TEACHER MOTIVATION AND INCENTIVES IN RWANDA:
A SITUATIONAL ANALYSIS AND RECOMMENDED PRIORITY
ACTIONS
PAUL BENNELL
with
JOHNSON NTAGARAMBA
DECEMBER 2008
Final draft: strictly confidential
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
ACRONYMS
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
vi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
vii
1
INTRODUCTION
1
1.1 STUDY BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES
1
1.2 STUDY DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
2
1.3 REPORT STRUCTURE
3
THE TEACHING PROFESSION: AN OVERVIEW
4
2.1 SCHOOLS AND ENROLMENTS
4
2.2. TEACHERS
5
THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION
13
3.1 VOCATIONAL COMMITMENT
13
TEACHER MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOUR
16
4.1 MOTIVATION LEVELS
16
4.2 MOTIVATION TRENDS AND PATTERNS
17
4.3 TEACHER BEHAVIOUR
18
PAY AND OTHER BENEFITS
20
5.1 PUBLICLY FUNDED SCHOOLS
20
5.2 PRIVATE SCHOOLS
23
5.3 HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE
24
5.4 INTERNATIONAL PAY COMPARISONS
25
WORKING AND LIVING CONDITIONS
27
6.1 OVERVIEW
27
6.2 TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
29
TEACHER COMPETENCE
32
7.1 PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION
32
7.2 QUALIFYING UPGRADING
32
7.3 CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
33
HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
36
8.1 STAFFING SITUATION
36
8.2 PAY AND OTHER BENEFITS
36
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
39
9.1 TEACHER MOTIVATION IS A TOP PRIORITY
39
9.2 FOCUS ON NON-PECUNIARY MOTIVATORS
40
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
i
Figures
Figure 2.1
Experience profile of primary and secondary school teachers, 2007
Figure 2.2
Percentage under-qualified secondary school teachers at government and libre
7
subsidie schools by district
8
Figure 2.3
Average teachers of experience among primary school teachers by district, 2007
9
Figure 2.4
Average years of experience among secondary school teachers by district, 2007
9
Figure 2.5
Scatter plot of learner-teacher ratios and average years of teaching experience
among primary school by district, 2007
Figure 2.6
10
Scatter plot of % qualified and learner-teacher ratio among secondary schools
by district, 2007
11
Figure 2.7
Scatter plots of teachers and enrolments at public secondary schools, 2007
12
Figure 4.1
Percentage of teachers indicating that they would like to change schools by survey
district, October 2008
Figure 5.1
17
Monthly household expenditure of A0 and A2 teachers with and without secondary
income and no other wage income earners in the household
Figure 5.3
Median monthly household expenditure among A2 teachers in the 10 survey
districts, October 2008
Figure 5.4
22
24
Average monthly income of qualified primary school teachers in selected African
countries 2004-2006 (US$ per month)
25
Figure 6.1
Primary school learner-teacher ratios by district, 2007
27
Figure 6.2
Learner-teacher ratios at public secondary schools by district, 2007
28
Figure 7.1
Percentage of A2 and A0/1 teachers who have undertaken at least one INSET
activity during the 12 months by survey district, October 2008
Figure 7.2
34
Mean INSET days for A0 and A2 teachers by survey district during the
last 12 months, October 2008
35
Net monthly pay of teaching staff at public higher education institutions, 2008
37
Table 2.1
Size distribution of public primary and secondary schools, 2007
4
Table 2.2
Teachers on the government payroll by district, mid-2008
6
Table 2.3
Percentage female teachers in the 10 survey districts
10
Table 2.4
Percentage single teachers at survey schools by district, October 2008
11
Figure 8.1
Tables
ii
Table 3.1
Agreement rates of statements concerning primary reasons for opting for
teacher training, October 2008 (rounded percentages)
Table 3.2
Percentage distribution of the overall S6 examination mark among teachers by
qualification level, October 2008
Table 3.3
14
Percentage English and Mathematics grade distribution in the S6 examination
by qualification level, October 2008
Table 3.4
14
Percentage of teachers responding negatively to the question ‘do you expect to
be a teacher in five years time?’ (rounded percentages)
Table 4.1
17
Personal statements on current level of job satisfaction, working conditions and
pay, June-July 2008 (rounded percentages)
Table 4.3
18
Primary and secondary school teacher ratings of trends in job satisfaction and
standard of living, October 2008 (rounded percentages)
Table 4.5
19
Teacher absenteeism rates during the previous month by reason and type of school,
October 2008 (%)
Table 5.1
18
Agreement rates of general statements about teacher absenteeism and time-keeping,
June 2008
Table 4.6
14
Agreement rates to general statements among teacher motivation , June-July, 2008
(rounded percentages)
Table 4.2
13
19
Median net monthly basic and supplementary income for primary and secondary
school teachers, October 2008 (RwF ‘000 rounded)
20
Table 5.2
Teacher and other civil servant net monthly pay by qualification grade, late 2008
21
Table 5.3
Median monthly household expenditure by main category among teachers, October
2008 (RwF ‘000 rounded)
Table 5.4
24
Primary school teacher pay scales in Lesotho, Malawi and Mozambique, 2004-05
(US$/year)
Table 6.1
26
Teaching loads for secondary school teachers in selected countries, 2003
(hours/week)
Table 6.2
29
Agreement rates to general statements concerning the school environment,
June-July 2008 (rounded percentages)
Table 6.3
30
Agreement rates to general statements about teacher management, June-July, 2008
(rounded percentages)
Table 7.1
31
Personal statements on qualifications upgrading and in-service training,
June-July 2008 (rounded percentages)
Table 7.2
33
Percentage of teachers by qualification level attending in-service training workshops
and mean duration during the last 12 months (rounded percentages)
iii
34
References
46
Annex 1: People Interviewed
47
Annex Tables
Table A.1
Primary schools, learners and teachers by district, 2007
49
Table A.2
Secondary schools, learners and teachers by district, 2007
50
iv
ACRONYMS
BNEP
CPD
DFID
DHS
EMIS
FTI
HEI
KHI
KIE
KIST
LTR
MoE
MICS
MIFOTRA
NUR
SACCO
SCR
SNEC
SNEP
TCR
TSC
VSO
Bureau National de l’Enseignment Protestant
Continuous professional development
Department for International Development
Demographic Health Survey
Education management information system
Fast Track Initiative
Higher education institution
Kigali Health Institute
Kigali Institute of Education
Kigali Institute of Science and Technology
Learner-teacher ratio
Ministry of Education
Multi-Indicator Cluster Survey
Ministry of Public Service
National University of Rwanda
Savings and Credit Cooperative Organisation
Student-class ratio
Secretariat National pour l’Enseignement Catholique
Syndicate National de l’Enseignment Primaire
Teacher-class ratio
Teaching Service Commission
Voluntary Service Overseas
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We gratefully acknowledge the excellent support and assistance from the many people from both
inside and outside the Ministry of Education in the preparation of this report. Emmanuel
Kaviziya and his team completed the data entry for the teacher questionnaire survey in a timely
and professional manner.
vi
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This study comprehensively examines teacher motivation and incentives in Rwanda. The main
expected ‘outcome’, as stated in the terms of reference, is a ‘realistic assessment of the current
motivational factors affecting teachers in the districts and justification for adopting a different
system’.
The findings of the study are presented in nine chapters. Chapter 2 provides a brief overview of
the school system and the key features of the teaching force, including patterns of teacher
deployment. Chapters 3 and 4 assess the overall attractiveness of the teaching profession and the
level and trends in teacher motivation. The following three chapters look in more detail at the
main determinants of teacher motivation, namely pay and other benefits, living and working
conditions, and teacher training and continuous professional development. The situation in the
higher education sector is briefly reviewed in chapter 8. The main conclusions and
recommendations of the study are presented in chapter 9.
Teacher deployment: The uneven deployment of teachers in Rwanda is a major incentive issue.
Despite its small geographical size, the spatial distribution of teachers across the country with
respect to key teacher characteristics (especially qualification, experience and gender) is
markedly uneven. The main reasons for this situation are the unattractive working and living
conditions in many rural schools. Staffing imbalances across schools, sectors and districts are
particularly acute among the secondary school teaching force.
The attractiveness of the teaching profession: A high level of vocational commitment is a key
feature of all professions. In spite of poor pay and working conditions, this commitment appears
to be surprisingly high among the teaching profession in Rwanda. However, the findings of the
teacher questionnaire survey show that teaching is not a first-choice career option for as many as
one-third of primary and one-quarter of secondary school teachers The occupational status of
primary school teachers is lower than secondary school teachers mainly because they are paid
very little and are relatively poorly trained. Teaching is still generally quite well respected in
most communities in Rwanda, especially among secondary school teachers.
Teacher motivation and behaviour: The teacher survey reveals that sizeable proportions of
teachers are concerned about poor job satisfaction and motivation. In particular, only one-half of
primary school and two-thirds of secondary school teacher respondents agreed with the general
statement that ‘teachers at my school are well motivated’. With regard to trends, almost 40% of
teacher respondents at publicly funded schools agreed with the general statement that ‘teachers at
my school are increasingly de-motivated’, which is worryingly high.
Teachers who are dissatisfied with their jobs and are poorly motivated are not likely to perform
well and may even behave unprofessionally. Teacher absenteeism is quite high, but attendance
at training courses and official duties account for a large proportion of absences, especially at
secondary schools. Poor timekeeping among teachers does not appear to be a serious issue at
most schools.
vii
Pay and other benefits: The most noticeable features of the teacher pay structure at publicly
funded schools in Rwanda are; (i) there is no pay progression within each of the three main
qualification groups; (ii) non-education university graduates earn over 50% less than education
graduates, which is likely to result in lower retention rates among this group; and (iii) there is no
income differential between the classroom teacher and the head teacher. The total net basic
income of the A2 primary school teacher is around RwF40,000 (US$73) per month, which is far
below a living wage let alone the standard of living expected for a professional level civil
servant. The recently introduced ‘annual performance bonus’ for primary school teachers of
RwF12,500 per month has increased net pay by around one-third. Even so, the majority of
primary school teachers are living below the official poverty line. Trained A0 university graduate
secondary school teachers earn around three times more than the A2 primary school teacher,
which is a large income differential both in absolute terms and compared to other countries.
Around 15% of A0 teachers and 20% of A1 and A2 teacher respondents indicate that they earn
additional income outside of their normal job.
In real terms, teacher pay has declined precipitously since the late 1980s. Taking into account
increases in the cost of living, the starting income of an A2 teacher in 2007 was, in real terms,
nearly eight times less than the starting income in 1990. With regard to likely future trends, the
scope for significant pay increases for teachers on the government payroll is likely to remain
limited. The current fiscal situation is particularly tight.
