Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race
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RUNNING HEAD: Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race
Multicultural Relations in Higher Education: Students’ Perceptions of College Professor Verbal
Immediacy as Impacted by Race
Kasey L. Serdar
Westminster College
McNair Scholars Program
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race
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Abstract
As the percentage of minorities enrolled in education increases, it is vital to consider how the
racial background of students and teachers impacts students’ capacity to communicate with their
instructors. The present study examined whether students’ ratings of professors’ verbal
immediacy differed based on both the race of the student, and that of the professor. Twohundred-seventy-eight college students (from White/Caucasian, Black/African-American, and
Hispanic/Latino backgrounds) were surveyed about their perceptions of the verbal immediacy of
a fictitious professor of a race either congruent or incongruent with their own. Results indicated
that students viewed professors of an incongruent race to be less verbally immediate. This
difference approached significance at trend level, and was strongest for the Black/AfricanAmerican group. These findings underscore the impact of racial relations and perceptions on
interactions in educational settings, regardless of subject content and pedagogical style.
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race
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Multicultural Relations in Higher Education: Students’ Perceptions of College Professor Verbal
Immediacy as Impacted by Race
The connection that develops between teacher and student has been shown to have
critical effects on aspects of students’ school adaptation. Individuals’ ability to excel in an
academic environment is impacted, at least partially, by the degree to which they are able to form
concrete, open relationships with educators. As students progress through school, the academic
culture transforms to a more formal, evaluative setting, in which students are expected to live up
to strict standards of performance. In the wake of this transforming educational environment, the
value of solid teacher-student relationships is not diminished. This is especially true for students
from underrepresented minority groups (e.g. Black/African-American, Hispanic/Latino), as these
groups are not always encouraged to pursue educational goals with significant vigor. As the
percentage of minorities enrolled in education increases, it is vital to consider how racial
background (of both students and instructors) impacts students’ capacity to relate to and
communicate with their instructors. While some research has been conducted to examine how
teachers perceive and interact with students from underrepresented racial groups, less research
has been performed to explore how multicultural issues affect students’ perceptions of
professors. The purpose of the present study is to examine whether professors’ racial
background (White/Caucasian, Black/African-American, or Hispanic/Latino) impacts students’
perceptions of verbal immediacy. The study also examines students’ racial background, with the
assumption that such factors may affect his or her perceptions of professors of different races.
Teacher-Student Interaction
Research has indicated that the relationship between student and teacher is one that can
have a profound influence on a student’s achievement, motivation, and aspirations for the future.
Numerous studies have shown that high quality teacher-student interactions are linked to more
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race
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positive educational experiences for students (e.g. Birch & Ladd, 1996; Wentzel, 1997;
Christophel, 1990). Research by Birch and Ladd (1996) demonstrated how the bond between
teacher and student is established early in a child’s development, and how such critical
connections have the power facilitate healthy adjustment in educational settings. This study
hypothesized that students who felt support from adult figures at school (i.e. teachers) would be
more likely to display positive adaptation in educational settings. Two hundred and six
kindergarteners and their instructors were surveyed about students’ perceived closeness,
dependency, and conflict with their teachers. In conjunction, measures were taken to evaluate
students’ academic performance, school attitudes, and positive engagement in the classroom
environment. Results indicate that closeness between student and teacher was related to
students’ increased levels of academic performance. This suggests that teachers are powerful
figures in the lives of most children; other studies indicate that when considered in conjunction
with peers, parents, and other social influences, teachers have been found to have the most direct
influence on children’s interest in school (e.g. Wentzel, 1997).
Studies on the importance of the teacher-student connection in childhood (see Birch &
Ladd, 1996) have been further developed by research examining the value of the teacher-student
relationship in adolescence. As children move through their education, the structure of the
school environment transforms from an informal, noncompetitive setting that is normally seen in
elementary school, to the more formal, competitive, evaluative structure that is typical of middle
school, high school, and college. This structural transformation in the educational environment
is also frequently marked by increased reinforcement of extrinsic motivators (e.g. grades) over
intrinsic motivators (e.g. personal interest in a topic; Harter, 1996).
