Brunei Int. J. of Sci. & Math. Edu., 2010, Vol 2(1), 48-58
ISSN 2076-0868
EFFECTS OF SCHOOL TYPE AND TEACHER GENDER ON
CLASSROOM INTERACTION PATTERNS IN INTEGRATED
SCIENCE CLASSES
Joel O. Eriba, Department of Curriculum & Teaching, Benue State University, Makurdi,
Nigeria, <joeleriba @ yahoo.com>
Emmanuel E. Achor, Department of Curriculum & Teaching, Benue State University,
Makurd, Nigeria, <nuelachor @ yahoo.com>
The study examined classroom interaction patterns of male and female integrated science teachers in all male, all
female and mixed-sex schools in Kogi state of Nigeria. Six schools (two for each type) were selected from
Ankpa education zone of the State. In each of the three types of school, two classes were used, one for the male
teacher and the other for the female teacher. Two observers took record of events in all the classes using
Flanders Interaction Analysis Categories (FIAC). Scott’s phi-coefficient formula was used to estimate intra
observers’ reliability, which gave a value of .67. From the 10 by 10 matrix, percentage was used to analyze the
records of activities for the ten unit categories and the four major or regrouped categories. The result reveals that
irrespective of school type, male teachers generally tended to praise and encourage learners more while the
female teachers had higher records of time for accepting and using ideas of the learners in their classrooms.
Female teachers’ classroom favour higher records of student talk compared to male teachers’ classroom.
Conversely, male teachers’ class favour higher direct teacher talk influence compared to female teachers’ class.
Higher record of silence was observed in female teacher classes than in male teacher classes.
Introduction
The struggle to improve enrolment and interest in science and technology at various levels
of education has been on for quite some time in Nigeria. For instance, the Federal Republic
of Nigeria in the national policy on education (FRN, 2004, P. 38) emphasizes that a greater
proportion of expenditure on university education be devoted to science and technology. It
adds further that not less that 60% of placement (i.e. admission) shall be allocated to science
and science-oriented courses in the conventional universities and not less than 80% in
University of Technology. The situation has become more worrisome to science educators
because nearly after three decades of struggling to attain this target in the nation, meeting
the requirement is still a far cry. Apparently, many learners have not shown interest in
science and those doing it are finding it difficult (Adeyegbe, 1993; Ezeliora, 1999; Njoku,
1995).
Eriba & Achor
49
Nzoku (2003) explains that interest in an object or activity is aroused as a result of
effort to satisfy a felt need. The individual’s need arouses his/her interest or motivates
him/her to take action or to participate in activities that would lead to the satisfaction of the
need. He adds that interest is congruent with motivation, and both constructs are action
oriented, having originated from need. There is therefore an assumed link between what the
science teacher does in the class and how the learners are motivated to learn. It may be more
appropriate to examine what happens in classrooms currently.
More often than not, diagnosis and remedies through research as this are initiated at the
senior secondary level (Guyit, 2002; Kalu, 1997; Moemeke & Omoifo, 2003; Okoli, 1995),
a stage that the learner must have formed their opinions about science and probably
concluded not to offer science. Therefore, the intermediary level, that is, the junior
secondary school where the learners are taught integrated science as a fore taste of the real
science (or all the science subjects) to be offered in the senior secondary level is of interest
in this study. Particularly, one would like to know the kind of interaction that takes place in
the class between the teacher and the learner and the materials. Classroom interaction refers
to a technique consisting of objective and systematic observation of the classroom events for
the study of the teacher’s classroom behavior and the process of interaction going on inside
the classroom.
Audu and Achor (2003) state that interaction in the classroom entails an active
encounter of the teacher and the taught through verbal, gestural and resource instrumentality
to bring about effective communication in a teaching learning process. For both parties to be
actively involved in the teaching-learning, the method in use ought to create opportunity for
the required interaction to take place. Observation over the years tend to point to the fact
that effective delivery of science lessons is in itself a skill that can be acquired by the
teacher to ensure that learning takes place. To get to the basis it may be necessary to go
beyond what previous studies did in Nigeria (Achor & Orji, 2009; Guyit, 2000; Kalu, 1997,
2008; Onimisi, 2006; Okoli, 1998; Ogunkola, 1999; Okebukola, 1985; Udoh, 2008) or
outside Nigeria (Holden, 1993; Sadker & Sadker, 1992) to introduce the dimensions of the
teacher type (i.e. sex of teacher) and the school type (i.e. all male, all female and mixed-sex
schools). Several other studies have examined this along side other variables outside Nigeria
(Duffy, 2001; Hopf & Hatzichristou, 1999; Howe, 1997) but there is the likelihood that
culture and the educational system could make a great difference in the findings across
countries. In Nigeria, those who examined type of school (Kalu, 1997; Uzuegbunam, 1995)
did not take into cognizance the sex of teachers (i.e. sex) that taught a particular type of
school. Similarly, though Onimisi (2006) studied interactions in integrated science, he was
more interested in the kind of training each teacher had (i.e. either Nigeria Integrated
Science Teacher Education Project, i.e., NISTEP trained or non-NISTEP trained teachers)
rather than the sex of teachers. Since previous studies have variously shown that the type of
school and the teachers’ gender do have an influence on a number of variables, it would be
equally appropriate to extend it to interactions in science classrooms especially in Nigeria
that related reports are scarce.
