Regional and Minority Languages in Europe
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Regional and Minority Languages in Higher Education Abroad
(Particular thanks are due to Miriam McArdle, Queen’s University Belfast, and Toni
Ibarz, University of Sheffield, for their input to the preparation of this paper)
Table of Contents
Page
Executive Summary…………………………….……………………..……..3
Introduction………………………….……….….…………………………….6
Summary of Findings…..………………….….………………………….….8
Catalan………………………………………….……………………………….8
Other Minority and Regional Languages………………………………….13
Bibliography……………..…………………….……………………………….18
Executive Summary
Preamble
This brief summary lists key details and findings deriving from the report that follows. It is
important to remember that the project was small scale in terms of the overall number of
language teaching institutions across Europe. Therefore the extent to which the findings might
be accurately generalized is difficult to access. However it is a detailed study and as such the
issues identified are expected to be commonplace in institutions offering regional and minority
languages.
Project Details
1.
The questionnaire was designed to gather information on the teaching of regional and
minority languages in universities abroad, with emphasis on ab initio provision.
Regional and minority languages are defined as non-official national languages.
2.
Questionnaires on Regional and Minority Languages were circulated, by mail and
electronically, to 140 university departments across Europe. The questionnaire sought
Regional and Minority Languages in Europe
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information on the provision, resources, staff experience, research interests of staff and
methodology used.
3.
Responses were received from 48 university departments across Europe.
4.
Most replies were received from institutions teaching Catalan, with Basque, Galician,
Occitan, Friulian, Saami, Sorbian, Ruthenian and Kven also responding.
5.
The report analyses languages in two separate sections i) Catalan and ii) all other
regional and minority languages.
6.
Languages are taught in a range of departments including Cultural Studies, History,
Literature and Linguistics. Catalan is most often offered to students as part of the
Spanish or Hispanic Studies programme.
7.
The findings indicate that universities and colleges most commonly offer those
languages that are supported by financial and exchange programs.
8.
Regional and minority languages are most frequently taught by a full time lecturer,
supported by part time lecturers and/or foreign language assistants.
9.
The number of students on each course varies greatly across institutions. Numbers for
many language courses sit between 10 and 20. With exceptions, example - Catalan
language courses in one French university have a total of 350 students in one
academic year.
10. The most frequently available language courses are as a minor element of a degree
course. Institutions offer regional and minority language studies up to PhD level.
Allowing students to study independently and receive guidance from outside their
institution.
11. Access and availability is generally good. Many institutions refer to an ‘institute-wide’
policy on availability. Across all languages there is reference to an ‘open-access’ policy.
With some universities stating they accept non-students to study language and culture
classes offered by their departments.
12. There was little evidence of participation in exchange programs and involvement in
European projects across all languages. Those universities financially supported to
teach Catalan often also facilitated student exchanges.
13. Few institutions publish journal or newsletters. One university explained the lack of
publication was due to a lack of funding.
14. The common research areas across all languages are Literature, Linguistics, Discourse
and Civilisation. Many other areas highlighted are further explained in the body of the
report. Cultural aims are not reflected as strongly in the methodology as language
outcomes.
15. Popular texts used to teach were ‘Teach Yourself Catalan’ by Alan Yates and the
multimedia ‘Digui, digui…’ by Marta Mas et al. commissioned by the Direcció General
de política lingüística of the Generalitat de Catalunya; there are a range of other
Regional and Minority Languages in Europe
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Catalan texts on the market, but no specific details were provided. A wide spectrum of
texts are used in teaching all other regional and minority languages.
16. One institution stated that the resources on the market were sufficient to teach Catalan.
All others agree more resources are required, highlighting that they currently develop a
wide range of personal resources from existing media. While a small group requested
more technologically advanced resources, a small number also requested much older
technologies such as VHS videotape and MC music cassette.
17. A review of language resources currently on the market indicated that many lecturers
feel material is out of date and designed for children.
18. Teaching contact time is frequently three hours per week with an additional three hours
personal study time recommended.
19. Teachers are more likely to have a qualification and have training in teaching if the
language is supported internationally.