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race
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As the academic setting transforms, so too does the relationship of students with their
instructors. Teachers are a medium by which the changing attitudes, values, and expectations of
the more formalized instructional environment of middle school and high school are
communicated (Harter, 1996). In her summary of research about teacher influences on students’
scholastic achievement, Harter (1996) stated, “teachers not only instruct, but serve to represent
and communicate a particular educational philosophy, including the standards by which students
will be evaluated” (p. 11). As teachers indirectly clarify and enforce the standards of education,
students’ perceptions of and relationships with their teachers change. Research has indicated that
students perceive teachers to be more evaluative with each increasing grade level (Harter,
Whitesell, & Kowalski, 1992). Further, the shift from elementary to middle school has been
found to lead students to reevaluate their competence in the new educational setting. In a 7month longitudinal study, Harter, Whitesell, and Kowalski (1992) found that 50 percent of
students experienced feeling more or less competent when entering middle school from
elementary, while the remaining 50 percent reported feeling relatively stable in their perceptions
of competence.
Because students come to reevaluate their aptitude upon entering a more formalized
academic setting, it seems clear that having encouraging relationships with educators would
positively effect adolescents’ educational adjustment. Research supports a relationship between
solid teacher-student relationships and students’ positive academic transition in adolescence (e.g.
(Wentzel, 1997; Wentzel, 2002). Results of Wenzel (1997) indicate that there is a significant
correlation between early adolescent students’ perceptions of their teachers’ level of caring and
students’ drive for achievement. The study surveyed 375 eighth grade students (a subset of
which were followed for 3 years) about perceived caring they felt from teachers. Results of the
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examination indicate that young adolescent students (sixth to eighth grade) who feel supported
by their teachers were more motivated to achieve their goals. Students’ perceptions of being
cared for and valued, especially by teachers in a formal classroom setting, prompted students to
become more involved in classroom activities. The study also suggested that a solid connection
between student and teacher works to enhance students’ development by promoting positive
feelings of self worth.
Research has also been conducted to explore faculty-student relationships on college
campuses. Many of the investigations about the dynamics of teacher-student relationships in
higher education have been conducted within the context of verbal and nonverbal immediacy
behaviors. Immediacy was originally defined by Mehrabian (1967) as the level of perceived
physical and/or psychological closeness between individuals. Based on this construct, research
examining teachers’ verbal immediacy has explored vocal behaviors that instructors use to
decrease physical and/or psychological distance between themselves and their students
(Christophel, 1990; Christophel & Gorham, 1995). Such verbal behaviors would include:
addressing students by name, asking open-ended questions of students, encouraging students to
talk, having conversations with students before and after class, and soliciting viewpoints from
students (Christophel, 1990; Christophel & Gorham, 1995). Similarly, nonverbal immediacy
behaviors are non-vocal behaviors that communicate an instructor’s openness and
approachability (e.g. smiling, relaxed body position; Gorham, 1988; Christophel, 1990;
Christophel & Gorham, 1995).
Many studies have shown a positive relationship between perceived instructor immediacy
and students’ motivation (Christophel, 1990; Christophel & Gorham, 1995; Richmond, 1990;
Frymier, 1994), affective, and cognitive learning (Christophel, 1990; Gorham, 1988; Rodriguez
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race
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& Plax, 1996). Christophel (1990) surveyed undergraduate students about their instructors’ use
of both verbal and nonverbal immediacy behaviors, while also administering measures to gauge
students’ level of state motivation (engagement in current classroom setting). Results of the
study indicated that teachers’ use of immediacy behaviors (both verbal and nonverbal) is
positively correlated with students’ state motivation. In addition, this study also found that
students’ level of cognitive and affective learning was positively related to teacher immediacy.
Gorham (1988) also examined college students’ perceptions of instructors’ verbal immediacy
and its impact on cognitive and affective learning outcomes. Results of this research also
supported a link between an instructor’s level of verbal immediacy and learning for students. A
variety of verbal behaviors, most specifically instructors’ use of humor, praise of students’ work,
and frequency of initiating informal conversations with students seem to predict more positive
cognitive and affective learning outcomes for students.