The present study was therefore designed to examine interaction patterns in some
selected all male, all female and mixed sex Nigerian integrated science classrooms taught by
male and female teachers.
Research Questions
The following research questions were raised and addressed in the study:
50
Classroom interaction patterns
1. What are the patterns of classroom interaction among integrated science teachers on
the basis gender and school type?
2. To what extent do the classroom interaction patterns of integrated science teachers
vary across the four main FIAC on the basis of gender and school type?
Methodology
The method adopted in this study is discussed under the design, sample and sampling,
instrument, instrument administration/date collection, and method of data analysis.
Design
This study employed observational method to gather data. Observation was considered
appropriate for the study because what the teacher and the students do in the science class
could only be put on record when the researcher or recorder is physically present to witness
the interactions. Thus the study simply examined the pattern of interactions that took place
in three different integrated science classrooms based on the type of schools (that is, all
male, all female and mixed sex schools).
Sample
The sample of the study consisted of six teachers (3 male and 3 female). These teachers
were from six schools, one from each school. In this way two teachers (one male and one
female) equally represented each school type (all male, two all female and two mixed sex).
All these teachers were trained graduates with 5-6 years of teaching experience and taught
the same integrated science content to 8th grade students. One class for each teacher was
observed by two qualified observers for interaction patterns. These strata were considered
important because interaction at any level could have some social and cultural influences
and therefore the type and background of people that constitute the group could be a factor
in the existing interaction pattern in their classrooms.
Sampling Procedure
Stratified random sampling method was employed to obtain 6 teachers (two schools each
from boys only, girls only and mix sex schools). To allow for comparison, only trained,
graduate, integrated science teachers who had between 5 and 6 years teaching experience
from public schools in Ankpa Education Zone of Kogi State of Nigeria were selected for
use. Three male and 3 female teachers (making a total of 6) out of 11schools considered to
have met the set criteria were again randomly sampled taking into consideration the gender
factor. Thus we had a male and a female teacher who taught in each of the school type. Hat
and draw method was adopted in the sampling and therefore every school that met the
criteria had an equal chance of being selected.
The classes chosen were the junior secondary two (JSSII) or 8 th grade. The decision
to use JSSII was based on the fact that the class was stable. It was neither facing the
problem of being freshly introduced to secondary science as in the case of JSSI (or 7th
grade) nor preparing for any end of course or terminal examination as in the case of JSSIII
(or 9th grade) classes. It was therefore easy to obtain permission of the school authorities to
use them.
Eriba & Achor
51
Content Taught
The content taught during the study was the same curricular topics for that term in all
classes as agreed upon by all participating teachers.
Instrument
The instrument adapted for use in the study is Flander’s Interaction Analysis Categories
(FIAC). It was developed by Flander (1959) at the University of Minnesota.
In FAIC, the total classroom interaction is arranged into four major sections.
a. Indirect teacher-talk influence
b. Direct teacher talk influence
c. Student talk
d. Silence
Details of the categories include:
a. Indirect teacher-talk influence
1. Accepts feeling
2. Praises or encourages
3. Accepts or uses ideas of students
4. Asks questions
b. Direct teacher-tack influence
5. Lecturing
6. Giving directions
7. Criticizing or justifying authority
c. Student talk
8. Response
9. Initiation
d. Silence
10. Silence or confusion.
Details are contained in the original document (Flander, 1970). The categories are meant to
elicit specific behaviours while the teacher is teaching in the class. For instance, under
indirect teacher influence, records were taken on the extent to which the teacher welcomed
student participation by accepting their feelings such as not condemning their contributions
in totality even when it is not very certain.