20. The range of resources and texts available is much wider and more regularly updated
than was previously the case.
Introduction
Aims of the CRAMLAP Project
In this paper, we investigate the transnational provision for regional and minority languages
outside their national borders in Europe through investigating ab initio provision in Higher
Education. Celtic languages across Europe were the case study focus in the first year of the
project, but provision and evaluation of practice for other regional and minority languages are
investigated here in year two.
Details of the CRAMLAP Project
The responses were sought through questionnaire. The outcomes will facilitate
dissemination of information on the transnational provision and practice of teaching Regional
and Minority Languages in Higher Education.
For the purposes of this survey, Regional and Minority languages are defined as official
national languages spoken by a minority of citizens in the country (e.g. Irish in Ireland) or
non-official regional languages spoken within a country (e.g. Frisian in Germany). National
languages spoken by citizens of other countries are not included in this survey (e.g. German
in Denmark). The Celtic languages were the subject of a separate survey and are not
included in this report.
Regional and Minority Languages in Europe
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Data returned in the Section 1 on course provision and staff will be made available on the
CRAMLAP website. The information from Section 2, on methodology and approaches to
teaching, are analysed here.
Demand for Regional and Minority Language
Unlike state languages it is expected that demand for regional and minority language is often
enhanced not by the prestige or social mobility that the language would provide, but rather by
the need for cultural reproduction and respect for linguistic diversity. It is to be hoped that the
emphasis on cultural heritage will be as strong as the emphasis placed on the utilitarian value
of language teaching and learning.
All regional and minority language communities share a range of deeper interests concerning
the survival and continued development of their languages and cultures… 1
It is estimated that as many as 40 million citizens of the Union regularly use a regional or
minority language that has been passed on from generation to generation, generally in
addition to the official language or languages of the state2.
Summary of Findings
A range of regional and minority languages are taught across a variety of Institutions in
Europe. The most common language identified was Catalan, with 60% of institutions offering
it as an option from a minor element of a course to PhD level. Other languages identified
include Basque, Galician, Occitan, Friulian, Flemish, Saami, Frisian, Sorbian, Ruthenian, and
Kven.
Since there were a significant number of Catalan responses, it was decided to analyse this
language separately and to group other responses as appropriate.
Section 1 is an analysis of Catalan only, with Section 2 a more general overview incorporating
the other languages.
Section 1 – Catalan
1.1
Provision and staffing
Catalan teaching across Europe includes courses on language, including ab initio or
beginners’ levels, language and literature. Catalan is taught in a range of departments,
including cultural studies, history, literature and linguistics. It is most often offered to students
as part of the Spanish or Hispanic studies programme
1
See Regional and Minority Languages of the European Union
http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/lang/languages/langmin/regmin_en.html
2 ibid.
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While many institutions employ full-time and part-time lecturers to teach Catalan as their main
responsibility, although many teach other aspects of Hispanic Studies, all but one have the
services of a foreign language assistants/lecturers provided by the Catalan Generalitat in
most cases, with two provided by the Valencian Generalitat and one by the University of the
Balearic Islands to work exclusively on their Catalan language programmes. A language
assistant or lecturer (usually known as lector/lectora in the case of Catalan) is identified for
the purpose of this questionnaire as ‘a speaker of a Regional or Minority language who
comes from a country in which the language is spoken. Such speakers might be employed on
a short-term contract.’
Widespread access to Catalan within Hispanic Studies departments, its cognate relationship
with Castilian Spanish, and the support of the Generalitats are all advantageous to Catalan,
as is reflected in its relative strength in ab initio studies in Higher Education abroad
1.2
Numbers of students studying regional and minority languages
The number of students studying regional and minority languages is between 10 and 20 in
most cases. However there are exceptional numbers studying in five of the institutions. Two
institutions have over 80 students, two institutions have over 150 students and one French
institution has over 350 students enrolled on Catalan language courses. It should be noted,
however, that this institution is in the French Pays Catalan and so while the high numbers
reflect interest in the language, it might also reflect the extent to which the language has
receded in recent generations. It is generally true to say that the numbers of both full-time and
part-time students studying Catalan are increasing or maintaining the same level
1.3
Level of Catalan courses taught
It is possible to study Catalan as a minor element of a degree course in all institutions. A
small number of institutions offer Catalan as a full undergraduate degree course, as a
postgraduate diploma or Master’s level. A lot more facilitate study at Doctorate level, however
these numbers include those students studying various aspects of Catalan culture, rather
than language alone.