Working and living conditions: The rapid expansion of primary schooling in Rwanda since the
mid 1990s has been achieved through a marked intensification of the teacher’s workload. Even
by African standards, the workload of primary school teachers is exceptionally high. The
workload norm in government and libre subsidie secondary schools is 24 periods per week out of
a 40-period school week. This norm is widely adhered to, but teachers in most secondary schools
teach for only four days a week.
While the school environment is challenging in Rwanda, around three-quarters of teacher
respondents agreed with the general statement that ‘the working environment at this school is
adequate’. Rural teachers tend to have higher teaching loads but lower pay because there are no
parental motivation primes/contributions, no additional teachers are paid for by the PTA, and
opportunities to earn secondary income are considerably less. They also often have to travel
quite long distances to school even when they are from that district.
Teacher competence: Well trained teachers are likely to be better motivated than poorly trained
teachers. However, there are widespread concerns that pre-service teacher education in Rwanda
is too academic and theoretical with the bulk of lecturers having little or no direct experience of
the day to day challenges of classroom teaching. If teachers are not adequately prepared, this
makes it that much more difficult for them to cope, especially during the early stages of their
career, which in turn could well have a negative impact on motivation.
Only around 10% of teacher questionnaire respondents have completed or are currently
undertaking further studies in order to acquire additional qualifications. This is a very low
percentage compared to most other countries in Africa. The bulk of this studying is done
viii
independently with no formal support or guidance from MoE. Only 8% of the survey teachers
have ever been granted study leave.
The provision of regular, high quality in-service training is essential in order to ensure the
attainment of consistently high teaching standards. However, around 60% of A0 and A1 teacher
respondents and 75% of A2 teachers rated the current availability of in-service training as ‘very
poor’ or ‘poor’. In overall terms, only around one-third of teachers attended at least one INSET
activity during the last year and the incidence of training activities varies considerably from one
district to another.
Higher education institutions: In the time available, it was not possible to undertake a detailed
assessment of motivation levels and trends among lecturing staff at the six publicly funded
higher education institutions in Rwanda. However, given pay and working conditions, it appears
that the overall motivation of lecturers is quite low and possibly declining. While the staffing
situation at the publicly funded HEIs varies quite considerably, given relatively low salaries
(compared to those paid by private HEIs and the private sector in general), they all face major
challenges in retaining academic staff on a long term basis. Pay and other benefits are set by
MIFOTRA and are uniform across the six publicly funded HEIs. Expatriate salaries at the public
HEIs are not high by international standards. The scope for salary supplementation varies
appreciably from one HEI to another. Teaching loads are not particularly heavy at most of the
HEIs.
RECOMMENDATIONS
There is no realistic prospect of sizeable pay increases (in real terms) for teachers in the
foreseeable future. This highlights, therefore, the importance of trying to improve non-salary
material benefits for teachers as well as enhancing more intrinsic, non-material motivators, in
particular pre-service teacher education, continuous professional development, improved teacher
management, and greater professional solidarity and support. The report makes the following
eight main recommendations, which build on the MoE’s ongoing efforts to improve teacher
motivation.
1.
Strengthen human resources planning and management
There is an urgent need to improve the human resources planning and management in the
education sector. MoE should, therefore, develop and implement a long-medium human resource
development strategy for the teaching profession, which covers all areas include pay and career
progression, working and living conditions and continuous professional development. Even
though the government cannot afford to introduce all measures in the short term, it is still
important that teachers are aware of government’s strong commitment to professionalise
teaching and ensure that teachers are properly remunerated and trained as soon as possible.
Another key component of the strategy is to analyse ways of improving the utilisation of
teachers, which could result in major costs savings.
ix
2.
Improve the quality and status of primary school teachers
Steps are being taken to improve the status and quality of primary school teachers, but more
should be done. In particular, it is crucially important that better educated and trained teachers
are employed at primary schools. Well trained university graduate and non-graduate (diploma
level) teachers would be key change agents and motivators who could take the lead in
introducing effective school-based CPD and improving school management. It is recommended,
therefore, that MoE begins to employ a limited number of university education graduates in
primary schools.
It is also recommended that pre-service, diploma level teacher education is introduced for
primary schooling immediately and that the current certificate-level teacher training in the uppersecondary TTCs be rapidly phased out. All primary and lower secondary teacher trainees should
enrol at newly established Colleges of Education and study for the same qualification, namely
the Basic Education Teaching Diploma. Relatively large colleges of education should be
established with at least 2,500-3,000 enrolments in order that all subject areas can be adequately
catered for and economies of scale can be reaped. It is also essential that the most able and
committed serving A2 primary school teachers are given the opportunity to upgrade their
qualifications to the diploma and even degree level.
3.
Create an effective system of continuous professional development.
An effective system of continuous professional development should be institutionalised within
the MoE at both central and district levels. The MoE should, therefore, develop its own capacity
to provide training as well as contract other institutions to provide training services. It is
recommended that a CPD Advisor should be appointed in each district who would be responsible
for developing a CPD strategy and plan for each district as well as directly facilitating district
and school-level training activities, especially in teaching methods. The possibility of
introducing school clusters for CPD should also be explored.
4.
Institutionalise proper school management structures with effective management
development and support.
School management urgently needs to be professionalised. Three sets of measures are required.
First, school management teams should be established with head teacher, deputy head teacher,
and heads of departments. Secondly, school management posts should be graded according to
school size and school managers should be paid substantially higher salaries than classroom
teachers. School managers should also have reduced teaching loads. And thirdly, the MoE should
create a cadre of fulltime school management advisers whose main responsibility is to ensure
comprehensive management training provision. It is recommended, therefore, that a national
school management development programme is established with a full-time staff of two-three
managers and experts based at MoE head office and, initially at least, one school management
adviser in each of the six regions.
x
5.
Provide universal access to subsidised housing loans for teachers
In the absence of large pay increase, the provision of long-term, subsidised housing loans is
likely to be the single most effective measure to improve the livelihoods of teachers, and
especially primary school teachers. It is recommended, therefore, that the feasibility of
establishing a housing loan scheme for teachers, possibly based on some kind of revolving fund
with subsidised interest rates, should be carefully examined.
6.
Reduce the workload of teachers, especially in primary schools
Teachers in Rwanda are ‘overburdened’. It is important, therefore, to try to reduce the workload
of teachers as quickly as possible. MoE is committed to phasing out double shifting in primary
schools almost completely by 2015 as well as reducing class sizes. The school day itself should
also be shortened to no more than six hours in primary schools and the curriculum should be
rationalised.
7.
Improve the staffing situation in rural schools with weak qualification and
experience profiles and persistent teacher vacancies
Rectifying imbalances in the spatial deployment of teachers is a top priority. Research is needed
in order to identify the hardest-to-staff schools and sectors and also to evaluate the costeffectiveness of possible interventions, which target both push and pull factors. A teacher
staffing index should be developed, which is based on key staffing indicators. The current
staffing norm formulae should be reviewed so as to ensure a more uniform and thus equitable
deployment of teachers. It is also recommended that MoE takes greater control over the posting
of newly appointed teachers.
8.
Strengthen the professional organisation of teachers
The professional organisation of teachers in Rwanda needs to be considerably strengthened. It is
recommended, therefore, that a National Teacher Council is established with chapters at the
regional and district levels. A small national secretariat would be responsible for the publication
of a quarterly teacher’s newspaper, the broadcasting of a regular radio programme for teachers,
the management of a national teacher award scheme, and generally promote opportunities for
teachers to attend professional meetings, seminars, etc.
xi
1.
INTRODUCTION
1.1
STUDY BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES
1.1.1 Study context
1.
The Government of Rwanda (GoR) recognises that the achievement of Vision 2020
hinges on the development of highly competent, world class human resources, particularly in
advanced technology, knowledge-intensive growth sectors. The education sector and, in
particular, teachers are at the forefront of this effort. It is essential, therefore, that teachers are
adequately motivated to deliver high quality educational services throughout the country. To
this end, a key goal of the current national Education Sector Strategic Plan is to ‘improve the
status of teachers and provide incentives to increase motivation’ (p. 3).
2.
There are widespread concerns that school teachers in Rwanda lack adequate
incentives. As the appraisal report of the Fast Track Initiative points out, ‘there is no system
to support and motivate teachers in the classroom’ (FTI, 2007, p.10). The declining quality of
education in Rwanda has been widely attributed to ‘the low calibre of teachers’, but it may
also be the consequence of low commitment levels. To redress this situation, GoR and, in
particular, the Ministry of Education (MoE) are currently introducing a variety of monetary
and non-monetary measures to improve teacher motivation. The MoE, along with its
international partners, want to ensure that the ministry adopts the most cost-effective strategy
for improving teacher motivation. Consequently, they decided to commission an external
review in order to analyse the current situation and make practical and realistic
recommendations about what could be done to increase levels of teacher job satisfaction and
commitment.
1.1.2 Terms of Reference
3.
This study comprehensively examines teacher motivation and incentives in Rwanda.
The main study ‘outcomes’, as stated in the Terms of Reference, are follows:



A realistic assessment of the current motivational factors affecting teachers in the
districts and justification for adopting a different system
The development of a generic model for motivation for teachers based on financial
and non-financial incentives, taking into account financing frameworks and national
budget projections.
Mode of implementation of the model in line with the decentralisiation policy of GoR.
The main tasks of the study include the an analysis of the teacher pay structure and the living
conditions and basic needs of teachers drawing where appropriate on ‘good practice’ from
countries in the Africa region and beyond.
1
1.2
STUDY DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION
1.2.1 Data collection and analysis
4.
Information on all aspects of teacher motivation and incentives was collected. The
major data collection activities were as follows:

Interviews with all departmental directors and other key personnel in the Ministry of
Education and other key ministries and organisations, including the Ministries of
Finance and Public Service, four higher education institutions (KHI, KIE, KIST and
NUR), one college of education, the National Institute of Statistics, National Union of
Primary School Teachers, the Catholic and Protestant education secretariats, and the
main international partners of MoE. The full list of interviewees is presented at
Annex B.

Visits to a representative selection of eight primary and secondary schools and five
district education offices in order to discuss a range of pertinent issues relating to
teacher commitment and motivation, and teacher deployment, workloads and other
staffing matters.

A questionnaire survey of teachers at a random sample of 60 schools in 10 districts
(two districts per province). The questionnaire covers all aspects of teacher motivation
and incentives. See annex C. A total of 550 teachers completed the questionnaire.