Research has shown that, in addition to having a positive impact on students’ motivation
and learning, instructor immediacy (verbal and nonverbal) is also related to students’ willingness
to communicate with faculty members. Jaasma and Koper (1999) surveyed 274 students about
both perceptions of instructors’ verbal and nonverbal immediacy and their levels of out-of-class
communication with instructors. Findings from the study suggest that frequency and length of
students’ out-of-class communication with their instructors was most closely linked to students’
perceptions of instructors’ verbal immediacy. Students spoke more frequently, and for longer
periods of time, with professors they perceived to be more verbally immediate than professors
they did not feel were verbally immediate. Thus, it seems that verbal immediacy helps students
create more open, collaborative relationships with instructors by helping students feel at ease
when communicating about various topics.
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This line of research has shown that students’ motivation and learning can be altered by
student’s perceptions of an instructors’ verbal immediacy. The level of openness an instructor
establishes, both inside and outside of the educational setting, can profoundly influence students’
desire to succeed in the course. Students’ perceptions of a professor’s verbal immediacy also
influence students’ communication with faculty members, an often essential component to
academic attainment. If students are not willing to interact with a teacher because they perceive
that instructor to be less approachable and verbally immediate, such restraint could negatively
impact students’ capacity to attain success in academic environments.
Presence and Achievement of Minorities in Academic Settings
It is critical to examine aspects of teacher-student relationships in relation to race,
because certain racial groups (i.e. Hispanic/Latino) are among the fastest growing segments of
the population of the United States. It is estimated that in 2000, approximately 12.7 % of the
United States’ population was Black/African-American, and 12.6% was Hispanic/Latino. These
percentages are expected to increase, with population projections estimating that Black/AfricanAmerican and Hispanic/Latino populations will comprise 13.5% and 17.8 % of the United States
population in 2020. There has also been increasing representation of students from various racial
backgrounds enrolled in higher education in recent years. In 2000, Black/African-American
students comprised 14 % of student populations, and Hispanic/Latino students represented 9 %
of students on college campuses. Further, statistics indicate that roughly 12 % of college
students in the United States are foreign born. These estimates mark a dramatic increase in
minority student enrollment when compared to statistics from 1979, when 84 % of college
students were from White/non-Hispanic backgrounds, and Black/African-American students
comprised only 10 % of student populations (U. S. Bureau of the Census, 2002).
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race
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While there has been an increase in minority populations and underrepresented college
student enrollment in the United States, research has indicated that students from certain
minority groups still display disproportionately high rates of dropout from academic settings
(e.g. Rumberger, 1995; Steele, 1997; Griffin, 2002). For instance, statistics from Kaufman, Alt,
and Chapman (2004) indicated that Black/African-American and Hispanic/Latino students, ages
16-24, drop out of school at rates of roughly 10.9% and 27%. These rates are significantly
elevated when compared to the 7% attrition rate for White/Caucasian students. Further, dropout
rates among Hispanic/Latino students are 2 to 3.5 times higher than dropout rates of White/nonLatino students (National Center for Education Statistics, 2000). The high incidence of drop is
seen for certain groups in both secondary and post secondary education; studies indicate that
approximately 62% of Black/African-American college students do not finish their college
education as compared to the national dropout rate of 41%. In addition, only 16% of second
generation Hispanic/Latino students who graduate high school earn their bachelor’s degree
(Hispanics enroll in college at high rates, but many fail to graduate; American Council on
Education, 1995-1996).
There have been many proposed causes for the higher rates of dropout among students
from particular racial groups. Numerous studies have indicated that the interaction of individual
and social factors influence minority students’ attrition. In a multilevel analysis of students’
dropping out of middle school, Rumberger (1995) found that students from Black/AfricanAmerican, Hispanic/Latino, and other racial groups dropout of school largely as a result of
family characteristics, such as lower socioeconomic status, limited parental academic support,
limited parental supervision, and lower parental educational expectations. In addition, it was
found that schools with the higher dropout rates educated more students from minority and lower
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 10
socioeconomic backgrounds. Research has also indicated that neighborhood characteristics
(Vartanian & Gleason, 1999) and school characteristics (Rumberger, 1995) impact minority
students’ likelihood of dropping out of school. Such research reveals that coming from lowincome neighborhoods (Vartanian & Gleason, 1999) and/or being held back in school, showing
high rates of absenteeism, misbehavior, and poor academic performance (Rumberger, 1995) are
predictive of a greater likelihood of drop out for minority students.
