Being Black & Bleeding Blue: A Quantitative look at the Experience of
African American Alumni at a Predominantly White Institutions.
Amanda Shropshire
Undergraduate
Saint Mary’s College
Ashrop01@saintmarys.edu
December 11, 2006
Faculty Advisor: Susan Alexander
e-mail address: salexand@saintmarys.edu
ABSTRACT
This paper focuses on the social and academic experiences of African American
Alumnae who attended predominantly White higher education institutions Saint Mary’s
College. A survey was administered to alumnae from these institutions to assess the
quality of their educational experience based on academic outcome, social interactions;
and their quality of life after graduation. There was a similarity among their experiences
pertaining to race across all variables. However most respondents reported that while
they had many negative experiences due to their race, they felt comfortable at their
academic institution. Overall, most respondents stated that regardless of their
experience, they would still recommend their institution to another minority student.
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Being Black & Bleeding Blue: A Quantitative look at the Experience of
African American Alumni at a Predominantly White Institution.
The racial make-up of a person’s surroundings can impact one’s experience with
regards to their comfort level in that environment. As a discipline, sociology addresses
such concerns through research on “assimilation” and “dominant culture”. Sociologists
describe the affect of a person’s racial surroundings on aspects of their life, especially the
educational system.
In institutions of higher education, people may judge their experience by their
academic success, social involvement, and their preparation for post-graduate work.
However, those factors also depend heavily on a person’s surroundings. A central
component of a student’s educational surroundings is the racial make-up of the academic
institution in terms of the ratio between minorities and the dominant culture.
African Americans at predominantly White institutions, will assess their overall
time in college experiences positive or negative by referencing their experience as a
minority student and their own comfort level. Racialzed surroundings have been a factor
in American education for hundreds of years at times producing segregation and at other
times colleges for Blacks. Today, the influence of racial surroundings in higher education
has become less visible on a structural level, but the effects for individual students may
be just as extreme.
Administration at various colleges and universities have tried to improve the
comfort levels of minority students at predominantly White institutions by implementing
diversity programs, extending the curriculum, allowing ethnic organization, and hiring
minority faculty. However, African Americans in predominantly White institutions still
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may experience negative affects that shape a student’s overall college experience. This
study will examine the experience and comfort level of African American alumnae of
Saint Mary’s College through a racial lens in order to assess their academic success,
postgraduate achievements, and advocacy of the institution.
Literature Review
In recent years, scholars have produced research on African Americans in
predominantly White institutions. As a result, efforts toward increasing diversity and
benefits for African American minorities in colleges and universities have been an
influential factor in increasing minority attendance at selective colleges and universities.
Much of this research also includes a joint assessment of predominantly White
institutions (PWI’s) and historically Black colleges and universities (HBCU’s),
comparing the experiences of African Americans in both settings. (See: Kim and Conrad
2006; Chavous and Harris 2004; Kim 2002; Allen, Haniff and Epps 1991; Fleming
1984.)
There has been an observed link between the perception of campus climate and
student’s academic achievement. Hurtado (1992) argues that campus racial conflicts are
connected to elements in institutions’ racial climate that sustain the relationship between
African-American students and their White peers, faculty and administration. The
assumed affects of the campuses racial climate have prompted scholars to compare
predominantly White institutions and historically Black colleges and universities to
assess the affects of these interactions on academic achievement, social mobility,
development, psychological factors, and student persistence.
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HBCU’s vs. PWI’s: Factors affecting academic, social and psychological well-being.
Kim (2002) and Kim and Conrad (2006) analyze the effectiveness of HBCU’s and
PWI’s in developing African American student’s academic and cognitive abilities.
Although the two types of institutions differ dramatically in terms of resources, both
studies conclude, that there is no difference between HBCU’s and PWI’s in terms of the
students’ academic ability nor does it interfere with degree completion. These modern
studies may show development beyond the initial studies that indicated a strong
relationship between campus racial climate factors and the academics and social
achievement of African American students. In previous research, Allen, Epps and Haniff
(1991) and Fleming (1984) both argue that while individual characteristics play a role in
achievement, the quality of life weighs heavily upon psychosocial well-being.