The Instrument assumed that all interactions in the classroom could be grouped into
these 10 units or 4 major categories, which are all measured by one form of act of verbal
expression or the other. Though non-verbal acts of influence do occur, they are rarely
recorded by interaction analysis. This is supported by the fact that verbal behaviour of the
teacher is consistent with his non-verbal gestures (Chauhan, 1979). Verbal behaviours of the
teachers could be observed with higher reliability. It determines to a large extent the
reactions of the students and, also his/her (i.e. the teacher’s) control of the class, which
could be used to advantage to modify students’ behaviour. This study recorded mainly
verbal behaviours of the teachers and a few identifiable non-verbal behaviours such as
gestures and nodding.
52
Classroom interaction patterns
Data Collection Procedure
The observation data was collected using FIAC from six classes, each taught by a sample
teacher, by two qualified observers. In this way 12 sets of observations data were obtained.
During the data collection, the following rules as recommended by Flander were followed.
There are 14 ground rules put in place by Flander to help in developing consistency in trying
to categorize teacher behaviour. The rules, which were adapted in this study, are available in
most FIAC document for consultations. These rules also include
1. When not certain to which two or more categories a statement belongs, choose the
category that is numerically farthest from category 5.
2. If the primary tone of the teacher’s behavior has been consistently direct or
consistently indirect, do not shift into the opposite classification unless a clear indication of
shift is given by the teacher.
3. The observer must not be concerned with his own biases or with the teacher’s
intent, and so on.
Records of activities of the teacher and learners in the classroom including period of silence
were taken every 3 seconds for a total of 35 minutes for the six classes. What was used for
analysis in this study is a cumulative record of two observers per class giving a total of 12
observations. The observers were trained on how to make observations during science
classroom interaction using Flander’s Interaction Analysis Categorisation instrument. The
observers used pre-prepared tally sheets for records. Each observation took a tally sheet. At
the end, the records from the 12 tally sheets for the 12 observations were collated.
An intra-observers’ reliability was estimated using Scott’s phi-coefficient formula. The
reliability of the two teachers’ coding was found to be 0.7
Analysis Procedure
Since there are 10 unit items of observation on FIAC and as recommended by the author, a
10 by 10 matrix was developed. In this study, percentage was used for the 10 unit items on
sectional basis and for the 4 grouped items. This was done by converting the figure under
each unit item on FIAC into percentages for the four major sections separately and also for
the grouped items on FIAC subsuming the unit items.
Results
Interaction patterns in integrated science lessons taught by male and female teachers in all
male, all female and coeducational schools are presented in Table 1.
In this study, percentage was used for the 10 unit items on sectional basis and for the 4
grouped items. This was done by converting the figure under each unit item on FIAC into
percentages for the four major sections separately and also for the grouped items on FIAC
subsuming the unit items.
Table 1 reveals interaction patterns in classes taught by both male and female teachers
in each of the 10 unit categories. The percentage analyses which are on sectional basis show
clearly minute differences. For instance, while male teacher teaching female classes
(XB=32.6%) and female teacher teaching in mixed-sex classes (YC=38.5%) had higher
interactions for acceptance of feeling, others in the same category are slightly lower. In
general, classes taught by both male and female teachers were found to have recorded one
form of interaction or the other for all categories.
Eriba & Achor
53
Table 1
Grouped Integrated Science Classroom Interaction Patterns by School Type and Sex of
Teacher
S/No Categories
Interaction
XA
XB
XC
YA
YB
YC
Indirect Teacher-Talk Influence
1
Accepts feeling
6
15
16
38
10
25
(26.1) (32.6) (36.4)
(35.9) (30.3)
(38.5)
2
Praises or encourages
7
13
13
12
4
6
(30.4) (28.3) (29.5)
(11.3) (12.1)
(9.2)
3
Accepts or uses ideas
4
8
5
40
12
20
(17.4) (17.4) (11.4)
(37.7) (36.4)
(30.8
4
Asks questions
6
10
10
16
7
14
(26.1) (21.7) (22.7)
(15.15) (21.2)
(21.5)
Total
23
46
44
106
33
65
(100) (100 (100)
(100)
(100)
(100)
Direct Teacher Talk Influence
5
Lecturing
115
72
74
123
93
101
(63.5)
(57.6) (55.2)
(70.3) (50.3)
(60.5)
6
Giving directions
56
38
44
20
80
30
(30.9)
30.4) (32.8)
(11.4) (43.2)
(17.9)
7
CJA
10
15
16
32
12
36
(5.5)
12.0) (11.9)
(18.3)
(6.5)
(21.6)
Total
181
125
134
175
185
167
(100)
(100) (100)
(100) (100)
(100)
Student Talk
8
Response
18
46
36
64
22
40
(90.0)
(93.0) (75.0)
(39.0)
(50.0
(40.8)
9
Initiation
2
4
12
100
22
58
(10.0)
(8.0)
(25.0
(61.0) (50.0)
(59.2)
Total
20
50
48
164
44
98
(100)
(100) (100)
(100) (100)
(100)
Silence
10
Silence or confusion
20
50
48
164
44
5
(100)
(100) (100)
(100) (100)
(100)
Total
20
50
48
164
44
5
(100)
(100) (100)
(100)
(100)
(100)
X=male teacher; Y=female teacher; A= all male class; B=all female class and C=mixed sex class.
