Emotional response
Brand attitude
Purchase Intention
Music affected emotional
response of print ads. No effect on
brand attitude or purchase
intention.
Roehm (2001)
48 MBA
students/44
community people
Music placement
versus vocals
(radio ads)
Brand recall
Instrumentals produced greater
recall of the message if the
individuals knew the song. Vocals
produced greater recall of the
lyrics if the individuals did not
know the song.
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Citation
Sample
Table 3
(continued)____________________________________________________
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Results______________________
North et. al.
(2004)
162 participants
Music/voice fit
Attitude toward the ad
Brand recall
Purchase Intention
Musical fit resulted in better
recall of products, brands, and
claims, attitude toward the ad,
and purchase intention.
Voice fit resulted in better recall
of claims, attitude toward the
ad, and purchase intention.
Alpert et. al.
(2005)
75 undergraduate
students
Music mood
Purchase intention
When music is used to evoke
emotions congruent with the
symbolic meaning of product
purchase, the likelihood of
purchasing is enhanced.
Zhu, Rui &
Meyers-Levy,
Joan (2005)
77/109
undergraduates
Music meanings
Brand attitude
(embodied/referential)
Intensive processors are
sensitive to music meanings.
Shen & Chen
(2006)
130 students
Music fit
When the music does not fit
(music incongruity) it can have
an adverse effect on attitudes
toward the ad.
Ad attitude
Sound Advertising
24
Future Research
It’s been over twenty years since Hecker (1984, p. 7) called music “the catalyst of
advertising.” He suggested that “researchers can better understand and use this magic if they
understand that music is too important to be wasted on amorphous, irrelevant, or inappropriate
goals.” While much has been done, there is still great “potential for real research into music’s
effectiveness” (Dunbar, 1990). Bruner (1990, p. 102) reinforced in his review of literature that
the relevant body of research was indeed still “meager” and North and Hargreaves (1997, p. 282)
concluded that the “field is [still] under-investigated.” A number of the studies reviewed have
suggested additional research that either has not been undertaken or needs additional
investigation. These include more collaboration between the private and academic sectors, a
longitudinal study on the amount of music in advertising, more attention to the effect of music on
brand image, the use of different experimental environments, and finally a richer investigation of
the effect of music fit and indexicality on advertising.
Advertisers and Academics
Alpert and Alpert (1991, p. 236) called for more “cooperative efforts between academic
researchers and industry practitioners applying musical theories to advertising executioners.”
Too often the efforts remain separate with the industry findings unavailable. Joint efforts would
benefit both parties to better understand “when and why music works in advertising” (p. 236).
Many advertisers use popular music in their advertising especially The Gap and Old Navy. The
Gap primarily uses original lyrics with Old Navy utilizing altered lyrics. Since they are both
owned by the same parent company, it would be beneficial to not only conduct an academicallybased effectual study as well as to correlate the findings with sales results during the campaign.
Sound Advertising
25
At the very least, private research should be made available to the academic community to verify
the results and provide a practical basis for the use of music in advertising.
Advertising and Popular Music
It is clear that there is a need to more consistently quantify and trend the use of music,
especially popular music, in advertising. Stewart and Furse (1986, p. 160) lamented the absence
of its systematic measurement and set out to provide such documentation. In a later report,
Stewart, Farmer, and Stannard (1990) recommended that additional research was needed in this
area. Nonetheless, only Appelbaum and Halliburton (1993) and Allan (2006b) heeded this
recommendation by analyzing international commercials. A longitudinal investigation of the
amount of music in advertising, especially popular music, should be conducted to track its
proliferation and progression.
Since the use of popular music in advertising continues to prosper, more needs to also be
known about the effects. In fact, Kellaris and Kent (1991, p. 248) suggested further study into the
effects of musical components on the processing of verbal material (e.g., song lyrics, advertising
messages). More needs to be done with popular music and altered lyrics (e.g. eBay, Old Navy).
This could include more diverse demographics and “the role of listener characteristics in shaping
responses to music (Kellaris & Kent, 1994, p. 397). Additionally, while comparisons have been
made between some placements/treatments (vocals/instrumentals, etc.), a larger study needs to
be done comparing all possible treatments (vocals, instrumentals, jingles, altered vocals, and a
control treatment of silence). Also apparent is the need for further research into the role of
background music (Alpert & Alpert, 1990, p. 130). It is also clear that we need further
“investigations of advertisements with songs that represent varied styles of popular music”
(Roehm, 2001, p. 57).