Analysis of all available statistical data, in particular, the 2007 School Census, the
2007 school survey conducted by EMIS, and MIFOTRA payroll data.

Review of all relevant reports and other documentation including the Teacher
Development and Management Policy, the Education Sector Strategic Plan (ESSP),
the proceedings of the Joint Education Sector Review, the education public
expenditure review and the 2003 study by VSO on teacher morale and motivation in
Rwanda.
5.
Most of the required data was successfully obtained. However, much of the requested
school-level EMIS data was not available in the required format, which meant that detailed
analysis of teacher deployment and utilisation was not possible.
2
1.2.2 Study team
6.
The study was conducted by Dr. Paul Bennell, Senior Partner, Knowledge and Skills
for Development, Brighton, United Kingdom. His national counterpart was Mr. Johnson
Ntagaramba, Teaching Service Commission, MoE. Data collection was undertaken during a
two-week period in late October 2008 which was followed by two weeks of data analysis and
report writing. The main findings and recommendations of the first draft of the report were
discussed at meetings of the senior management group in MoE as well as representatives of
the main international partners in late November 2008, which were attended by Dr. Bennell.
The report was revised in the light of comments and suggestions made at these meetings.
1.3
REPORT STRUCTURE
7.
The findings of the study are presented in nine chapters. Chapter 2 provides a brief
overview of the school system and the key features of the teaching force. Chapters 3 and 4
present the main findings of the study with regard to the attractiveness of the teaching
profession and the level and trends in teacher motivation. The following three chapters look
in more detail and the main determinants of teacher motivation, namely pay and other
benefits (chapter 5), living and working conditions (chapter 6), teacher education and
continuous professional development (chapter 7). The situation in the higher education sector
is briefly reviewed in chapter 8. The main recommendations of the study are presented in
chapter 9.
3
2.
THE TEACHING PROFESSION: AN OVERVIEW
8.
This chapter provides a brief overview of the school system and teaching profession
in Rwanda. Information from a variety of sources has been drawn upon including the annual
school questionnaire, the 2007 school census, and payroll data from MIFOTRA. As will be
discussed below, not all this information is consistent.
2.1
SCHOOLS AND ENROLMENTS
2.1.1 Primary education
9.
Primary school enrolments have increased rapidly from 1.27 million in 1997 to 2.15
million in 2007. The gross enrolment rate increased from 88% to 152% during the same
period. Private schools account for only around 1% of primary education enrolments. There
were 2,370 registered primary schools in late 2007. Primary schools are quite large in
Rwanda; 30% have more than 1000 learners (see table 2.1).
Table 2.1: Size distribution of public primary and secondary schools, 2007
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
School size
Number
Learners
%
Number
Learners
(learners)
schools
('000)
Learners
schools
('000)
1-250
46
8
4.1
211
28
251-500
341
138
7.0
152
56
501-750
644
404
20.6
84
51
751-1000
533
461
23.5
17
15
1001-1500
516
620
31.6
11
13
1501-2000
143
241
12.3
2
3
2000>
40
92
4.7
0
0
Total
2263
1964
100
477
166
Source: 2007 school census
%
learners
16.9
33.7
30.7
9.0
7.8
1.8
0
100
10.
High repetition and low completion rates are a striking feature of the primary
education system in Rwanda, which are a consequence of pervasive poverty coupled with
poor quality education. Repetition rates have, however, declined from 29% in 1999 to 18% in
2006. The primary school completion rate is among the lowest in Africa.1 The official
completion rate for primary schooling was only 52% in 2007.2 According to the 2005
Demographic and Health Survey (DHS), 6.3% of children aged 10-14 had never attended
school.
1
2
According to UNESCO statistics, it is only lower in Burkina Faso, Chad, and Niger. Only around onequarter of children do not complete primary school in Kenya and Tanzania.
This may be over-stated. Detailed analysis of recent household surveys (especially the Living
Standards and Expenditure survey and DHS in 2005) would provide more robust estimates. The Grade
1 to 5 dropout rate, as reported by the MICS survey, was only 23% in 2000.
4
2.1.2 Secondary education
11.
Secondary school enrolments have increased from 105,000 in 1998 to 267,000 in
2007. However, the gross enrolment rate based on the DHS was still only 6.9% in 2005
(urban 20.7% and rural 4.5%). This is much lower than the MoE estimate of 20.5% in 2007.
12.
There were 643 secondary schools in 2007 (405 government and libre subsidie and
238 private) Private schools have consistently accounted for around 40% of secondary school
enrolments during the last decade. The MoE has only limited control over these schools with
respect to teacher pay, utilisation and other employment issues. Secondary schools are
generally smaller than primary schools; according to the 2007 school census, only 23% have
more than 500 learners (see table 2.1).
13.
The creation of basic schools and the rapid expansion of lower secondary education
(tronc commun) will place very considerable additional strains on the education system,
including teachers. A total of 245 community secondary schools are currently operational.
The ‘integration’ of lower secondary schools with primary schools and their ‘disarticulation’
from the upper secondary phase has been a major challenge in those African countries that
have attempted this type of restructuring of their school systems.
2.2
TEACHERS
2.2.1 Numbers and key characteristics
14.
The MIFOTRA payroll data base3 is the most reliable source of information on
teacher employment at publicly funded schools. There were 35,953 (30,070 primary and
5,883 secondary4) school teachers at government and libre subsidie schools in mid 2008 (see
table 2.2).5 This does not include 2,000 odd contract teachers at primary schools who are
paid out of the student per capitation grant by district education offices. In addition,
according to MoE data, there were 5,071 teachers employed by private secondary schools in
20076. The ESSP envisages a rapid expansion in the size of the teaching force; from 30,637
in 2006 to 41,883 in 2012 for primary school teachers and from 7,818 in 2006 to 15,712 in
2012 for secondary school teachers.
3
4
5
6
There is no reliable information on the number of ‘ghost’ teachers on the government payroll. It does
not appear, however, that this is a major issue. The proposed public expenditure tracking survey for the
education sector in 2009 will be able to provide robust data.
The official MoE figure for secondary teacher employment at publicly funded schools is 7,032 for
2007, which would appear to be a sizeable over-estimate. The TSC data base indicates that there 6,036
public funded secondary school teachers in early 2008, which is quite close to the MIFOTRA figure.
Payment of salaries has been decentralised to the district level since July 2008.
Figures for the number of teachers at private primary schools are not presented.
5
Table 2.2: Teachers on the government payroll by district, mid 2008
DISRICT
PRIMARY
BUGESERA
1007
BURERA
1208
GAKENKE
1183
GASABO
822
GATSIBO
1015
GICUMBI
1194
GISAGARA
792
HUYE
937
KAMONYI
1065
KARONGI
1105
KAYONZA
773
KICUKIRO
603
KIREHE
800
MUHANGA
1184
MUSANZE
1238
NGOMA
852
NGORORERO
1107
NYABIHU
1339
NYAGATARE
1002
NYAMAGABE
1113
NYAMASHEKE
1332
NYANZA
869
NYARUGENGE
592
NYARUGURU
870
RUBAVU
1031
RUHANGO
992
RULINDO
948
RUSIZI
1221
RUTSIRO
1063
RWAMAGANA
813
Grand Total
30070
Source: MIFOTRA
SECONDARY
112
175
214
77
224
248
231
234
110
255
160
107
95
204
221
279
238
231
151
244
290
167
175
178
223
272
215
209
148
196
5883
15.
The number of primary school teachers has increased from 26,200 in 1999 and from
2,875 for secondary school teachers. The proportion of female primary and school teachers
has remained roughly constant at 55% during the last decade while it has increased slightly
from 23% to 26% for secondary school teachers. Only 49% of primary school teachers were
qualified in 1999 compared to 98% in 2007. The corresponding figures for secondary school
teachers are 33% and 54% respectively. Despite this increase, Rwanda cannot expect to
become a high-skill country with such a sizeable proportion of poorly educated and trained
secondary school teachers.
6
Figure 2.1: Experience profile of primary and secondary school teachers, 2007
45
40
35
% teachers
30
25
Primary
Secondary
20
15
10
5
0
<5
6-10.
11-15.
16-20.
21-25
26-30
30-35
36-40
40>
16.
A large majority of teachers in Rwanda is inexperienced, which highlights the need
for good quality mentoring and professional support; over 70% of primary and 60% of
secondary school teachers have less than 10 years experience (see figure 2.1). Almost 10% of
secondary school teachers are foreigners, mainly from the Democratic Republic of Congo.
Nearly one in five secondary school teachers in Kigali Ville is an expatriate and one in six in
the Western Region. In Rusizi District, one-quarter of teachers are expatriates.
2.2.2 Teacher deployment
17.
Despite its small geographical size, the spatial distribution of teachers across the
country with respect to key teacher characteristics (qualification, experience and gender) is
markedly uneven. The main reason for this is are the unattractive working and living
conditions in many rural schools. This is, therefore, a major incentives issue, which needs to
tackled in a comprehensive and systematic manner.
18.
Staffing imbalances across schools, sectors and districts are particularly acute among
secondary school teachers. More than 80% of secondary school teachers have only the A2
qualification in Kirehe and Nyaruguru Districts whereas this figure is less than 25% in Kigali
Ville (see figure 2.2).7 The experience from other countries in Africa suggests that the move
away from the centralised postings of secondary teachers to decentralised recruitment by each
district could aggravate these spatial imbalances.
7
Figure 2.2 has been generated from MIFOTRA payroll data.
7
Figure 2.2: % under-qualified secondary school teachers at government and libre subsidie schools
by district, 2008
90.0
80.0
70.0
% under-qualified
60.0
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
N
KI
YA CU
R KIR
U
G O
EN
R GE
U
BA
G VU
AS
AB
R O
U
SI
M
U
SA ZI
N
N ZE
N
YA YA
M NZ
AS A
H
EK
E
H
R
U
YE
U
H
R
W AN
AM G
AG O
AN
N
YA A
M BIH
U
U
H
A
G NG
AK A
N
YA EN
M KE
A
G GA
IS
B
AG E
R AR
U
L A
N
YA IN
G DO
AT
KA AR
R E
O
R NG
U
TS I
KA IR
Y O
BU ON
Z
G
ES A
ER
G
AT A
SI
BO
N
G
O
G MA
IC
U
M
BU B
R I
E
K
R
N AM A
G
O ON
R
N OR YI
YA
ER
R
O
U
G
U
R
KI U
R
EH
E
0.0
19.