1.4
Access and availability of Catalan courses
As well as degree courses, access to the range of Catalan courses available is generally
flexible through an institution-wide language programme. Language centres and openlearning centres are also open to those outside the university. It appears other students might
attend with permission from the lecturer. “Some students do not legally sign up for the course,
but they can attend the regular seminars however, this is not very usual-only two cases in
2004-5.”
1.5
Exchange programs and European projects
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Less than half the institutions have a Socrates-Erasmus mobility programme for Catalan
students. Those that send students on exchange programmes send them to, Catalonia,
Valencia and the Balearic Islands, Girona and the Autonomous University of Barcelona are
two of the main recepients. At one institution “… students who have studied Catalan have
priority when it comes to selection of posts for the Socrates/Erasmus programme by the
Autonomous University of Barcelona and Valencia University.”
Although many of the institutions are not involved in European projects (75%), many
commented on the services of the Institut Ramon Llull. The Institute provides language
assistants, funding, teaching materials, resources and training to support institutions abroad
that wish to teach Catalan. There is a common standard ‘approach to the teaching of
Catalan’, including pedagogic training, that is provided by the Institut Ramon Llull. Support is
given with the placement of students in during their year abroad in a Catalan speaking area.
1.6
Research and publications
While there was a large selection of research areas reported, those that came to the fore
were linguistics, discourse studies, literature and politics. Most popular of these was
European literature with (comparative) linguistics. Research centres within the department or
institution are not usual. Research within language centres appears to be limited. The Institut
Ramon Llull is in the process of creating two centres of Catalan studies in Britain. One at
Queen Mary and Westfield College, specialising in research and one at the University of
Lancaster specialising in language teaching.
Most institutions do not publish their own journals. Lack of finance was one reason provided
for not pursuing publication and areas of research. The University of Cambridge in a joint
initiative with The Anglo-Catalan Society (an academic society created in 1954) publish an
online Journal of Catalan Studies.
1.7
Methodology
Oral Communicative competence was considered most significant in the methodology for
teaching Catalan, with reading competence also rated quite highly. Linguistic and
grammatical competence were the least significant. Other competences mentioned include
written work, laboratory work, multimedia work and use of expression and emotion in
language.
Details on the type and use of teaching resources are not provided. However The Institut
Ramon Llull provide prepared text based and video based resources for teaching Catalan. It
is possible that lecturers may use the material (as a guide) for their teaching.
1.8
Texts used in teaching Catalan
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There are many texts available to teach Catalan. Texts mentioned in returns are:
Badia, D., Llengua catalana. Nivell Llindar 1, Barcelona, 1997.
Clua, M.J. et al., Curs de llengua catalana. Nivell bàsic 1-3, Barcelona ,2004.
Yates, A., Teach Yourself Catalan, London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1975.
Mas, M. et al. Digui, digui…, Curs de Català per a estrangers, Barcelona, Departament de
Cultura de la Generalitat de Catalunya, 1992.
Yates, A., & Ibarz, T., A Catalan Handbook, Working with Digui, digui…, Sheffield, Botifarra
Publications, 1992, with subsequent edition, Barcelona, Departament de Cultura, 1993.
Poch, A. & Yates, A. Teach Yourself Catalan, London, Hodder Headline, 2004.
The most popular text used is Digui, digui…, with 62% of institutions currently using it (18% of
these institutions reported using use the Digui, digui associated video and cassette tapes).
This text is used by The Institut Roman Llull in the prewritten Catalan course. So it makes
sense that institutions would use it to support their teaching. When asked to make a comment
on the textbooks and resources available, several requests were made for a more up to date
Catalan/English dictionary.