Fleming (1984) assesses Black student’s “psychosocial adaptation” and
“intellectual performance” as essential for college success. In this study, gender proves to
be a factor in psychosocial studies of African Americans at PWI’s and HBCU’s
indicating that Black females adapt more positively to a predominantly White institution
than do Black males. Fleming (1984) also notes that both Black and White women are
more academically and socially successful in a women’s college. Chavous, Harris, Rivas,
Helaire and Green (2004) reference both Allen, Fleming and Davis in their assessment of
racial stereotypes and gender in both HBCU’s and PWI’s. Results show that women
achieve higher education at better rates than men attributing to racial climate barriers that
affect men and women differently. (Chavous, Harris, Rivas, Helaire and Green (2004) In
a study of 143 undergraduate students at a large Midwestern, public PWI they find that
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while racial climate and discrimination affect the college experiences of women, being
female and an ethnic minority may cause more subtle forms of discrimination than men,
allowing them to tolerate their environment. (Chavous, Harris, Rivas, Helaire and Green
(2004))
While the literature suggest a relationship between racial climate and academic
achievement, it also suggests a relationship between racial climate and non-cognitive
factors such as; race-related experiences, social support, perceived environment, and
involvement on comfort and social success (MacKay and Kuh 1994, Sedlacek 1999,
Smith and Baruch 1981, and Hurtado 1992) Gloria (1999) and Hurtado argue that factors
such as social support, university comfort and self-beliefs are all important factors for a
student having a negative or positive collegial experience. Davis and Bowie (2004) and
Lewis, Chesler and Forman (2000) argue that non-cognitive factors indicatory of a tense
racial climate such as discrimination, colorblindness, and stereotypes negatively affect an
African American student on a predominantly White campus. However tolerance of these
factors can be directly related to a student’s background, thus, affecting how they adjust
to these experiences on campus.
Massey, Charles, Lundy and Fischer (2003) argue that school quality; socioeconomic background and racial composition of a student’s high school can directly
affect how they adjust to life on a predominantly White college campus. In their book,
Source of the River, researchers assessed the psychological vulnerabilities to racially
negative experiences such as stereotyping and discrimination, of African Americans.
Background variables indicating strong infrastructure of high school in terms of teachers
and resources as well as a high amount of contact with other White students, African
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Americans attending predominantly White colleges were not as vulnerable to campus
racial tensions as those from predominantly Black high schools with less resources.
The literature suggests that while there has been a strong correlation between
academic success and racial campus climate experiences, the dynamics are changing,
therefore administrators, faculty, staff and students should be aware of possible negative
influences on African American students’ comfort level while attending a predominantly
White college or university. This study hopes to raise awareness about the specific factors
impacting African American women at Saint Mary’s College.
Theory of “Double Consciousness” and PWI’s
When assessing the effect of predominantly white institutions on the Black
student experience today, one cannot ignore the history and evolution of African
American education. Over the past 150 years, higher education for African Americans
has been an evolving concept, impacting each generation of Black students differently.
Today, African Americans have an equal opportunity to attend all colleges and
universities. However, at many elite colleges and universities the ethnic population still
remains predominantly White, and the transition into these institutions for African
American students can be very difficult.
In W.E.B Dubois’ “Souls of Black Folk,” (1903) he introduced the now wellknown concept of “double-consciousness” when referring to the African American inner
conflict from living in a Western dominated culture. Dubois argues that African
Americans must maintain a sense of pride in African and Black culture and
simultaneously include positive representations of the dominant culture in their lives.
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“After the Egyptian and Indian, the Greek and Roman, the Teuton
and Mongolian, the Negro is a sort of seventh son, born with a veil,
and gifted with second-sight in this American world, a world
which yields him no true self-consciousness, but only lets him see
himself through the revelation of the other world. It is a peculiar
sensation, this double-consciousness, this sense of always looking
at one’s self through the eyes of others, of measuring one’s soul by
the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity. One
never feels his two-ness, an American, a Negro; two souls, two
thoughts, two un-reconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one
dark body, whose dogged strength alone keeps it from being torn
asunder. The history of the American Negro is the history of this
strife, this longing to attain self-conscious manhood, to merge his
double self into a better and truer self.”(Dubois, 1903)
The theory suggests that due to this double consciousness, African Americans
define themselves by the opinion of the dominant culture leaving them with no true selfidentity. Dubois attributed this way of thought to hundreds of years of oppression, slavery
and institutionalized racism having a heavy impact on the African American mind
(Aldridge, 1999, p. 188) While Dubois’ theory of double-consciousness pertains to
African Americans in society overall, it can also relate to the internal conflict of African
Americans attending predominantly White institutions. Aldridge (1999, p. 188) suggests,
“W.E.B Dubois left the most comprehensive set of writings and views from which
educators and policymakers can obtain a textualized, historical and African American
based perspective on education.” Dubois attributes this theory to the way Blacks perceive
certain aspects of mainstream society such as the importance of formal education vs.
gaining knowledge of their own culture. According to Aldridge (1999, p. 189) Dubois
would advocate that only those students with a strong economic, cultural and communitybased background would be able transcend double consciousness.