The spatial distribution of teachers with regard to years of experience is also
unbalanced (see figures 2.3 and 2.4). Among both primary and secondary schools, there exist
fairly strong negative relationships between mean years of experience and teacher workload
as proxied by the learner-teacher ratio (see figure 2.5 for primary schools). The same is true
for the proportion of qualified teachers and LTRs (see figure 2.6 for secondary schools).
Consequently, the hardest to staff districts, such as in Kirehe District, not only have the least
experienced and qualified teachers, but they have the highest workloads, which mean that
these districts are doubly disadvantaged.
8
on
y
Ki i
re
G
he
is
a
Bu gar
ge a
se
r
Bu a
re
G ra
as
G abo
ak
N enk
ya
ga e
ta
R re
ul
in
do
R
us
G izi
at
s
G ibo
ic
um
Ka bi
y
R onz
w
am a
ag
N a
go
N
ya
m
N ma a
ya ga
m
b
as e
he
N ke
ya
nz
R a
ut
R siro
uh
an
Ka go
N ron
ya g
ru i
gu
ru
H
M uye
us
a
M nz
uh e
an
N
go ga
ro
N ero
ya
b
K ihu
N icu
ya ki
ru ro
ge
n
R ge
ub
av
u
Ka
m
Average years experience
Ki
re
h
R e
ut
s
G
is iro
a
Bu gar
ge a
N se
ya ra
ga
Ka tare
yo
N nz
go a
N roe
ya ro
ru
gu
N Ny ru
ya a
m nz
as a
he
G ke
at
si
b
R o
us
Ka iz
m i
on
y
R Rul i
w
am ind
ag o
a
Ka na
ro
n
Bu gi
R rera
uh
an
N go
ya
G bihu
ak
en
G ke
ic
um
N bi
go
m
a
N
ya Hu
m ye
ag
M ab
uh e
an
G ga
as
a
G bo
ic
um
M
us bi
an
R ze
ub
a
K vu
N icu
ya k
ru iro
ge
ng
e
Years experience
Figure 2.3: Average teachers of experience among primary school teachers by district, 2007
16.0
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
Figure 2.4: Average years of experience among secondary school teachers by district, 2007
14.0
12.0
10.0
8.0
6.0
4.0
2.0
0.0
9
Figure 2.5: Scatter plot of learner-teacher ratios and average years of teaching experience
among primary school by district, 2007
90.0
80.0
70.0
60.0
R2 = 0.1342
LTR
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
0.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
14.0
16.0
Mean years experience
20.
No national data on the distribution of teachers by gender was available. However,
among the 10 districts that were included in the teacher questionnaire survey, it can be
observed in table 2.3, that the share of female teachers at both primary and secondary school
varies appreciably from one district to another. In Burera District, only 10% of primary
school teachers are female compared to 67% in Gisagara District.
Table 2.3: % female teachers in the10 survey districts
DISTRICT
PRIMARY
Burera
10
Rusizi
30
Karonge
30
Kayonza
46
Nyanza
46
Musanze
50
Rwamagana
59
Kicukiro
61
Gasabo
67
Gisagara
67
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
SECONDARY
14
30
35
25
7
40
31
42
20
0
21.
The incidence of single teachers also varies markedly across districts (see table 2.4).
In many countries in Africa, a high proportion of single teachers in schools or groups of
schools reflect staffing difficulties. It is noticeable that Kayonze District has high proportions
of both female and male single teachers.
10
Table 2.4: % single teachers at survey schools by district, October 2008
DISTRICT
FEMALE
Burera
18
Musanze
24
Gasabo
26
Kicukiro
31
Gisagara
36
Rwamagana
38
Nyanza
40
Rusizi
47
Karonge
47
Kayonze
52
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
MALE
36
37
32
34
53
18
39
40
8
65
Figure 2.6: Scatter plot of % qualified and learner-teacher ratio among secondary schools by
district, 2007
90
80
R2 = 0.2146
% teachers unqualified
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.00
5.00
10.00
15.00
20.00
25.00
30.00
35.00
LTR
2.2.3 Staffing norms
22.
The official staffing norm for teachers at secondary schools is based on the following
formula: number of classes x number of timetabled periods per week/teacher workload norm
(periods/week). Adherence to this norm would result in a fairly tight linear relationship
between the numbers of learners and teacher among publicly funded secondary schools.
However, it can be observed in Figure 2.7 that, while this relationship is linear, there are
numerous schools which clearly do not keep to the prescribed staffing norm with some
schools having more than their entitlement of teachers and others with less. The latter group
are mainly hard-to-staff schools in remoter rural areas that have a relatively high incidence of
teacher vacancies.
11
Figure 2.7: Scatter plots of teachers and enrolments at public secondary schools, 2007
80
70
60
Teachers
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
200
400
600
800
1000
Enrolment
12
1200
1400
1600
1800
3.
THE ATTRACTIVENESS OF THE TEACHING PROFESSION
23.
As is generally the case throughout Africa, teaching is not regarded as an attractive
career option in Rwanda, especially among young people, which has, in turn, fuelled
concerns that ‘we are not getting the right people into teaching’. As noted above, the fact that
out of a total of 36,000 teachers on the government payroll, only five percent are university
graduates with a recognised teaching qualification is symptomatic of this lack of
attractiveness.
24.
A high level of vocational commitment is a key feature of all professions. In spite of
poor pay and working conditions, this commitment appears to be surprisingly high among the
teaching profession in Rwanda. The following discussion considers a number of contributory
factors including levels of respect for teachers in the community, education and training
entrance requirements, and occupational solidarity and cohesion.
3.1
VOCATIONAL COMMITMENT
25.
Without in-depth personal interviews, it is difficult to gauge accurately the level of
vocational commitment to teaching by individual teachers. However, nearly 80% of all the
560 teachers who were surveyed agreed with the statement ‘I had a strong desire to become a
teacher. It was my first career choice’ (see table 3.1). Agreement rates are slightly higher for
primary than secondary school teachers. It is clear though that around one-third of primary
and one-quarter of secondary school teacher respondents opted for teaching because they did
not do well enough in their secondary school leaving examinations to be able to be study their
first choice subject either at upper secondary school and/or at university or another higher
education institution. Less than 10% of A2 teachers passed English and mathematics with an
A or B grade and, given the competition for places, were unlikely, therefore, to be admitted to
the national university to study for a degree (see table 3.2 and 3.3).
26.
A long-term commitment to teaching is another key indicator. Around three-quarters
of primary and secondary school teachers responded affirmatively to the question ‘do you
expect to be a teacher in five years time?’ (see table 3.4). The main reason given by the onequarter of teachers who responded negatively is poor pay. Religious personnel at churchmanaged schools are generally very committed.
Table 3.1: Agreement rates to statements concerning primary reason for opting for teacher training,
October 2008 (rounded percentages)
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
Public
Private
Public
Private
I had a strong desire to become a teacher/it was my first career preference
84
89
78
69
I did not have enough exam points to study for my most first choice area of study
30
29
15
11
Funding was readily available for teacher training
22
20
19
20
I could not obtain funding for my first choice course
36
31
23
25
STATEMENTS
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
13
Table 3.2: Percentage distribution of the overall S6 examination mark among teachers by qualification
level, October 2008
MARK
A0
A1
A2
<2
0
0
5.9
2-2.99
11.3
37.5
35.3
3-3.99
20.5
50
34.2
4-4.99
22.7
8.3
18.2
5-5.99
25
0
6.4
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
Table 3.3: Percentage English and mathematics grade distribution in the S6 examination by qualification
level
ENGLISH
MATHS
Grade
A0
A1
A2
A0
A1
A2
A
3
0
1
0
0
0
B
25
0
6
22
25
6
C
48
83
46
51
25
31
D
25
17
44
27
50
45
E
0
0
3
0
0
18
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
Table 3.4: Percentage of teachers responding negatively to the question 'do you expect to be a teacher in
five years time?' (rounded %)
SCHOOL TYPE
GOVERNMENT
LIBRE SUBSIDIE
PRIVATE
Primary
28
25
21
Secondary
25
27
34
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
Occupational status and respect
27.
The occupational status of primary school teachers is lower than secondary school
teachers mainly because they are paid very little and are relatively poorly trained. Quality
teaching in the lower primary schooling phase is crucial for establishing a sound foundation
for learning. However, the least well qualified and inexperienced teachers tend to be assigned
lower primary school classes. Increasing the status and attractiveness of lower primary
teaching should, therefore, be a top priority for the MoE.
28.
Teaching is still generally quite well respected in most communities in Rwanda,
although this appears to vary between primary and secondary education. Only 60% of
primary school teacher respondents agreed with the statement that ‘teachers at this school are
respected in the local community’ compared to 80% among secondary school teachers (see
table 3.1).
Education and training standards
29.
The teaching profession in Rwanda is fragmented, which militates against the
development of any strong sense of collective professional or occupational solidarity.
Teachers are compartmentalised into three distinct groups according to their qualification
level, namely A0, A1 and A2.
30.
The new job classification for the public service in Rwanda reinforces the segmented
structure of the teaching profession and the low status of primary school teachers. Jobs are
classified into 14 grades. Qualified secondary school teachers have been placed on level 6,
14
qualified tronc commun teachers on grade level 7, but qualified primary teachers are only on
level 10. Secondary teachers are considered to be ‘professionals’ whereas primary teachers
and principals are only ‘technicians’. Principals at secondary and primary schools have been
placed on GL5 and GL8 respectively despite the fact that primary schools are generally larger
than secondary schools. Similarly, the TSC draft teacher statute has a separate grading
scheme for teachers with 15 grades; graduate secondary teachers are placed on grades 4 and 5
whereas the primary teacher is on grade 14.
31.
The recent appointment of around 2,000 contract teachers may also have a dampening
affect on the overall social status of the teaching profession since these teachers are likely to
be less qualified (or even only minimally qualified), paid less than permanent teachers, and
lack job security. The system further penalises hard-to-staff schools because they are obliged
to allocate a higher proportion of their student per capitation grant for ‘teacher support’
whereas other, better staffed schools can allocate more of the grant for learning materials as
was originally intended. Experience from other counties indicates that the large-scale
employment of contract teachers can be quite divisive since they are seen as a threat to
accepted professional standards by permanent teachers and contract teachers themselves are
often de-motivated because they earn significantly lower pay and lack job security. However,
to the extent that they ease the workload of existing teachers, they are likely to have a
positive impact on teacher motivation.
Teaching as employment of the last resort
32.
It is widely reported that students opting for the teacher training stream (ecole normal)
in upper secondary schools generally do least well in the tronc commun examinations.