In 2005 two further courses have been added to those on offer. One of them is the ‘official’
replacement of the popular but dated Digui, digui…, and as such is likely to have a major
impact, it incorporates the most up to date task based approach:
Mas, M., et al., Veus 1, Curs de català, Publicacions de l’Abadia de Montserrat, 2005.
The second is a course aimed specifically at English speaking adult/lifelong learners designed
mainly for independent study:
Ibarz, A. & Ibarz, A., Colloquial Catalan, The Complete Course for Beginners, London,
Routledge, 2005.
1.9
Resources used to teach Catalan
Supporting resources (text based or Powerpoint) are frequently designed by the teacher and
are objective based. Those used include grammar exercises, dialogues, conversations,
listening comprehensions, writing, reading comprehensions and vocabulary studies.
Resources are frequently designed around a photograph, piece of poetry, short story and/or
novel. Other personal materials listed include games for oral practice, cards, photos and role
plays.
Topical information is a popular option, with resources derived from such sources as Catalan
newspapers ‘Catalonia Today’, ‘Dalí’ or ‘Gaudí’; from a weekly magazine ‘El Temps’; news
from radio and television programmes, publicity and soaps; online newspapers ‘Avui’, and ‘El
Periódico en Català’.
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One institution successfully uses the online Catalan course ‘SPEAKC@T’ to support learners.
Use of ‘Blackboard’, a secure online learning environment, was highlighted by another
institution. The institution also mentioned the importance of online and multimedia materials.
Online support can be a very successful way of supporting learners across large distances. It
also facilitates students who wish to study from home.
Most popular published resource is still Digui, digui… soon to be replaced by Veus, written by
the same team. Sound recordings and video materials are published by the Generalitat de
Catalunya, to support the text books available, on aspects of Catalan culture. Audio books for
beginners, Català fàcil, are becoming more popular (along with DVD’s) as availability and
affordability of technological and multimedia resources improves.
1.10
Review of resources used
When asked to comment on the range of resources available there was a wide variety of
responses. Those that held a common theme were statements such as;
“The standard textbooks I used are a bit outdated and, in my opinion, too Grammar-centred
but there is nothing better in the market.”
“The resources available for the teaching of Catalan are very poor. All of them show a partial
approach to the process of learning a language. This problem is more serious when we
consider that most of the Catalan teaching materials are designed for native speakers of
Spanish who are living in Catalan speaking area. Even if the students of Catalan are
competent in Spanish, their approach to the language is different.”
When asked what additional resources they would like, teachers and lecturers replied;
“It would be good to have materials orientated to foreign learners. Regarding methodology,
there is a lack of materials including all the comprehension. These kinds of materials are
available for other languages, such as English or Spanish, but not for Catalan.”
Other comments were more specific, several requests for a better English to Catalan
dictionary. Another popular request was access to TV3 and Real Catalan TV. More general
requests included a more up to date range of resources, particularly multimedia resources
including video and DVD.
1.11
Study Time Available
Teaching contact time is usually three hours per week. With an additional three hours
personal study normally recommended. Where Catalan is a main component of the course,
six hours are recommended. Concerns among lecturers about the limited contact time
available were evident.
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This quote highlights the difficulties when Catalan is taught as a minor element of a degree;
“Usually, the students do not have as much time as recommended to dedicate to Catalan; it is
not one of the main subjects in their degree. Subsequently, more contact hours would help
making the most of the course.”
1.12
Training and Experience
Lecturers have a range of training, qualifications and experience in many subject areas from
History to Classical Studies. Further training falls into two categories; practice based and skill
based. Many teachers of Catalan have prior language teaching experience
Practice based
It is common across most institutions to offer lecturers the opportunity to follow the CAP
course (Certificat d’Aptitud Pedagògica), a teaching certificate issued by the Catalan
government. Many also offer further professional development or a staff introduction, for
example the CILTHE (Certificate In Development for Learning and Teaching in Higher
Education) in Lancaster University.
Skill based
Institutions make a range of generic skill based training courses available to lecturers. These
include Powerpoint and Blackboard (a virtual learning environment).
Other activities that fall under this banner of training and experience include attendance at
conferences. One respondent commented that staff are able to attend the yearly Conference
at the University in Barcelona organised by the Institut Ramon Llull.