Slavery generally prohibited education for African Americans as a whole. The
legacy of slavery may have prompted the development of Historically Black colleges and
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universities (HBCU’s), and then future of educational opportunities. Following Brown
vs. Board of Education in 1954, Blacks and Whites went through a painful transition of
integrated education on all levels. While Dubois believed that new legislative decisions
were positive, he urged African Americans of the time to take well-planned steps into
integration. His theory was that unless African American children had a firm grasp on
their own ethnic values and culturally satisfied politically, economically and socially,
integration would not be positive. Aldridge (1999, p. 190) states that the Marx based
theory of “economic determinism” included in Dubois’ opinions on integration was to
take advantage of segregated communities and create African enclaves. By doing so,
Blacks would be able to build strong communities of consumers and entrepreneurs,
making African American students competitive on levels of class, educational standards,
and mental strength. To some, this may serve as an explanation for the challenges African
Americans faced during the early phases of educational integration.
“The object of that plan is two-fold: first to make it possible for the
Negro group to await its ultimate emancipation with reasoned patience, with
equitable temper and with every possible effort to raise the social status and
increase the efficiency of the group. And secondly and just as important, the
ultimate object of the plan is to obtain admission of the colored group to
cooperation and incorporation into the White group on the best possible terms.”
(Dubois, 1940/1984, p.200)
In 2006, some 50 years after integration into elite colleges and universities
population in these schools still remain predominantly White. Dubois’ framework of the
African American experience of “double-consciousness” in a predominantly White
setting has become a key to understanding the Black experience at Predominantly White
Institutions. The relationship between challenges such as social acceptance, academic
success, post-college ambitions, and the experience of African Americans can connect
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directly with feelings of maintaining a “double-consciousness” at these institutions. At
Saint Mary’s College, the African American population remains small in comparison to
other minority groups on campus or at other higher educational institutions. While
institutional efforts to increase diversity are present, Dubois’ theory of double
consciousness indicates that the retention and success of a student may rest upon Black
cultural concepts that are absent from the framework of a predominantly White
institution. If the percentage of Black students were to rise, examining their experiences
are necessary in order to facilitate a smoother transition for each generation.
Methods
The data for this study came from a survey/questionnaire administered to African
American alumnae at Saint Mary’s College during October and November of 2006. This
predominantly white institution is located in South Bend,. An email was sent to 32
African American alumnae asking them to participate in a thirty-question survey which
was administered through the website www.SurveyMonkey.com. The sample was
identified by a list of all African American alumnae provided by the Saint Mary’s
College Alumnae Office. The alumnae with available email addresses were chosen from
the list.
This research assesses the experiences of a non-random purposive sample of 32
alumnae total, ranging in the ages between 23-75 years. There was a 47% response rate, a
total of 14 alumnae from the list of 32 participants. All participants were female alumnae
from Saint Mary’s College ranging in graduation years from 1972 to 2004.
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This study had weaknesses due to the sampling method, lack of qualitative data,
and time constraint due to problems with the original study. Originally this study was to
administer a survey to alumni from both the University of Notre Dame and Saint Mary’s
College. However, due to the problem of “gatekeepers” denying access to the list of
Black alumni from the University of Notre Dame, the research including those subjects
could not be completed. Unfortunately, the reasons for not completing the research at the
University were not specified until very late in the research process and alternativesampling methods could not be done.
The weakness of this purposive methodology using only Saint Mary’s alumnae
was a small response rate. Although the responses rate was high in terms of the
population, it is not a representative sample for all predominantly White institutions.
Another weakness of this survey/questionnaire method was limited information that
points to areas for further research. In future research, both interviews and surveys should
be administered. A strength of this research includes the individual response to survey
questions. This research will serve as an exploratory study for further research of African
American alumnae at Saint Mary’s College.