Information on the examination grades of S3 students by subject specialisation could not be
obtained in the time available. But, it is the case that teachers at the survey schools obtained
relatively low grades in the terminal senior secondary school examinations (‘A’ levels),
which suggests that weaker students are concentrated in the ecole normal stream and that,
among those who do go on to higher education, their lower grades oblige them to opt for
second choice education degree and diploma courses.
33.
Low vocational intent also leads to large proportions of newly trained teachers not
taking up careers in teaching. Although no formal tracer studies have been undertaken, it
appears that the majority of the 2,000 or so students who have graduated from KIE since the
first batch in 2003 are not currently employed as teachers. However, this may change in the
coming years as the number of graduates increases (the intake in 2009 is to be increased
threefold to 1,500) and as job opportunities in the private and public sectors contract.
34.
It is widely alleged that the poor pay and status of teachers in Africa, both in absolute
terms and in relation to other equivalent groups in the public and private sectors, fuel high
levels of teacher attrition. This has certainly been the case among secondary school teachers
in Rwanda during the last two-three years; as has been observed ‘secondary teaching is a
waiting room for better job opportunities’. However, staffing turnover is low among primary
school teachers mainly because of the lack of job opportunities for ecole normal school
leavers in Rwanda.8
8
Information on staff turnover from the annual school questionnaire could not be made available.
15
4.
TEACHER MOTIVATION AND BEHAVIOUR
35.
A strong commitment to teaching as a lifelong career is the foundation for an effective
education system. Adequate numbers of capable and committed young people need,
therefore, to be attracted and retained in the teaching profession. There are many factors that
collectively influence teacher job satisfaction and motivation levels. Given the complex
interplay of these factors, it is usually not possible to disentangle or isolate the precise impact
of each factor. The teaching profession in Rwanda is no exception. For expositional
convenience, the following discussion focuses on two types of motivators namely pecuniary
(pay and material benefits) and non-pecuniary (especially living and working conditions).
4.1
MOTIVATION LEVELS
4.1.1 School visits
36.
Effective teachers are well trained and highly motivated. Interviews with principals
and teachers at the eight schools that were visited as part of this review indicate that teacher
commitment is generally higher than might be expected given poor pay, difficult working and
living conditions and limited opportunities for professional development. As has been
frequently pointed out in other reports, ‘committed teachers (in Rwanda) are working hard for
very little.’ The principals were generally quite positive about the motivation and
commitment levels of their teachers. Even in large schools with more than 25 teachers, they
could only usually identify one or two ‘problem’ teachers who, given a free hand, they would
like to replace. However, as will be discussed below, motivation levels could be significantly
increased. Teacher motivation is fragile and there are definite limits to what teachers will be
prepared to endure.
4.1.2 Teacher questionnaire survey
37.
By contrast, the teacher questionnaire survey reveals that sizeable proportions of
teachers are concerned about poor job satisfaction and motivation. In particular, only one-half
of primary school and two-thirds of secondary school teacher respondents agreed with the
general statement that ‘teachers at my school are well motivated’ (see table 4.1). Teacher
respondents were also asked to rate their own level of job satisfaction; in overall terms, 25%
indicated that their current level of job satisfaction is ‘very poor’ or ‘poor’, 18% that is ‘just
OK’, and nearly 60% that is ‘good’ or ‘excellent’ (see table 4.2). Interestingly, despite their
lower pay and status, job satisfaction levels are only slightly lower among A2 teachers who
mainly work in primary schools.
38.
Teacher transfer rates are also quite high, which is symptomatic of high levels of
dissatisfaction with their current employment. The proportion of teachers indicating that they
would like to transfer school does vary quite a lot between districts (see figure 4.1), which
reflects differences in living and working conditions across the country. High transfer rates
seriously undermine the effective deployment and utilisation of teachers.
16
Table 4.1: Agreement rates to general statements among teacher motivation, October 2008 (rounded
percentages)
PRIMARY
STATEMENTS
SECONDARY
Govt
LS
Private
Govt
LS
Private
Teachers at my school are well-motivated
46
51
87
70
59
57
Teachers at my school are increasingly de-motivated
22
39
10
41
37
35
Teachers at my school have the knowledge and skills to do their jobs well
85
76
100
76
77
91
Teachers at my school are respected in the community
Job satisfaction is generally higher among qualified than unqualified
teachers
75
55
83
73
85
70
16
47
27
59
44
50
Job satisfaction is generally higher among female than male teachers
24
17
17
17
16
9
Source: Questionnaire survey
Figure 4.1: % of teachers indicating that they would like to change schools by survey district,
October 2008
45
40
35
% wanting trasnfer
30
25
Primary
Secondary
20
15
10
5
Ki
cu
ki
ro
nz
e
us
a
M
Ka
yo
nz
a
iz
i
R
us
a
R
w
Bu
re
r
za
ya
n
ag
a
am
is
a
G
N
na
a
ga
r
o
as
ab
G
Ka
ro
n
ge
0
4.2
MOTIVATION TRENDS AND PATTERNS
4.2.1 Trends
39.
With regard to trends, 35% of primary and 39% of secondary school teacher
respondents at publicly funded schools agreed with the general statement that ‘teachers at my
school are increasingly de-motivated’, which is worryingly high. At the individual level, 5060% of both primary and secondary school teachers indicated that their own levels of job
satisfaction have ‘improved’ during the last five years, but over two-thirds of both groups
stated that their standard of living have declined during the last five years (see table 4.3).
17
4.2.2 Motivation patterns
40.
Gender can sometimes exert an independent influence on job satisfaction. However,
this does not appear to be the case among teachers in Rwanda because agreement rates to the
general statement ‘job satisfaction is higher among female than male teachers’ are low (see
table 4.1). However, agreement rates to the general statement ‘job satisfaction is considerably
higher among qualified than unqualified teachers’ are quite high among secondary teachers.
This may be due to a sense of relative deprivation among the relatively large numbers of A2
secondary school teachers who work alongside university trained teachers who earn twothree times more than they do.
Table 4.2: Personal statements on current level of job satisfaction, working conditions and pay, October
2008 (rounded percentages)
STATEMENT
Very poor
Poor
Just OK
Good
Excellent
My current level of job satisfaction is:
A0 teachers
5
17
15
49
14
A1 teachers
0
13
28
48
11
A2 teachers
9
18
18
44
11
Working conditions at my school are:
A0 teachers
3
18
17
50
12
A1 teachers
4
15
37
28
15
A2 teachers
8
23
15
49
5
My pay as a teacher is:
A0 teachers
28
33
17
22
0
A1 teachers
27
55
11
7
0
A2 teachers
59
27
4
10
0
Source: School and tracer surveys
Table 4.3: Primary and secondary school teacher ratings of trends in job satisfaction and standard of
living, October 2008 (rounded percentages)
STATEMENT
Declined
Declined Remained Increased Increased
Significantly
same
significantly
My level of job satisfaction over the last
five years has:
A0 teachers
5
8
41
40
7
A1 teachers
5
10
29
41
15
A2 teachers
4
8
26
53
10
My standard of living over the last five
years has:
A0 teachers
21
53
24
2
1
A1 teachers
29
44
27
0
0
A2 teachers
34
32
30
3
1
Source: School and tracer surveys
4.3
TEACHER BEHAVIOUR
41.
Teachers who are dissatisfied with their jobs and are poorly motivated are not likely
to perform well and may even behave unprofessionally. Such behaviour includes poor
preparation and marking, low levels of active teaching and time on task, and poor
timekeeping and absenteeism. However, as noted earlier, principals at the eight schools that
were visited expressed satisfaction with the performance of all but a very small minority of
their teachers.
18
4.3.1 Absenteeism and timekeeping
42.
Around 40% of teacher questionnaire respondents did not agree with the statement
that ‘teacher absenteeism is not a problem at my school’ (see table 4.5). The 2007 Citizen’s
Report Card exercise also reported relatively high levels of concern about teacher
absenteeism with 42% of respondents indicating that teachers are only available ‘sometimes’.
The MoE is planning to conduct a teacher absenteeism study in 2009.
43.
An examination of the reasons given by teacher respondents for absences during the
last month show that overall absenteeism rates are indeed quite high, especially at
government primary and secondary schools and private primary schools (see table 4.6).
However, attendance at training courses and ‘official duties’ account for around one-half of
all absences at publicly funded secondary schools whereas the sickness-related absenteeism
rate is only around 2.5% at primary and 1.5% at secondary schools. Poor timekeeping among
teachers does not appear to be a serious issue at most schools.
Table 4.5: Agreement rates to general statements about teacher absenteeism and time keeping, June 2008
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
STATEMENTS
Govt
LS
Private Govt
LS
Private
Teacher absenteeism is not a problem at
60
61
87
56
60
57
my school
Teachers at my school come to work on
92
90
100
96
92
97
time
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
Table 4.6: Teacher absenteeism rates during the previous month by reason and type of school, October
2008 (%)
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
Grade
Government Libre subsidie Private Government Libre subsidie Private
Sick
2.3
2.3
6.1
1.4
1.3
1.8
Training
0.3
1
0.2
3.8
4
1.3
Official duties
1.9
1
0.5
2.8
0.2
0.9
Attendance funeral
0.7
0.4
0.3
1.7
0.5
1.5
Child sick
0.8
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.1
Leave
1.7
1.4
4.4
1.8
1.6
1.5
Other
1.1
0.1
0.2
1.2
0.8
0.3
Total
8.8
6.8
12.3
13.3
9.1
7.4
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
19
5.
PAY AND OTHER BENEFITS
44.
As with all human beings, basic livelihood needs, especially for food and shelter, have
to be minimally satisfied in order to ensure that teachers are adequately motivated to do their
jobs well. Nearly all teachers at the survey schools believe that they are poorly paid (see table
4.1). Low pay is also the main reason mentioned by teachers wanting to leave the teaching
profession. And, as noted earlier, over two-third of teacher questionnaire respondents stated
that their standard of living had declined during the last five years.
5.1
PUBLICLY FUNDED SCHOOLS
5.1.1 Teacher salary structure
45.
The most noticeable features of the teacher pay structure at publicly funded schools in
Rwanda are: (i) there is no pay progression within each of the three main qualification
groups. Consequently, the only way A1 or A2 teachers can increase significantly their pay is
to upgrade their qualification to the diploma and education degree levels respectively. The
income differential between A2 and A0 teachers is large, which should provide a healthy
incentive for teachers to upgrade their qualifications to this level. However, to date, very few
manage to do this successfully due to limited support (see chapter 6); (ii) non-education
university graduates earn over 50% less than education graduates, which is likely to result in
lower retention rates among this group; and (iii) there is no income differential between the
classroom teacher and the head teacher.