1.13
Catalan course evaluation
A high number of institutions evaluate the courses they provide with a view to implementing
suggestions for improvement. Many use written evaluation sheets, the remainder through
verbal evaluation and group discussion.
1.14 Catalan course assessment
Almost all institutions that responded carry out assessment of student learning. The most
popular method of assessment is end of semester examination. With joint continuous
assessment and examination also a favourite. Half as many use project work and
examination, with the remainder using only project work.
2.
Section B – Other Languages
Basque, Galician, Occitan, Friulian, Flemish, Saami, Frisian, Sorbian, Ruthenian, and Kven.
Regional and Minority Languages in Europe
2.1
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Provisions and Staffing
For the most part, Language and Linguistic departments within the institutions have
responsibility for teaching regional or minority languages. Several subjects are also taught
through departments of Culture and Literature, for example Saami.
As with the general trend in the teaching of Catalan, lecturers are most commonly full time
with language courses supported by language assistants and part time staff.
2.2
Numbers of students studying regional and minority languages
Numbers of students studying other regional and minority languages are also increasing,
although in smaller numbers. This is the case in both full time and part time courses.
Numbers and class sizes are usually smaller than is the case with Catalan.
2.3
Level of course taught
Few of the institutions offer courses following Common European Framework of Reference
levels. Those that have identified these levels have done so up to C2.
There is a wide range of courses available across the institutions. There is no significant
pattern of level and frequency of classes offered. Most institutions offer a regional and
minority language as a minor element of a degree programme or at doctorate level.
2.4
Access and Availability of courses
In most cases a language department teaches the regional and minority language with some
respondents indicating that cultural studies and history departments also taught elements of
the course.
Languages available at a non-degree or as an optional course are available to many students
across the university (IWLT, Language Centres), with a small percentage of these reporting
that courses are also open to non-students.
2.5
Exchange Program and European Projects
There are few institutions that can facilitate exchange programmes for other regional and
minority languages. Among the small number taking part in such programmes are students
studying Saami who travel to Uppsala University.
The pattern is similar when involvement in European projects is examined. Students of Saami
are involved in the ‘Atlas Linguarum Europae’ Project.
Basque students are also involved in European projects, although details are not provided.
Regional and Minority Languages in Europe
2.6
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Research and Publications
Areas of research are again broad-ranging and particular to the individuals working in a
department. There are areas of commonality in European Literature, Historical Linguistics,
Social Linguistics and Medieval Studies. Modern and Contemporary Civilisation was also
highlighted.
Other areas of research were highlighted specifically in connection with the teaching of Saami
in one institution: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, dialectology, comparative
linguistics, and the editing of old manuscripts were all highlighted as particular areas of study.
An area of research particular to the teaching of Basque is that of Basque texts and variations
in Basque Language. This institution also highlighted that they publish in journals.
2.7
Methodology
Commonality in the methodology for teaching was difficult to access, with many areas equally
highlighted. There was an emphasis on linguistics from those institutions teaching Occitan
and Basque. However the institution teaching Flemish highlighted communicative and
grammatical as equally important.
An emphasis on reading was strongly highlighted by those institutions teaching Saami, with
linguistic methodologies also prioritised. Institutions teaching Frisian also placed a stronger
emphasis on reading.
2.8
Texts used in teaching
Institutions provided a detailed and exhaustive list of texts used. Those listed below are a
selection of examples from institutes teaching;
Occitan;
Débutants: Salles-Loustau, Jean (dir) 2004 Ã, C-BEN! Deuxieme année d’occitan Bordeaux:
CRDP, Paris: CNDP, 2004
Salles-Loustau, Jean (dir) 2003 Ã,C-BEN! Premiere année d’occitan Bordeaux: CRDP, Paris:
CNDP, 2004
Patrick Sauzet, Josiane Ubaud, Le Verbe Occitan – Lo Verb occitan. Guide complet de
conjugaison selon les parles languedociens (et lexique de 13000 verbes). Aix-en-Provence:
Ed Edisaud, 1995
Quasern per la 6a, version limousine, CRDP de Montpellier, 2000. D. Decomps, L’occitan
redde e ben: lo lemosin, Omnivox, 1979
Flemish;
Jean-Louis M. Marteel, Het Vlaams Dan Men Ouddersklappen, 1992 Cours de Flamand
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Saami;
Saemesth amma! For South Saami
Nickel, Klaus Peter: Samisk Grammatikk, DAVVI GIRJI 1994
Frisian;
RH Bremmer, An Introduction to Old Frisian – as yet unpublished
Pieter Duijff Fries en Stadsfries 2001
Sorbian;
O Jezyku Luzyczan Prawie Wszystko, Ewa Siatkowska, Timo Meskank, Warszawa 2001
Although comprehensive lists were provided, lecturers commented upon the resources
available e.g.