Sound Advertising
26
Finally, McChesney (2001) called popular music and advertising the “bankruptcy of culture”
and Burns (1996) called it “disturbing and even shocking.” Advertisers who use it consider it a
“marriage of art and commerce” and Allan (2005) suggested that the combination of popular
music and advertising creates “a new cultural product.” Clearly, more attention needs to be given
to the social and ethical implications of the use of popular music and advertising. This can be
done as part of a longitudinal study.
Brand Image
Stout and Lechenby (1988, p. 223) called for more research into “the contribution made by
music to brand image.” It is clear that many advertisers are using music to create an image (e.g.,
iPod). What is not so clear is music’s effectiveness or the implications for the music and/or
artists (e.g., U2). A related area of consideration is the use of music in the imaging of a brand as
a distribution channel (e.g., Starbucks). Each of these areas of research is certainly
underdeveloped and warrants further investigation. Additionally, some popular music and artists
are actually being exposed and “branded” through advertising (e.g., Modest Mouse) and
placement in television shows (e.g., Grey’s Anatomy). The effects of advertising and media on
popular music could also be investigated.
Environments
Scott (1990, p. 234) argued that “we must not let our methods drive our theories but must
instead design our methods in a way that can encompass whatever theory seems articulate
enough to fully describe the phenomenon.” Studies need to be conducted under more realistic
viewing and listening conditions. Bruner (1990) agreed and called for the raising of “level of
experimental sophistication” (p. 100). Far too many studies continue to be done in isolated lab
environments. One possible idea would be to observe and survey customers in The Gap or Old
Sound Advertising
27
Navy when their respective advertisements are played in the store. Additionally, due to their
growing distribution of music, Starbucks provides a potentially effective field experiment
location.
Fit and Indexicality
More studies need to further investigate fit (a person’s perception of the music’s relevance)
and indexicality (a person’s emotion-laden memories). This research can be expanded to look at
various genres and eras of music with special attention given to the personal relevance of the
music/effect of processing (ELM). Additionally, more focus needs to be given to “the study of
executional cues and their processing implications for high- and low-involvement consumers’ ad
processing” (MacInnis & Park, 1991, p. 172). It may be that music can influence a person’s
involvement with advertising due to some conceptualization of involvement (Zaichkowsky,
1986) such as personal, object, or situational characteristics. A great deal of contemporary
advertising utilizes classic rock music evidently targeted towards 25-54 males, yet some
teenagers are also listening to this genre of music from the 1970s. It may certainly be involving
to both demographics with much different indexicality, not to mention fit. Further investigation
must be conducted to determine the consequences.
Conclusion
So is your advertising sound if you use sound in advertising? The research suggests that music
is more likely to positively than negatively affect the consumer’s response to your advertising.
That’s the easy part but not very helpful to an agency trying to advise an advertiser on whether or
not to use music and what music to use. The use of music in general, and the type of music in
particular, must be carefully chosen with the target audience and the desired outcome driving the
selection. It is clear from this review that music has been shown to both positively and negatively
Sound Advertising
28
stimulate a variety of responses including attention, mood, attitude, and purchase intention. The
stimulation of these responses is different based on various characteristics of the music itself
including its appeal, presence, tempo, background or foreground, etc. In the case of its appeal,
different genres of music from different eras affect different demographics of consumers
differently. So it’s complicated. What we do know from this overview of research on music and
advertising is that, when used effectively, it can be effective. That “sounds” rather trite but it’s
true. An advertiser should not just use any music in a commercial just for the sake of using
music. It should be carefully chosen and tested to predict its potential to stimulate a positive
response for the brand and/or the ad with the ultimate goal of branding and purchase. There is a
substantial amount of research out there to guide the advertiser and this review provides the
foundation for that process. There is also much research that needs to be done and this review
also provides direction and motivation.
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Correspondence should be sent to:
David Allan, Ph.D.
Department of Marketing
Saint Joseph's University
5600 City Avenue
Philadelphia, PA 19131
phone: 610-660-1637
e-mail: dallan@sju.edu