E.g. XA means male teacher teaching all male class. CJA = Criticizing or justifying authority
The result of analysis of interactions based on 4 major (or grouped) categories for male and
female teachers in all male, all female and mixed sex classes are presented in Table 2.
Table 2 shows various interaction patterns under indirect teacher talk influence, direct
teacher talk influence, student talk and silence or confusion. Direct teacher talk influence
dominated the 35 minutes lesson across the six classes (XA=80.1%; XB=56.1%; XC=58.3%;
YA=38.0%; YB=59.9%). More records of silence or confusion were generally found in classes
taught by female teachers (YA=3.5%; YB=15.2%; YC=1.5%) compared to classes taught by
54
Classroom interaction patterns
female teachers (XA=0.9%; XB=0.9%; XC=1.7%).The Table also shows records of students talk
as XA=8.8%; XB=22.4%; XC=20.9% for male teacher classes and YA=35.5%; YB=11.2%;
YC=29.2%) for female teacher classes.
Table 2
Grouped Integrated Science Classroom Interaction Patterns by School Type and Sex of Teacher
S/No Categories
Interaction
XA
XB
XC
YA
YB
YC
1
Indirect Teacher Influence
23*
46
44
106
38
65
(10.2)
(20.6)
(19.1)
(23.0)
(10.7)
(19.4)
2
Direct Teacher Influence
181
125
134
175
185
167
(80.1)
(56.1)
(58.3)
(38.0)
(59.8)
(49.9)
3
Student Talk
20
(8.8)
50
(22.4)
48
(20.9)
164
(35.5)
44
(11.2)
98
(29.2)
4
Silence or Confusion
2
(0.9)
2(0.9)
4
(1.7)
16
(3.5)
47
(15.2)
5
(1.5)
22
(100)
* frequency and percentage in parenthesis
223
(100)
230
(100)
461
(100)
309
(100)
335
(100)
Total
Discussion
Striking in the findings is the fact that male teachers tended to praise and encourage learners
more (XA=30.4%; XB=28.3%; XC=29.5%) compared to female teachers (YA=11.3%;
YB=12.1%; YC=9.2%). Conversely, female teachers had higher records of accepting and
using the ideas of the learners (YA=37.7%; YB=36.4%; YC=30.8%) compared to the male
teachers (XA=17.4%; XB=17.4%; XC=11.4%). The first finding implies that the male
teachers irrespective of school type encouraged learners’ actions or behaviour; bringing
jokes that could release tension and as well node their heads indicating approval or simply
saying go on. These expressions are necessary to have a conducive teaching-learning
atmosphere in a science classroom. Secondly, men are generally more outspoken, and easily
take position on matters like acceptance of views of others. On the other hand, ladies could
be shy or be intimidated by the environment depending on the level of maturity or may even
be too conscious of not making the class so loose for learners in order to avoid the problem
of loss of class control. Seymour (1995) found that (even while in school) females prefer cooperative learning to individualistic learning. The female teachers probably saw the science
classroom as another opportunity for co-operative learning in which case clarifying,
building or developing ideas suggested by learners are seen as integral part of the lesson.
This seems to disagree with an earlier position that female teachers are mainly found to be
more sensitive and to give more warming to students about behavioural problems than male
teachers (Hopf & Hatzichristou, 1999). This finding is similar to that of Ilatov, Shamai,
Hertz-Lazarovita and Mayer-Young (1998) in Israel who found that gender, academic
composition and teacher communication style are important factors in teacher-student
interactions. Shomoossi, Amouzadeh and Ketabi (2008) in Iran similarly found that
interaction patterns are gender related to some extent.
Eriba & Achor
55
A reasonable and fairly even record of time were observed for both male and female
teacher classes in the area of accepting feeling of the learners and asking questions
irrespective of school type. Thus, they accept and clarify attitudes on the feeling tone of the
learners in a non-threatening manner. This implies that their classrooms were friendly
giving the learners opportunity to express their understanding even when they are not sure
of the answer to be given as correct. In the same vein, learners had opportunity to answer
questions raised on content or procedures by the teachers. This therefore means that both
male and female teachers considered to a reasonable extent the need to make the learners
feel belong and by so doing carried them along in their classrooms.