5.1.2 Pay levels: primary school teachers
46.
The total net basic income of the A2 primary school teacher is around RwF40,000
(US$73) per month, which is far below a living wage let alone the standard of living expected
for a professional level civil servant (see table 5.1). The net income of a A2 teacher is almost
three times less than that of other A2 civil servants (see table 5.2) The gross monthly pay of
an A2 medical ‘technician’ employed at government hospitals is RwF138,596. Labourers in
Rwanda typically earn RwF3,000 per day, which is two-three times higher than the pay of a
primary school teacher.
Table 5.1: Median net monthly basic and supplementary income for primary and secondary school
teachers, October 2008 (RwF '000 rounded)
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
Grade
Government Libre subsidie Private Government Libre subsidie Private
A0
Basic
113
112
120
Supplement
35
25
0
Total
148
177
120
A1
Basic
94
91
91
Supplement
35
20
0
Total
129
11
91
A2
Basic
36
36
55
27
28
42
Supplement
13
13
Na
19
14
13
Total
49
49
Na
46
42
55
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
47.
The recently introduced ‘annual performance bonus’ for primary school teachers of
RwF12,500 per month, which is paid for from the student per capitation grant, has increased
20
net pay by around one-third9 and, as such, is greatly appreciated by teachers. However, some
smaller schools do not have sufficient per capitation funds to be able to pay the annual
performance bonus.10 In 2007, nearly one-third of primary school teachers had not signed
performance contracts, but still received the bonus. School-financed motivation ‘primes’ are
not usually paid to primary school teachers mainly because most parents and guardians are
too poor to make the necessary contributions.
Table 5.2: Teacher and other civil servant net monthly pay by qualification grade, late 2008
GRADE
TEACHER
OTHER
A0
113,000
200,000
A1
89,000
144,000
A2
27,012
80,012
Source: MIFOTRA
48.
The food consumption poverty level based on the standard requirement of 2,500
calories per day was officially costed at RwF 250 per adult in 2006. Price have increased by
30% since then so, in late 2008, this figure was in the region of RwF 325 per adult day or
RwF9,750 per month. Each teacher has an average of two children and four other dependents.
Assuming each child to be equivalent of 0.67 of the adult day calorie requirement then the
total household expenditure that is required to meet these minimum food consumption needs
is RwF48, 750 per month, which is slightly above the average monthly net income of an A2
primary school teacher. Taking into other essential household expenditures for housing,
clothing, transport etc, it would appear that the majority of these teachers are living well
below the official poverty line.
5.1.3 Pay levels: secondary school teachers
49.
Trained A0 university graduate secondary school teachers earn around three times
more than the A2 primary school teacher, which is a large income differential both in
absolute terms and compared to other countries. Due to fiscal constraints, GoR has been
unable to implement fully the civil service pay reform of 2006, which means that the monthly
net basic pay of the A0 teacher is around RwF 65,000 less than a university graduate
employed in the administrative and technical cadres elsewhere in the civil service (see table
5.2).11 A hospital doctor employed by the Ministry of Health is currently paid RwF387,784
gross per month.12 Large numbers of A0 teachers have resigned in recent years in order to
benefit from these better paying positions in the civil service (especially in district and sector
offices as a result of decentralisation). Turnover rates reached such a high level in 2006 and
2007 that government was obliged to increase A0 teacher pay from around RwF 50,000 to
RwF113,000 in 2007, thereby opening up a very sizeable income differential with primary
school teachers, which has done little to improve their job motivation.
50.
Teachers at secondary schools receive motivation ‘primes,’ which generally range
from RwF15-30,000 per month. In addition, around 12% of primary and 25% of secondary
teachers at publicly funded schools also receive non-monetary benefits, most notably housing
and health insurance.
9
10
The performance bonus does not appear to be subject to income tax.
RwF2,800 is supposed to be allocated for the ‘promotion of teaching out of the annual RwF5,300 per
capitation grant. Schools have a strong incentive to over-state enrolments.
11
12
A0 and A1 health technicians at MoH hospitals are paid RwF337,096 and RwF233,946 gross per
month.
21
5.1.4 Secondary income
51.
Around 15% of A0 teachers and 20% of A1 and A2 teacher respondents indicate that
they earn additional income outside of their normal job. Nearly two-thirds of this comes from
farming and only slightly more than 10% from private tuition/coaching.
52.
Teachers were not requested to provide specific information on their secondary
income. However, the average monthly household expenditure of A2 primary school teachers
who are undertaking secondary income activities are, on average, 25% higher than
households where there is no such income generating activity. This expenditure differential
averages 67% among A0 teachers (see figure 5.1). Some principals, especially at urban
secondary schools, are concerned that the need to earn secondary income is impacting
negatively on teaching commitment and performance.
Figure 5.1: Monthly household expenditure of A0 and A2 teachers with and without secondary
income and no other wage income earners in the household
250
Monthly expenditure (RwF000)
200
150
Secondary income
No-secondary income
100
50
0
A2
A1
5.1.5 Pay trends: past and likely future
53.
As noted earlier, most teachers are very dissatisfied about their pay. In real terms,
teacher pay has declined precipitously since the late 1980s. The nominal average net starting
income of the A2 primary school teacher was RwF 27,000 per month in 1990 and has
remained at that level since then. Taking into account increases in the cost of living, the
starting income of an A2 teacher in 2007 was, in real terms, nearly eight times less than the
starting income in 1990. Such has been the degree of immiseration of the teaching profession
during the last two decades.
54.
The basic pay of A0 teachers was increased by 147% between December 2006 and
August 2007, 137% for A1 teachers, but only 3% for A2 teachers. The retention of expatriate
22
staff was given as a major justification for the large increase in A0 and A1 salaries since it is
alleged that countries in the region pay much higher salaries for expatriate staff.
55.
With regard to likely future trends, the scope for significant pay increases for teachers
on the government payroll is likely to remain limited. The current fiscal situation is
particularly tight and GoR will do well if it can meet its objective to maintain the real value
of expenditure in the social sectors. Any additional expenditure is planned to be targeted at
the ‘primary growth sectors’. Annual inflation is currently running at 18%. Given the planned
expansion of the education sector, it is unlikely that pay increases will exceed 5-6% over the
next few years, which, assuming continuing high inflation levels, could result in the real
incomes of teachers declining by as much as 10% per annum.
5.1.6 Promotion of income-generating activities
56.
The government established the Mwalimu Savings and Credit Cooperative
Organisation (SACCO) in 2007 and provided RwF 1.2 billion for the acquisition of fixed
assets and to fund other start-up costs. The aim of SACCO is to provide teachers with
subsidised credit which is to be used primarily for income-generating activities. Currently,
82% of teachers are members. Minimum monthly contributions are 5% of their salary i.e.
around RwF2,000 per month for a primary school teacher. Total collections are currently
RwF68 million per month. Each member is allowed to borrow up to five times their savings.
Since it received its operating licence in early 2008, SACCO has made loans to 1,400 teacher
averaging RwF 300,000 per loan.
57.
Expectations about SACCO are high among teachers. However, given the current
level of savings, it will take 11 years for all members to be able to access a loan averaging
RwF 300,000. SACCO senior management estimates that an additional capitalisation of RwF
6 billion is required in order for loans of this amount to be provided to all members within
two years.
5.2
PRIVATE SCHOOLS
58.
The median total (basic plus prime) monthly net income of teachers at private schools
is lower than at publicly funded schools. However, teacher salaries at more elite secondary
schools can be as much as twice government salaries. Many private secondary schools are
owned and managed by the catholic and protestant churches. Teacher pay is about at the same
level as at government and libre subsidie schools, but these private schools generally find it
difficult to pay the same level of salary primes and are these are often in arrears.
59.
Private secondary schools have high proportions of A1 teachers, which may be
because their ability to pay A0 university graduates is not as high as publicly funded schools.
23
5.3
HOUSEHOLD EXPENDITURE
60.
The median household expenditures of teacher questionnaire respondents by main
qualification group are presented in Table 5.2. Around two-thirds of teacher households have
no other member who is earning a wage income13 so these households have to survive solely
on the teacher’s pay. Teacher’s households have on average two children and five-six
dependents.
Table 5.3: Median monthly household expenditure by main category among teachers, October 2008
(RwF '000 rounded)
Grade
Housing
Food
Transport
Health
Education
Other
Total
A0
30
60
19
10
30
20
152
A1
25
45
12
7
20
19
115
A2
10
30
8
5
20
15
85
Source: Teacher questionnaire survey
61.
Reported expenditure levels for A2 teachers are appreciably higher than their total net
monthly incomes. In part this is because some households have other wage income earner14
and other household members can also earn income from self-employment activities (in
particular vending and farming). Under-reporting of secondary income by teachers may also
be a factor. The relatively high expenditures on education by all three groups is particularly
noticeable. Household expenditure also varies considerably according to location (see figure
5.3). The cost of living is much lower in rural areas, but so also is the quality of life that is
expected by most teachers.
Figure 5.3: Median monthly household expenditure among A2 teachers in the 10 survey
districts, October 2008
120
100
Expenditure (RwF'000)
80
60
40
20
0
Kayonza
13
14
Gisagara
Karonge
Nyanza
Burera
Rwamagana
Rusizi
Kicukiro
Musanze
Gasabo
This percentage varies relatively little by qualification level.
Median expenditure of households with one additional wage earner are RwF25,000 higher for A2
teachers and RwF50,000 higher for A0 teachers.
24
5.4
INTERNATIONAL PAY COMPARISONS
62.
Only limited information on teacher pay in neighbouring and other African countries
could be obtained given the limited time that was available. However, it can be observed in
figure 6.315 that the average income (measured in US dollars) of a qualified primary school
teacher in Rwanda is considerably lower than in most other countries. It is also the case that
most countries have separate, well defined categories for teachers (based on qualifications
and seniority) with annual pay increments and sizeable pay differentials between teachers and
head teachers. Table 5.4 shows the pay scales for teachers in Lesotho, Malawi, and
Mozambique. However, the most frequent shortcoming of these pay scales is that they only
allow for limited salary progression within each category. The ratio of primary school teacher
pay to GDP per capita is 3.2, which is below the FTI benchmark indicator of 3.5.
Figure 5,4: Average monthly income of qualified primary school teachers in selected
African countries 2004-2006, (US$ per month)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
Sierra Leone
15
Rwanda
Tanzania
Malawi
Nigeria
Uganda
Mozambique
Kenya
Ghana
Zambia
Lesotho
These data are extracted from Bennell and Ackyeampong, 2007 and Shinyolo 2007 and from internet
searches. Mozambique figure is the midpoint of the pay scale for a qualified primary school teacher.