Further research has indicated that Black/African-American and Hispanic/Latino
students’ rate of academic attrition seems to be related to decreased levels of academic
identification (degree to which an individual’s self-esteem is affected by academic attainment).
Numerous studies have shown that students from such underrepresented backgrounds are more
likely to disidentify from academic endeavors than their White/Caucasian and Asian American
counterparts. Such disidentification, in conjunction with other factors, provides some explanation
for higher rates of drop out among students from these backgrounds. If students do not consider
their educational attainment to reflect at least some aspects of their own self-worth, such students
may be less concerned about limited achievement in academic settings (Steele, 1992; Osborne,
1997; Griffin, 2002).
The Benefits of Concrete Teacher-Student Relationships to Minority Students
The establishment of a concrete teacher-student relationship seems to be especially
important for students of underrepresented racial backgrounds (i.e. Black/African-American,
Hispanic/Latino), as such relationships can often serve as a buffer to many of the other obstacles
that such students face in their education. One of the major forms of extended teacher-student
interaction has come through faculty mentoring of students. Research has shown that mentoring,
an act in which a teacher or other role model works to provide “wise and friendly counsel,” is
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 11
relatively effective in helping minority students attain success in academic settings (see
Redmond, 1990, p. 188). Studies also indicate that mentoring relationships most often develop
informally, in which a mutual bond between teacher and student develops naturally, as both
parties grow to know and like each other. While this type of teacher-student interaction is usually
less structured than in formal mentoring (students are assigned a faculty mentor), students and
professors benefit from informal mentoring because such relationships are usually based on
similar interests and needs from both parties (Redmond, 1990).
Informal mentoring relationships generally focus on the students’ long-range career
aspirations. With the guidance and support that can come from a faculty mentor, students learn
skills, behaviors, and attitudes that help them gain accomplishments in the academic realm
(Trujillo, 1986). Redmond (1990) summarized the aspects and benefits of mentoring for
underrepresented students in academic settings. Mentoring relationships, according to Redmond,
address causes of minority student drop out by promoting closer contact between students and
faculty, providing intervention when students experience academic difficulty, and by creating a
“culturally validating psychosocial atmosphere” (p. 199).
Despite evidence that mentoring helps underrepresented students succeed in academic
settings, research indicates that the development of mentoring relationships between faculty and
underrepresented students are somewhat rare (Blackwell, 1989; Redmond, 1989; Davidson &
Foster-Johnson, 2001). Blackwell (1989) found that only one of every eight Black/AfricanAmerican students develops a mentoring relationship with a faculty member as an
undergraduate. Further, even fewer (7%) Black/African-American students reported having
opportunities to work with professors of the same racial background. While there are many
factors that affect the development of mentoring relationships between students and instructors,
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 12
one of the major issues in the development of such critical connections is that the informal
relationships are usually established between individuals who feel comfortable with each other
(Trujillo, 1986). This reality is problematic for students from minority backgrounds, because
such students may not feel as comfortable interacting with White/Caucasian instructors from
White/Caucasian backgrounds (Redmond, 1990).
Race as a Factor Influencing Student Perceptions of Professors
While it seems clear that the teacher-student relationship has at least some impact on
individuals’ academic achievement and motivation, it is not clear whether the racial background
of both students and their instructors affects the quality and development of such critical
relationships. Examination of how multicultural factors affect both students’ and instructors’
perceptions is critical, as such impressions can either foster or impede the establishment of a
concrete teacher-student relationship.
Some studies have examined how teachers interact with students of diverse racial/ethnic
backgrounds. Casteel (1998) examined treatment of both White/Caucasian and Black/AfricanAmerican students by middle school White/Caucasian teachers. The study explored many
different types of interactions between students and teachers; instructors’ actions such as asking
questions, praising, and helping students were observed in the classroom and coded to determine
whether the frequency of such interactions differed based on the race of the student. Results of
the study overwhelmingly indicate that Black/African-American students are not treated as
favorably as White/Caucasian students in classrooms with a White/Caucasian teacher. The
research revealed that teachers asked more questions of White/Caucasian students by name (both
critical thinking and single answer) than of Black/African-American students. White/Caucasian
students were also more likely to be praised after providing a correct answer, and given cues to
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 13
help when struggling with a question than Black/African-American students. Overall,
White/Caucasian students in the study were found to receive a greater portion of positive
interactions with teachers, while Black/African-American students were more likely to have
negative encounters with teachers.