Findings
The survey was constructed so the respondent was asked questions pertaining to
their background, experiences in college and their post college status. The respondents
were also asked general questions indicating their “Comfort Level” with five levels of
measurement, and this comfort level was compared to groups of questions that
collectively asked about background, college experience and post college status. The
respondents chose “Very Comfortable”, “Comfortable”, “Somewhat Comfortable”,
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“Uncomfortable” and “Very Uncomfortable”. This was a self-assessment of comfort
level and the perception of comfort for each respondent may vary. Table 1: African
American College Comfort Level Vs. College Experience shows the results for how
comfortable respondents were in comparison to their experiences with the campus racial
climate. The questions are broken down by those “Comfortable” and “Uncomfortable”
and some of their experiences asked in matrix question number 29 of the survey, in
addition to showing overall response percentage
Table 1: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. College Experience
with Racial Climate
Table. 1
Ans. "yes" to experienced
racial discrimination.
Ans. "yes" to being
stereotyped by a White
student.
Ans. "yes" to negatively
affected by African
American population.
Ans. "yes" to being
dissatisfied with ethnic
diversity on campus.
Ans. "yes" to being
dissatisfied with religious
diversity on campus.
Found outreach by
multicultural office "Not
Satisfactory".
Expressed feeling social
alienation by White
students.
Comfortable
Uncomfortable
TOTAL
10/14
0/2
62.50%
12/14
1/2
81.25%
6/14
1/2
43.75%
12/14
1/2
81.25%
8/14
1/2
56.25%
5/14
0/2
31.25%
6/14
1/2
43.75%
Most respondents indicated feeling comfortable at Saint Mary’s College overall
than feeling uncomfortable, this is shown by 14 out of the total 16 respondents indicating
feeling either very comfortable, comfortable or somewhat comfortable in the survey.
Despite the high level of comfort at Saint Mary’s indicated by the respondents, the data
12
shows that most respondents experienced instances of discrimination, stereotyping or
alienation in addition to negative attitudes toward the college’s lack of diversity and
outreach by the Office of Multicultural Affairs.
The majority of those respondents who were comfortable at Saint Mary’s
indicated experiencing racial discrimination, stereotypes and being dissatisfied with the
ethnic diversity on campus. 10 out of 14 of those comfortable respondents experienced
discrimination on campus while zero of those with an uncomfortable attitude indicated
experiencing discrimination. This leaves 62.5% of total respondents, all comfortable,
experiencing discrimination while a student at Saint Mary’s College. In addition, 12 out
of 14 comfortable respondents indicated being racially stereotyped and having a
dissatisfied attitude toward the ethnic diversity on campus in comparison to one out of the
two uncomfortable respondents indicated these experiences and attitudes.
Table 2: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Background
Experience
Table. 2
Comfortable
Uncomfortable
TOTAL
Attended Predominantly
White High School.
8/14
1/2
56.25%
Attended Racially Mixed
High School.
Non-Catholic
5/14
10/14
1/2
1/2
37.50%
68.75%
Considered Diversity in
decision to attend the college.
3/14
0/2
18.75%
In Table 2: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Background
Experience, the same groups of comfort are used. Those indicating variations of
comfortable and uncomfortable in question number 31 on the survey were compared to
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the questions assessing the respondents’ background. The background areas are based on
factors that may influence the respondents’ comfort level at the college in reference to
their experiences with the campus racial climate. The questions assess the racial makeup
of their high school, the emphasis of diversity in their decision to attend Saint Mary’s
College, and their religious affiliation with respect to the college’s Catholic background.
A high number of respondents reported being non-Catholic, 10 out of 14 of those
indicating feeling comfortable described their religious affiliation as something other than
Catholic in comparison to one out of those uncomfortable respondents with the same
response. 68.7% of the total respondents did not indicate their religious affiliation as
Non-Catholic; however, some did choose some variation of Christianity.
Over half of those respondents with comfortable attitudes described the racial
makeup of their high school as predominantly White and five out of 14 respondents
described their high school as being racially mixed or diverse. One respondent from the
uncomfortable group described their high school as being predominantly White and the
other’s high school was described as racially mixed. Overall there is a low percentage of
those respondents, comfortable and uncomfortable, that considered diversity in their
decision to attend college, only 3 out of 14 said diversity was considered from those
comfortable and zero of those uncomfortable indicated diversity as a consideration.
Table 3: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Experience with
Campus Participation, those respondents indicating their attitudes toward the college
being comfortable and uncomfortable are shown. Their comfort levels are compared with
their areas of college participation, a factor known to influence and African American
14
student’s perception of their predominantly White environment. The areas of
participation measured are campus clubs, athletics and religious services.