Rwanda figure is for 2008.
25
Table 5.4: Primary school teacher pay scales in Lesotho, Malawi, and Mozambique, 2004-05
(US$/year)
Bottom
Top
Increments
LESOTHO
Unqualified
2061
2621
3
Certificate
2714
3954
6
Diploma
4070
5910
6
Deputy head teacher
6089
7231
3
Head teacher
7374
8507
3
MALAWI
Starting teacher
599
662
na
Senior teacher
1206
1537
na
Head teacher
1629
2379
na
MOZAMBIQUE
N5 (primary school leaver)
864
1392
13
N4 (lower secondary leaver)
1260
2016
13
N3 (upper secondary leaver)
1776
2952
13
Source: Mulkeen and Chen, 2008
26
6.
WORKING AND LIVING CONDITIONS
6.1
OVERVIEW
6.1.1 Primary Schools
63.
The rapid expansion of primary schooling in Rwanda since the mid 1990s has been
achieved through a marked intensification of the teacher’s workload. Even by African
standards, the workload of primary school teachers is exceptionally high. Most primary
school teachers have had to contend with increasingly large classes; the overall learnerteacher ratio increased from 59 in 2002 to 66 in 2006.16 LTRs also vary appreciably across
the 30 districts (see figures 6.1 and 6.2). Thus, the workloads of primary and secondary
school teachers in those districts with relatively high LTRs, and thus larger class sizes, is that
much greater.
64.
Teaching loads are also very high; teachers are in class from 0730 to 1630 every day
with usually only a one and half hour break at lunch time. Double shifting, which is the norm
in the lower primary grades (P1-P3), with teachers having to teach two separate classes each
day, is particularly onerous. The least qualified and experienced teachers tend to be allocated
to the lower primary classes, which are the most important in terms of overall educational
development and have the largest classes and double shifting. P1-3 classes are typically 50%
larger than P3-6 classes.
Figure 6.1: Primary school learner-teacher ratios by district, 2007
90
80
70
60
LTR
50
40
30
20
10
16
N
R
ut
si
r
ya o
bi
G
hu
ak
e
Bu nk
e
R ge
w
s
am era
a
N
ya gan
m
a
a
N gab
ya
ru e
g
M uru
us
an
R ze
ul
in
Ki do
cu
k
Ka iro
N ron
ya g
ga i
ta
N re
ya
M nz
uh a
an
G ga
ic
u
G mb
is
ag i
ar
a
N
ya Ru
m siz
as i
he
k
Bu e
r
Ka era
yo
Ka nza
m
on
G yi
at
si
b
Ki o
re
he
H
uy
N e
go
m
G
a
N as
ya ab
ru
o
ge
n
R ge
ub
a
N
go vu
ro
R rero
uh
an
go
0
Average class size in primary schools increased from 42 in 1998/99 to 54 in 2007.
27
65.
Given that parents are free to decide which school they send their children, more
successful schools attract more learners, which places even more demands on teachers who
are responsible for very large classes.
66.
Contract teachers are now being recruited in order to improve the working conditions
of teachers in primary schools. They are to be deployed to schools that have LTRs higher
than 1:65. The original intention was to employ 3,100 contract teachers in 2007, but only
1,278 were in post in that year and 1,929 in 2008. The employment target for 2009 is 2,300.
They are paid slightly less than a permanent A2 teacher (at Rw.F37,500). Two-thirds of them
teach P1-P3 classes.
67.
The gradual introduction of subject teaching in primary schools in recent years can
been seen as a reaction to the heavy demands of class teaching and the long school day.
However, subject teaching is likely to lead to even less time on task and teachers will know
much less about each individual learner, which could also increase control/disciplinary
problems and learning outcomes.
Secondary schools
68.
The workload norm in government and libre subsidie secondary schools is 24 hours
per week out of a 40-period17 school week. This norm is widely adhered to, but teachers in
most secondary schools teachers are in class for only four days a week. The non-teaching day
is assigned for pedagogy and preparation, but teachers are not usually required to attend
school on this day and are, therefore, effectively free to do what they want.
Figure 6.2: Learner-teacher ratios at public secondary schools by district, 2007
35
30
25
LTR
20
15
10
5
G
as
a
Ki bo
cu
ki
ro
R
u
M siz
us i
a
G nze
is
ag
ar
a
N
ya Hu
ru ye
ge
N ng
go e
ro
e
R ro
ub
G avu
ak
en
R ke
ul
in
G do
ic
um
N bi
go
m
Bu a
re
R ra
u
Bu tsir
ge o
s
Ka era
m
on
N yi
y
N an
ya za
ru
R gu
w
r
N am u
ya
m aga
as
N hek
ya
ga e
t
N are
N yab
ya
m ihu
ag
R abe
uh
an
G go
at
s
Ka ibo
yo
M nz
uh a
an
g
Ki a
re
h
Ka e
ro
ng
i
0
69.
The teaching load for secondary school teachers is slightly above the average for
developed and developing countries (see table 6.1). However, learner-teacher ratios are
17
Each period is normally 50 periods so there are around 33 contact hours per week.
28
relatively low in secondary schools, which results in large class sizes.18 The ESSP target is to
increase the overall LTR from 30.1 in 2006 to 32.1 in 2012, which is quite modest. The
overall teacher-stream ratio is 0.74 for primary and 1.96 for secondary schooling, which
means that nearly three times as many secondary teachers are required to teach one class than
for primary schooling.
Table 6.1: Teaching loads for secondary school teachers in selected countries, 2003 (hours/week)
Junior
Senior
Country
Junior
Senior
Country
Secondary
secondary
secondary
secondary
OECD
Jordan
22.5
22.5
Ireland
22.3
22.3
Malaysia
19.5
19.5
New Zealand
24.8
25
Paraguay
21.4
24.1
Scotland
23.5
23.5
Peru
32.5
32.5
USA
31.3
31.1
Philippines
29.4
29.4
OECD mean
18.9
18.8
Russia
27
27
Other countries
Thailand
16.3
16.3
Argentina
23.7
23.7
Tunisia
18.3
18.3
Brazil
23.6
23.6
Uruguay
11.9
11.9
Chile
20
20
Zimbabwe
25.8
25.8
Egypt
21.6
21.6
WEI mean
21.8
21.6
India
20.8
20.8
Indonesia
16.8
16.8
Jamaica
25
25
Source: UNESCO, OECD
70.
Pedagogy remains strongly teacher-centred and this is unlikely to change significantly
given the current incentive structure. Teachers who have to teach more than one subject face
additional workload pressures. This is the norm at smaller schools with only one or two class
groups in each grade. The proposed introduction of English as the medium of instruction will
also be very demanding and could, therefore, adversely affect motivation levels among
teachers.
6.2
TEACHER QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY
6.2.1 Working and living environments
71.
While the school environment is challenging in Rwanda, around three-quarters of
teacher respondents agreed with the general statement that ‘the working environment at this
school is adequate’ (see table 6.1). In response to the personal statement ‘working conditions
at my school, are adequate, one in five A0 and A1 teachers and one in three A2 teachers rated
this as ‘very poor’ or ‘poor’. Most teachers who want to transfer cite their family situation
and the location of the school itself as the main reasons. In overall terms, 15% of married
teacher respondents are not living with their spouses, but this percentage is higher than 25%
in three of the 10 survey districts (Gisagara, Rwamagana, and Karonge). However, threequarters of teachers live within three kilometres of their schools.
72.
In addition to the poor physical environment and the paucity of learning materials,
high teaching loads and poor student behaviour also appear to be key issues. Maintaining
student discipline is generally more difficult in urban schools (see table 6.2). However,
teachers in Rwanda appear to be generally quite healthy. The impact of HIV/AIDS with
18
The average class size for secondary schools is 48.
29
respect to teacher mortality and morbidity appears to be quite limited and thus the epidemic
has not seriously affected teacher motivation and job satisfaction.19
Table 6.2: Agreement rates to general statements concerning the school environment, June-July 2008
(rounded percentages)
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
STATEMENTS
Govt
LS
Private Govt
LS
Private
The working environment at my school is adequate 64
75
91
70
76
82
Teaching loads at my school are about right
23
43
86
71
66
73
The impact of HIV/AIDS on teachers at my school 67
55
62
86
66
60
has not been large
The behaviour of students is not a problem for
52
48
94
39
53
49
teachers at my school
Teachers at my school receive their salaries on
30
56
100
57
48
65
time
Source: School and tracer surveys
73.
Rural teachers tend to have higher teaching loads but lower pay because there are no
parental motivation primes/contributions, no additional teachers are paid for by the PTA, and
opportunities to earn secondary income are considerably less. They also often have to travel
quite long distances to school even when they are from that district.
6.2.2 Accommodation
74.
The majority of teachers live near to their schools, but less than three percent of
teachers live in accommodation provided by their schools. The teacher questionnaire survey
indicates that the median monthly expenditure on housing by primary and secondary school
teachers is RwF10,000 and RwF30,000 respectively. Only 33% of primary and 25% of
secondary teachers stated that they do not spend anything on accommodation, which
indicates that they live in their own houses. The ESSP states that government will build ‘a
few’ teacher houses.
75.
With the implementation of the UBE policy, GoR is planning to reduce considerably
the number of boarding places since the construction of more schools will enable most
children to travel daily to school. This, in turn, will increase the need to construct more
teacher houses at day schools. Part of the funding for this could be paid for from savings from
boarding.
6.2.3 Teacher management
76.
Teachers must be well managed if they are to be properly motivated and utilised.
Around two-thirds of the primary and three-quarters of the secondary school teacher
questionnaire respondents agreed with the statement that ‘teachers at my school are well
managed’, (see table 6.3). The large majority of teachers also agree with the statements that
teachers and teachers and parents work well together at their schools. Teachers in most
schools are regularly observed by principals and heads of department, but it appears that
school inspectors do not visit all schools regularly20 and, as far as teachers are concerned,
teacher transfers and promotions are frequently not handled well. Only slightly more than one
19
20
Attrition data for teachers by main reason was requested from EMIS and MIFOTRA but was not
available. This is a tentative conclusion therefore based on school visits and interviews with other key
stakeholders.
In 2004, one-half of primary and one-quarter of secondary schools had never been inspected.
30
half of A2 teacher respondents are members of the Syndicat National Enseignant Primaire
and only around one-third of all teacher respondents agreed with the statement that ‘teachers
at my school think that their trade unions are dong a good job’.21
77.