Researchers have also tried to explore whether race impacts students’ perceptions of
instructors in the classroom. Marcus, Gross, and Seedfeldt (1991) examined fifth-grade
Black/African-American and White/Caucasian students’ perceptions of how their teachers
treated them. Students of similar achievement levels were given the Teacher Treatment
Inventory (TTI), a measure designed to gauge how students interpret their teachers’ treatment of
them in the classroom. Results of the study did not reveal a significant main effect of race when
examined independently, but significant results were found when race was analyzed in
conjunction with gender. The group of students in the study that reported the most negative
perceptions of teacher treatment was the Black/African-American male subgroup; such students
reported feeling that teachers treated them as if they were lower achieving students.
Black/African-American males were more likely to report that teachers held lower expectations
for them and did not trust their actions in the classroom environment. They also reported feeling
that teachers called on them less frequently for answers to questions. These results were not true
for White/Caucasian male subgroup, thus indicating that such significant results are not simply
an effect of gender. Rather, the study suggests that race may interact with other factors (e.g.
gender, social class) to affect the way students perceive teachers in the classroom. Findings of
the previous study are supported by Casteel (1998) which also indicated that Black/AfricanAmerican boys were treated more negatively by teachers than their White/Caucasian
counterparts.
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 14
Limited research has been conducted to examine how racial background (of both students
and professors) impacts students’ perceptions of instructors’ verbal and nonverbal immediacy.
One study done by Neuliep (1995) examined both Black/African-American and White/Caucasian
students’ perceptions of immediacy of professors of the same race. The study also examined
students’ cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning outcomes. The results of this study
indicated that Black/African-American students perceive Black/African-American teachers to be
more immediate than White/Caucasian students perceive White/Caucasian instructors to be. It
was also found that teacher immediacy operates differently for students from Black/AfricanAmerican and White/Caucasian backgrounds, as there was a stronger connection between
White/Caucasian students’ ratings of teacher immediacy and cognitive learning. Thus,
White/Caucasian students felt they would learn less in a class with a less immediate instructor,
while the Black/African-American students did not perceive that lower levels of immediacy
would negatively impact their learning. Further, results of the study indicated that
White/Caucasian students were more likely to associate immediacy with positive attitudes about
instructors, course content, and enrollment in another course with the same instructor.
Rucker and Gendrin (2003) further modified Neuliep’s (1995) research by examining
how students’ racial identity influences their perceptions of Black/African-American and
White/Caucasian instuctors’ verbal and nonverbal immediacy. The study examined 239 students
from Black, African-American, African Hispanic, and Caribbean Black racial backgrounds,
taken from a historically Black college. Results indicated that students felt stronger identification
with Black/African-American instructors than White/Caucasian instructors when examining
verbal immediacy and black identity. These findings suggest that not only do Black/African-
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 15
American students perceive professors of a similar racial background to be more open,
approachable, and immediate, but also that they are more likely to identify with such professors.
Overview of the Present Study
While investigations conducted by Neuliep (1995) and Rucker and Gendrin (2003) are
certainly critical additions to studies examining teacher immediacy, further research exploring
the construct of immediacy in relation to race is warranted. Both of the previous studies have
primarily examined students’ perceptions of immediacy of a professor of the same racial
background; limited attention was given to students’ perceptions of instructors from a different
racial backgrounds. Further, both studies examined only Black/African-American and Caucasian
American students’ perceptions, thus, such results give no indication of how other racial/ethnic
groups (e.g. Hispanic/Latino) perceive professors of both the same and different racial
backgrounds on teacher immediacy.
The present study sought to examine whether the racial background of both the student
and professor impacts students’ perceptions of college professors’ verbal immediacy. It was
hypothesized that students would perceive a professor of a different race to be less verbally
immediate than a professor of the same race. This hypothesis was formulated based on
conclusions of previous research examining students’ perceptions of teacher treatment (Marcus
et al., 1991) and immediacy (Neuliep, 1995; Rucker & Gendrin, 2003) as affected by race.