Under direct teacher talk influence, the decreasing order of activities or interactions
during the 35 minute lesson for both male and female teacher classes is
lecturing

giving directions

criticism or justifying authority.
This indicates that more time was spent lecturing. This finding is in agreement with Hodges
(2001) who in a situation analysis by UNICEF observed that what predominates amongst
Nigerian classrooms from primary through post graduate level is the unidirectional lecture
mood with minimal use of materials, questioning by teachers or pupil-teacher interactions.
A higher percentage of time of responses was recorded by the learners with male
teachers in class (XA=90.0%; XB=92.0%; XC-=75.9%) compared to the female teachers’
class (YA=39.0%; YB=50.0%; YC=40.8%). Conversely, more talks were initiated by the
learners in the female teacher classes (YA=61.0%; YB=50.0%; YC-=59.2%) compared to
what happened in the male teacher classes (XA=10.0%; XB=8.0% XC=25.0%). This point
stresses the fact that irrespective of school type, students generally respond more to
questions in male teacher classes compared to female teacher classes. This has a link with
earlier finding in this study under indirect teacher talk influence whereby male teachers
praised and encouraged learners to participate actively during the lesson by asking,
answering questions and so on. And since from that section also, female teachers had high
record of accepting and using ideas of the learners, it is correspondingly appropriate that
students in such classes irrespective of school type were more at ease to express their own
ideas and initiate new topics or opinions and probably went beyond existing classroom
structure. Female teachers are mainly found to be more sensitive and to give more warming
to students about behavioural problems than male teachers (Hopf & Hatzchristou, 1999) and
this appears to be the case in the present study.
The second aspect of this discussion takes a look at what happened in every major
category in FIAC as in Table 2. There are four major categories of indirect teacher talk
influence, direct teacher talk influence, student talk and silence. Again, lecture dominated
classes of the male teachers which runs contrary to what happened in female teacher classes
may have influenced the differences in their classes under direct teacher talk influence
(XA=80.1%; XB=56.1%;XC=49.9% for female teachers and YA=38.0%; YB=59.9%
YC=49.9%) generally. On the average, students tended to talk more in the female teacher
classes (YA=35.5%; YB=14.2%; YC=29.2% compared to male teacher classes (XA=8.8%;
XB=22.4%; XC=20.9%) except when the female teachers were in the female classes, a
finding that could be attributed to lack of tolerance or attraction for same sex, which may
have introduced withdrawal.
There appear to be a link between allowing students to talk in class such as responding
to teachers or expressing their own ideas, opinions or a new line of thought and extent of
silence or confusion observed in class. This appears to have reflected clearly in female
56
Classroom interaction patterns
teacher classes. Thus negligible period of silence or confusion was observed in female
teacher classes where the learners were given opportunity for active participation. Granted
that it was silence records rather than confusion, one would expect that for students to be
able to answer questions and initiate ideas in a given science classroom there will be
observance of wait time. Wait time is required for effective teaching and learning in science
classrooms (Audu & Achor, 2003). According to the authors, wait time variable is related to
question-answer /interaction in teaching learning process that is inquiry-oriented. It is the
length of time between teacher questions and take off response from a named student or
between the time a student asks question or responds and when the teacher responds. A wait
time of about 6 seconds may be necessary in mixed ability classes as used in this study.
Conclusion and Recommendations
Within the limitations of this study, it can be concluded that the patterns of classroom
interactions in Integrated Science varies more with the teacher’s gender rather the type of
school. Accordingly, male teacher classes favour generally higher direct teacher talk
influence than female teacher classes. Conversely, female teacher classes favour higher
student talk generally than male teacher classes. Thirdly, more time was taken for silence in
female teacher classes than in male teacher classes except in mixed sex classes.
On the bases of these conclusions, the paper recommends that once in a while, video
taped lessons of Integrated Science teachers should be made and thereafter played for self
assessment. This allows for analysis, criticism and identification of categories that have
been over or under emphasized. Secondly, teachers in training hardly add this kind of
detailed analysis to their microteaching experience. Until there is a repetition, correction and
review of expected teaching pattern, it might be difficult for new entrants to keep to it.
Thirdly, the high direct teacher talk influence for male teachers connote that they need to be
charged periodically through in house seminar to use less of lecturing in such a junior class
as used in this study. It may be necessary that subsequent posting of teachers to schools may
be guided by teacher’s gender and school type.
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