Table 3: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Experience with
Campus Participation
Table. 3
Comfortable
Uncomfortable
TOTAL
Member of Campus
10/14
2/2
75.00%
Clubs
Attended On Campus
Religious Service.
3/14
1/2
25.00%
Accompanied by 10 or
more African Americans
while attending the
college.
8/14
1/2
56.25%
Student Athlete
1/14
0/2
6.25%
Seventy-five percent of the total sixteen respondents indicated that they were
members of campus clubs which indicates a high level of campus involvement overall.
There was a 100% response that those with uncomfortable attitudes were members of
campus clubs and organizations compared to the 10 out of 14 comfortable respondents
involved with campus activities.
A high number of participants indicated that there were 10 or more African
Americans attending Saint Mary’s at the same time they were. An extremely low number
of participants classified themselves as a student athlete, showing only 6.25% of total
respondents as athletes, with the one person belonging to the group that experienced high
levels of comfort at the college.
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Table 4: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Post College
Attitudes/Success
Table. 4
Comfortable
Uncomfortable TOTAL
Grade Point Average
4/14
1/2
31.25%
above 3.0.
3/14
1/2
25.00%
Marital Status
Earnings of 50,000 and
10/14
2/2
75.00%
above.
Would recommend the
college to another
African American
10/14
1/2
68.75%
student.
In Table 4: African American Alumnae College Comfort Level Vs. Post College
Attitudes/Success, respondents’ comfort level was also compared to factors assessing
their level of postgraduate success and attitudes. These were based on final grade point
average, marital status, annual earnings and their attitudes on recommending the college
to another African American student. 68.75% of all respondents answered “Yes” that
they would recommend Saint Mary’s College to another African American based on their
experiences as a minority student, 10 out of 14 being comfortable and 2 out of 2 being
uncomfortable.
The data also indicates the socio-economic status of the respondents by indicating
their annual earnings. In addition, earnings of $50,000.00 or more would classify
participants as part of the middle class as per the commonly known Dennis Gilbert class
model. This is shown due to 10 out of 14 comfortable participants that indicated earning
$50,000.00 and above, 2 out of 2 of those uncomfortable are also in this category
displaying 75% of participants being members of the middle class.
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Discussion
Overall this study shows that African American alumnae of Saint Mary’s College
have maintained a high level of comfort with the college indicating an overall positive
experience. Saint Mary’s is a predominantly White institution lacking racial, ethnic and
religious diversity. The research shows that due to the homogeneity of the student body,
African American alumnae of the college have endured a variety of negative experiences
such as discrimination, stereotypes, feelings of social alienation and attitudes of
dissatisfaction toward the college’s diversity efforts.
However, the most important correlation found was the level of comfort and
campus experiences in reference to the racial climate. Those indicating a high comfort
level also indicated having negative racial experiences, with an overall low number of
respondents indicating being uncomfortable at the college. In addition, respondents
indicated high levels of success in respect to achieved socio-economic status based on
occupation and income.
A number of reasons can be used to explain the high level of comfort and
postgraduate success despite negative experiences with the campus racial climate. As the
literature indicates, African American females are more likely to excel in predominantly
White settings, moreover those attending women’s liberal arts colleges. Since Saint
Mary’s is an all women’s college this factor accounts for higher comfort levels. Thus
gender may be a significant factor in one’s educational process and positively impacts
African American women in this setting.
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Another explanation may be the high tolerance levels of the participants due to
their background. Many of the participants indicated attending predominantly White or
racially diverse high schools before attending Saint Mary’s College. Comfort levels and
adjustment appeared easier for participants who had previously attended White high
schools, supporting the idea that preparation for racist treatment enhances possibilities of
coping. (Nghe & Mahalik, 2001; Davis & Bowie, 2004)
In conclusion, Dubois theory of double consciousness may apply to this
particular situation of Blacks within the White dominant culture. Over the years, African
Americans have mastered the technique of double consciousness and are able to be
successful in more than one setting. However, further research is necessary to completely
explore the experiences of African American students at predominantly White institutions
including a co-educational institution, a larger sample size and possibly qualitative data
to obtain a more in depth description of personal experience. A further investigation of
Blacks perception of self-while attending predominantly White institution’s might answer
the question. Overall, while Blacks in Predominantly White academic institutions may
have to balance double consciousness and still face experiences of a negative racial
climate, the data shows that the effects of attending these institutions do not have a
negative impact on their attitudes about the college experience.
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