Another paradigm that indicates that individuals would rate professors of the same race to be
more verbally immediate is the cultural contracts theory. This theory attempts to explore
interracial relations, emphasizing how connections between people of different cultures influence
individuals’ identity formation. On of the main arguments of this theory is that individuals
interact with people from similar racial/ethnic backgrounds in order to maintain and confirm
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 16
their own identity (Hendrix, Jackson II, & Warren, 2003). Thus, it seems logical that students
would want to approach professors of a similar racial background, because in doing so, they
would be establishing their sense of self. This inclination may lead students to rate instructors of
the same race higher on measures of verbal immediacy than professors of a different race.
The study is valuable because a student’s perceptions of instructors’ verbal immediacy
have an impact on whether that student will approach such instructors for help and guidance. If
minority students perceive White/Caucasian professors to be less verbally immediate, they may
be less likely to seek their assistance than a professor from the same racial/ethnic background.
Such avoidance could have a critical influence on underrepresented students’ levels of
achievement, since research on instructor immediacy has shown that perceived immediacy is
related to greater motivation and learning from students (Christophel, 1990). This issue is
especially vital in educational settings where minority students are exposed almost exclusively to
White/Caucasian instructors, because such students may not have access to same race instructors
with whom they may feel more comfortable seeking guidance from.
Methods
Participants
The present study consisted of 278 participants who were divided into groups on the basis
of racial/ethnic background (159 Caucasian, 24 African American, and 39 Latino). These groups
were then separated into subgroups based which tutorial they would be exposed to. Data from 56
participants was dropped from analysis because such individuals did not match the targeted
racial/ethnic background, leaving a total of 222 participants whose data was analyzed.
Individuals were selected from 3 institutions of higher education in the western United States
(one small liberal arts college, one large research-focused university, and one large community
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 17
college) and were recruited both informally on each campus and through flyer distribution.
Students were also gathered with assistance of the Student Support Services (SSS) Programs at
two of the campuses, and the Center for Ethnic Student Affairs at the large research-focused
university. Individuals eligible to participate in the study were limited to college students
enrolled within 12 months of administration of the tutorial and survey. Students had an age
range of 18 years of age to late adulthood. Individuals were offered incentives (gift certificates)
for participating in the study.
Materials
Three versions of an online tutorial were created for the current study. All tutorials were
identical in content, vocal delivery (professor’s voice), structure, and tone, and each tutorial was
created and administered through the same online WebCT course created for the study. WebCT
is educational software designed to provide course content to students through an online
collaborative environment. Students in WebCT courses are able to access educational materials
posted through the login on their educational institution’s website. This software was chosen as
a mode of administering the tutorial because it could be easily accessed on different college
campuses.
Versions of the tutorial differed only by the photograph of the fictitious professor
(displayed on every slide) and the professor’s name (displayed on the first slide only). Each of
the tutorials contained a photograph of a professor (shown in the upper right hand corner) of a
specified ethnic/racial background (Hispanic/Latino for Tutorial 1, Caucasian for Tutorial 2, and
Black/African American for Tutorial 3). The tutorials also differed by the name displayed on the
first slide; names were chosen that emphasized the professor’s ethnic/racial background.
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 18
Each tutorial was titled “The Time Value of Money,” and the information presented
explained the concept and application of compound interest on personal finance. Content
material of the tutorial was developed through investigators’ collaboration with the director of
the Center for Financial Analysis at the small liberal arts college. Information about the topic
was adapted from material presented in Keown, Gardner, Torahzadeh, and Dixon (1995-2004).
The topic was selected because it is relatively neutral and had the greatest application for
students from different areas of study. The script for the tutorial was modified by investigators
after pilot testing to ensure that the tutorial would be engaging enough to withhold participants’
attention.
Each tutorial was created from a Microsoft Powerpoint Presentation, which was then
converted into a Quicktime movie and imported into the WebCT course. The information
presented on the slides of the tutorial reinforced and expressed visually (through graphs and
figures) auditory information. Several different narrations (one of which was used for all three
versions of the tutorial) were recorded through Audacity (an audio recording and editing
program) to represent the voice of fictitious professor displayed each version of the tutorial.