“The available textbooks are in general written for courses at a much lower speed. We teach
the fundamental grammatical structures in three months, and therefore we must produce our
own material.”
2.9
Resources used
All lecturers are developing their own personal resources, for example developing handouts
from articles in newspapers to create objective based tasks for a range of different reading,
writing, grammatical and comprehension exercises. The use of novels, stories, fairytales and
folklore is used in a small number of institutions. This is further supported in one institution by
providing a native speaker to support and converse with students to further develop areas of
understanding and local pronunciation.
Ranges of materials are used for training in the language laboratory. Laboratory work is also
used to develop listening and speaking skills. – ‘Méthode audio-orale et laboratoire de langue’
2.10
Review of resources used
One respondent would like to see developments in primary and secondary schools reflected
at university level.
“New communicative approaches are used at Primary and Secondary levels, not in
Universities.”
“Adult specific topics and material needed.”
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Many institutions are using internet based systems to support teaching. The demand for
computer based materials was echoed across many of the institutions. Again a lecturer
requests;
“Would like to see computer based materials for communicative training.”
Handouts and old newspaper clippings are fine, but there is evidence from the number of
requests for online and DVD materials that many lecturers want to move forward from paper
based resources in language learning. Nevertheless, other responses also emphasise the
value of more traditional technologies:
A Sorbian lecturer requests
“..old and new books and dictionaries, tourisitic and cultural folders, ephemeral prints, films on
VHS videotape, music and audio dramas on music cassette and compact disc”.
2.11
Study Time Available
Teaching contact time and personal study time is commonly between one and three hours
across all languages. One significant exception is the teaching of Saami in one institution
which provides students with 8 hours contact time and a recommended 32 hours study time
each week.
2.12
Training and Experience
Few institutions offer in-service training and those that do offer more generic training, such as
a staff introduction to the department.
Saami;
“Both the native and non-native teachers of the languages have a long experience and high
qualifications.
2.12
Evaluation
Most institutions provide the opportunity for students to evaluate the language course. Most
through written evaluation sheets and other written and verbal evaluation methods.
2.13
Assessment
Those courses that assess students progress usually do this through examination. A smaller
number access continuously and through project based work.
Students studying Frisian may choose the type of assessment they prefer;
“Students may choose between a formal examination and a written paper relevant to the
course they have attended.”
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References
Celtic, Regional and Minority Languages Abroad Project (CRAMLAP)
http://www.cramlap.org
European Commission 2004 Common European Framework of Reference for Languages
http://culture2.coe.int/portfolio/documents/0521803136txt.pdf
European Commission 2002 Support for Minority Languages in Europe
http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/lang/langmin/support.pdf
European Commission 2003 Promoting Language Learning and Linguistic Diversity:
An Action Plan 2004-2006
http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/doc/official/keydoc/actlang/act_lang_en.pdf
European Union 2000 The Bologna Declaration on the European space for higher education:
an exploration
http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/educ/bologna/bologna.pdf
European Union 2004 Enlargement: the Accession Process
http://europa.eu.int/comm/enlargement/negotiations/accession_process.htm
European Union 2005 Regional and Minority Languages of the European Union
http://europa.eu.int/comm/education/policies/lang/languages/langmin/regmin_en.html
SPEAKC@T online Catalan Course
http://www.intercat.gencat.es/spcat/benvinguda.html
http://www.intercat.gencat.net/Menu_english.swf