Such narrations were piloted, and the most neutral voice was selected for use in the study. Efforts
were made to obtain a voice that sounded congruent with the racial background of all three of the
professors depicted. Pictures similar in background, size, and detail were obtained to represent
professors in each version of the tutorial.
Procedures
The present study was designed and conducted as part of another study performed by
Chavez and Ferrin (2005), examining the influence of race on students’ perceptions of professor
credibility. Individuals asked to participate in the research were told that the study was
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 19
evaluating “the effectiveness of classroom instruction.” Informed consent was obtained from all
participants. Individuals were alternately assigned to view one of the three tutorials by the
researcher, based on the researchers own perception of the student’s racial background. Based
on this assignment, participants’ racial background was considered to be either congruent or
incongruent with the racial background of the professor displayed in each tutorial. Caucasian
participants viewed either tutorial 1(depicting a Hispanic/Latino professor), tutorial 2 (depicting
a White/Caucasian professor), or tutorial 3 (depicting a Black/African-American professor).
Hispanic/Latino participants watched either tutorial 1 or 2, and Black/African American
participants viewed either tutorial 2 or 3. Participants were given identical instructions about
how the tutorial would be administered. After the researcher logged them into the WebCT course
and set up the tutorial and evaluation in separate windows, students viewed the tutorial.
The tutorials were set up on designated computers at the libraries of all 3 institutions, the
student union of 2 of the institutions, and the SSS building of the large community college.
Participants heard the audio through a set of headphones connected to each computer. After
viewing the tutorial, researchers instructed participants to navigate to a questionnaire intended to
gauge students’ perceptions of the tutorial.
Measures
Participants completed a two-part, 39 item questionnaire (including questions from the
other study being conducted) through a link in the online WebCT login. The first part of the
questionnaire contained background information, including questions regarding age, gender,
class standing, grade point average, racial/ethnic background, English proficiency, length of
United States residency, and preferred mode of contacting professors (by email, phone, or in
person). The second section of the survey, which consisted of five questions (excluding
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 20
questions used for the other study; see Appendix A), measured students’ evaluations of the
fictitious professor’s verbal immediacy based on their impressions from the tutorial. Verbal
immediacy questions were formulated and modeled after measures used in Christophel (1990),
Gorham (1988), and Christophel and Gorham (1995). Questions were presented as statements, to
which students would respond on a likert scale, ranging from (1) Strongly Disagree to (5)
Strongly Agree.
Results
Independent samples t-tests were performed and revealed no significant main effect of
race congruence on combined target groups’ ratings of congruent and incongruent professors’
verbal immediacy. When analyzed separately however, independent samples t-tests revealed an
effect of race (t(24)=1.752, p=.093) for the Black/African- American group, such that
Black/African-American participants were likely to rate the professor of an incongruent race to
be less verbally immediate than a professor of a congruent race. This difference approached
significance at trend level. In addition, no significant differences were found for Hispanic/Latino
and White/Caucasian groups’ ratings of congruent and incongruent professors on perceptions of
verbal immediacy. These results are represented graphically in figure 1.
Insert Figure 1 here
Discussion
The purpose of the present study was to expand upon research about teacher immediacy
by evaluating whether students’ perceptions of professors’ verbal immediacy are impacted by the
racial background of both the student and college professor. It was hypothesized that students
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 21
would evaluate a professor of an incongruent racial background to be less verbally immediate
than a professor whose racial background was congruent to that of the student.
Results of the study partially supported the initial hypothesis, as there was a trend toward
significant differences for the Black/African-American target group in their ratings of verbal
immediacy for professors of a congruent versus an incongruent race. The study indicated that
race (of both student and professor) may have some impact on students’ perceptions of a
professor’s verbal immediacy. The Black/African-American students in the study were found to
evaluate the Black/African-American professor to be more verbally immediate than the
White/Caucasian professor. While these results were not statistically significant, the findings did
constitute a trend toward significant differences. It is possible that with an increased sample size
of Black/African-American participants, differences may be more substantial. Results of the
study did not indicate significant differences for the White/Caucasian and Hispanic/Latino
students’ ratings of professors of a congruent and incongruent racial background. Thus, it cannot
be inferred from this research that a race differential between student and professor impacts
students’ perceptions of professors’ immediacy for all racial groups.
Findings from the present study partially support results of Neuliep (1995) and Rucker
and Gendrin (2003) regarding students’ perceptions of verbal immediacy of professors of a
congruent and incongruent race. Confirming previous research, Black/African-American
students had a tendency to rate Black/African-American professors to be more verbally
immediate than White/Caucasian professors. However, it was not found that Black/AfricanAmerican professors were rated to be more verbally immediate by Black/African-American
students than White/Caucasian professors when rated by White/Caucasian students, as was
indicated in Neuliep (1995). Further, the study supports the findings from Rucker and Gendrin
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 22
(2003) that Black/African-American students identify more with instructors from the same racial
background. The results of the present study also confirm previous research indicating that
students perceive professors differently based on racial background (Marcus et al., 1991). As
previous research indicated, Black/African-American students’ perceptions of professors of an
incongruent race seem to be colored by their own cultural background, in that such students felt
less comfortable approaching a professor of a White/Caucasian background. This notion was not
confirmed for the Hispanic/Latino and White/Caucasian groups with respect to instructors’
verbal immediacy, however, so it cannot be assumed that cultural or racial background
influences the perceptions of all students.
The present study has many valuable implications for current research on the influence of
teacher immediacy, as it examines this construct in relation to both students’ and professors’
racial background. One of the most powerful inferences that can be drawn from this research is
that the racial background of a professor may impact Black/African-American students’
perceptions of that professor’s verbal immediacy. An instructor that is, in reality, very
approachable and verbally immediate, may be perceived to be less verbally immediate by
students from an incongruent racial background. Further, the study indicates that race may be
barrier to the development of a collaborative and constructive teacher-student relationship. If
students perceive a professor to be less approachable, it is unlikely that such students will seek
guidance and support from that professor. This reluctance hinders the development of critical
connections with instructors that could help a student attain success in an academic milieu.
There are many important limitations to note when considering application of the
findings of the present study. While the sample size was relatively large for the White/Caucasian
subgroup, the sample sizes for the Hispanic/Latino and Black/African-American subgroups were
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 23
relatively small, which may have limited the statistical power of the data set. The sample was
also taken from a relatively non-diverse area (as compared to other regions of the country). Thus,
results cannot necessarily be generalized to populations in other geographical areas. Further,
because this study was conducted on the computer and not in an actual classroom environment, it
cannot be assumed that student evaluations of verbal immediacy of the professor in the computer
experiment would be the same if students were in an interactive class.
Future research should focus on replication of the present study, in which the sample size
for the Black/African-American and Hispanic/Latino target groups should be increased. Studies
could also examine students’ perceptions of professors’ verbal immediacy in relation to other
racial/ethnic groups (e.g. Asian, Pacific Islander), not examined in this research. Expansion in
such directions would be valuable because different racial/ethnic groups have diverse
experiences and perceptions; it can not be assumed from the current study that all races perceive
professors’ verbal immediacy similarly. Further, it may be valuable to examine students from
mixed racial/ethnic backgrounds, as it is likely that these individuals will not identify solely with
one particular racial category.
Studies could also focus on students’ from other geographical regions, in which there are
different concentrations of racial populations than examined in the present study. It would be
valuable to compare samples from different areas of the country (e.g. northeast vs. southwest),
because doing so would provide a more comprehensive examination of how perceptions of
verbal immediacy vary from region to region. Further, it may also be beneficial to measure the
level at which students’ from certain racial/ethnic groups identify with their cultural background,
to see if that level of identification affects students perceptions of verbal immediacy. Other
valuable expansions of this study could focus on gender, and whether the interaction of race and
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 24
gender affects students’ perceptions. It may also be interesting to explore whether professors
and students from varied academic backgrounds (e.g. natural sciences, business, social sciences)
hold different perceptions of verbal immediacy, to determine whether type of educational
background impacts perceptions of verbal immediacy.
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 25
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Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 28
FIGURE CAPTION
Figure 1. Mean student ratings of congruent/incongruent professor immediacy by racial/ethnic
group
Perceived Professor Verbal Immediacy and Race 29
Mean Student Perceptions of Professor Immediacy
FIGURE 1
Race Congruence
between Professor
and Student
5.00
Congruent
Incongruent
4.00
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
White/Caucasian
Black/African
American
Hispanic/Latino
Racial/Ethnic Background