Most schools do not have properly constituted school management teams. Principals
are appointed mainly on the basis of seniority (rather than merit), receive no additional pay,
and receive little or no training or support. The churches continue to select principals at their
schools.
78.
The MoE is currently seeking approval from government for the payment of
additional allowances for primary and secondary principals (of RwF 20,000 and Rw.F.60,000
respectively). ESSP also plans to distribute a good practice manual in school management to
all schools over the next two years.
Table 6.3: Agreement rates to general statements about teacher management, June-July 2008 (rounded
percentages)
PRIMARY
SECONDARY
STATEMENTS
Govt
LS
Private Govt
LS
Private
Teachers at my school are well-managed
54
74
80
87
75
83
Teachers at my school work well together
84
90
100
90
89
98
School inspectors regularly visit my school
49
63
68
81
79
46
Principals and HODs at my school regularly
observe classes
87
92
100
91
87
97
Teachers and parents at my school work
well together
74
77
97
76
81
86
Teacher transfers are managed well and fairly
58
57
75
67
39
57
Teacher promotions are managed well and fairly
24
42
80
42
33
38
Teachers think that their trade unions are doing a
good job
8
21
58
33
25
30
Source: School and tracer surveys
79.
The provision of management training for principals has remained limited. The
Flemish Cooperation Agency (VOBB) has successfully conducted five-day management
training workshops for principals at 45 secondary schools with a small annual project budget
of around Euro100,000. KIE is planning to run a national school management training course
for all 2,300 primary school principals. The proposed budget is US$2.27 million with a
strong reliance on ‘consultants’ to design and deliver course modules. Participants will attend
two two-week courses for three years and receive an accredited certificate.
21
SNEP reports that it has around 24,000 members (80% of the total number of primary school teacher).
It has only four permanent staff at its head office in Kigali. Monthly contributions are RwF100.
31
7.
TEACHER COMPETENCE
7.1
PRE-SERVICE TEACHER EDUCATION
80.
Well trained teachers are likely to be better motivated than poorly trained teachers.
However, there are widespread concerns that pre-service teacher education in Rwanda is too
academic and theoretical with the bulk of lecturers having little or no direct experience of the
day to day challenges of classroom teaching. If teachers are not adequately prepared, this
makes it that much more difficult for them to cope, especially during the early stages of their
career, which in turn could have a negative impact on motivation.
81.
The nine (upper secondary level) primary school teacher training colleges are now
separate, free standing institutions. However, in terms of subject content, teaching and
assessment, the education that they offer is largely the same as the other upper secondary
subject specialisation streams (filieres). As a result, the quality and relevance of the teacher
education that is provided is weak. As noted earlier, most students choose the ‘ecole normal’
stream because they do not obtain high enough grades in the tronc commun examination for
them to be admitted to the subject streams that are in highest demand, namely sciences and
humanities.22 No information is available about just how many of these students actually
become teachers, but it is possible that a high proportion do not become teachers.
82.
Despite these weaknesses in teacher preparation, around three-quarters of teacher
questionnaire respondents believe that their colleagues have ‘the knowledge and skills to do
their jobs well’ (see table 4.1). If teachers themselves believe that they are adequately
competent when, in fact, they are not, they may not be that interested and committed to
improving their teaching skills. The majority of teacher respondents do not generally feel that
qualified teachers have higher levels of job satisfaction than under-qualified/untrained
teachers, which may be another reason why the desire among teachers to upgrade their
qualifications appears to be quite weak.
7.2
QUALIFICATION UPGRADING
83.
Only around 10% of teacher questionnaire respondents have completed or are
currently undertaking further studies in order to acquire additional qualifications. This is a
very low percentage compared to most other countries in Africa. The bulk of this studying is
done independently with no formal support or guidance from MoE. Only 8% of the survey
teachers have ever been granted study leave. Not surprisingly, therefore, less than one half of
teacher rated the availability of qualification upgrading opportunities as ‘good’ or ‘excellent’
(see table 7.1).
22
School-based teacher education is also a relatively cheap way of obtaining a teaching qualification
since students are not required to take out loans.
32
Table 7.1: Personal statements on qualification upgrading and in-service training, June-July 2008
(rounded percentages)
STATEMENT
Very poor
Poor
Just OK
Good
Excellent
Opportunities for upgrading professional
qualifications are:
A0 teachers
A1 teachers
A2 teachers
The availability of in-service training is:
13
25
16
26
20
28
20
23
11
32
30
39
9
23
6
A0 teachers
A1 teachers
A2 teachers
Source: School and tracer surveys
27
26
28
33
33
47
16
19
8
20
21
15
4
2
3
84.
Given that qualification upgrading is largely teacher-driven, it may not meet the
human resource development priorities of the education system. Many secondary teachers are
studying for non-educational qualifications, which, again, is symptomatic of their desire to
leave the profession.
85.
Up until now, there have been very few opportunities for teachers to study for further
teaching qualifications at education institutions in Rwanda. However, KIE is introducing a
new teaching diploma course based on supported distance learning in 2009 with an expected
intake of 1,500.
7.3
CONTINUOUS PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT
86.
The provision of regular, high quality in-service training is essential in order to ensure
the attainment of consistently high teaching standards. However, as Rutaysire points out,
despite the widespread recognition of the need to accelerate or intensify in-service teacher
training, ‘current provision is ineffective since it is largely supply driven, ad hoc/one-off,
with little or no reinforcement. Teachers are not seen as active participants in their own
professional growth’ (2008, p.8). The mentoring of newly qualified teachers (NQTs) is also
weak.
87.
Around 60% of A0 and A1 teacher respondents and 75% of A2 teachers rated the
current availability of in-service training as ‘very poor’ or ‘poor’ (see table 7.1). In overall
terms, only around one-third of teachers attended at least one INSET activity during the last
year (see table 7.2). As can be observed in Figures 7.1 and 7.2, the incidence of INSET
activities varies considerably across the 10 survey districts; fewer than 10% of primary
school teachers in Nyanza District benefited from in-service training compared with nearly
two-thirds in Kicukiro District. The average duration of INSET during the last year is around
six days, which is quite high, but again this ranges from 11 days in Kicukiro to just 0.1 day in
Nyanza District. The reasons for these large inter-district variations need to be examined in
detail, but a key factor maybe the dynamism of individual district education officers and
school heads coupled with the availability of funding, especially at the school level.
88.
The education secretariat for protestant schools (BNEP) has been providing in-service
training in active learner-centred pedagogy for primary school teachers at 114 out of its 550
schools since 2002. A key conclusion that its trainers have drawn from this training activity is
33
that it is difficult to introduce what are quite demanding teaching practices when teacher
motivation is low.
Table 7.2: Percentage of teachers by qualification level attending in-service training workshops and
mean duration during the last 12 months (rounded percentages)
A0
A1
A2
% attended in-service activity
71
65
66
mean days of training*
7
6
6
Note: *among those who attended
Figure 7.1: Percentage of A2 and A0/1 teachers who have undertaken at least one INSET
activity during the last 12 months by survey district, October 2008
70
60
40
A2
A0/1
30
20
10
34
Ki
cu
ki
ro
o
as
ab
G
nz
e
M
us
a
ge
Ka
ro
n
R
w
am
ag
a
na
Ka
yo
nz
a
iz
i
R
us
a
G
is
a
ga
r
a
Bu
re
r
ya
n
za
0
N
% ever attended
50
Figure 7.2: Mean INSET days for A0 and A2 teachers by survey district during the
last 12 months, October 2008
18
16
14
Mean days
12
10
A2
A0
8
6
4
2
0
Nyanza
Kayonza
Burera
Rusizi
Gisagara
Gasabo
35
Musanze
Karonge
Kicukiro
Rwamagana
8.
HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS
89.
In the time available, it was not possible to undertake a detailed assessment of
motivation levels and trends among lecturing staff at the six publicly funded higher education
institutions in Rwanda. However, given pay and working conditions, it appears that the
overall motivation of lecturers is quite low and possibly declining. The following discussion
summarises the staffing situation and pay at the four HEIs that were visited as part of this
review.
90.
The higher education system has expanded very rapidly since the mid 1990s. Student
enrolments increased from 3,948 students in 1995/96 to in 37,149 in 2006 and the number of
lecturers increased from 160 in 1995/96 to 1,909 in 2003. The 12 private HEIs accounted for
56% of total enrolments in 2006.
8.1
STAFFING SITUATION
91.
The staffing situation at the publicly funded HEIs varies quite considerably. However,
given relatively low salaries (compared to those paid by private HEIs and the private sector in
general), they all face major challenges in retaining academic staff on a long term basis. All
have active staff development programmes, but at the Kigali Health Institute (KHI) and the
National University of Rwanda (NUR), high proportions of young faculty leave soon after
completing their postgraduate studies even though they are formally bonded to stay (two
years for master degrees and three-four years for Ph.D.s). By contrast, the Kigali Institute of
Education (KIE) and Kigali Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) have been more
successful in retaining young teaching staff, in part because they have been able to offer
sizeable salary supplementation (see below).
92.
At KHI, in particular, staff turnover has increased markedly during the last five years.
The numbers of teaching staff leaving increased from zero in 2003 to 14 in 2005 and 10 in
2006 and 2007. As a result, KHI has had to increase its reliance on expatriate staff. Numbers
have doubled since 2003 (from 11 to 24). This is also the case at NUR where the number of
expatriate teaching staff increased from 47 in 2007 to 59 in 2008. By contrast, expatriate
numbers have remained fairly constant at KIE and declined appreciably at KIST (from 168 in
2000 to 41 in mid 2008). Staff turnover at KIE is only around 5% and is decreasing. At KIST,
staff in certain disciplines such as ICT, engineering and food sciences, are very marketable
and staff turnover tends, therefore, to be quite high. KHI and KIST rely heavily on part-time
staff, but pay rates are not particularly attractive.
8.2
PAY AND OTHER BENEFITS
93.
Pay and other benefits are set by MIFOTRA and are uniform across the six publicly
funded HEIs (see figure 8.1). Prior to the sizeable salary awards in 2006, HEI salaries had
remained unchanged since 2000 and income differentials between senior and junior faculty
had become very compressed. For example, there was only a difference of RwF 80,000 in the
net monthly pay of a professor and a new lecturer.
94.
As noted above, the extent of public-private income differentials for teaching staff in
the higher education sector has a major impact on staffing stability and, more generally,
morale and motivation levels. The income differentials between teaching staff at KHI and for
equivalent staff in the health sector are at least double. For example, a doctor at CHUK in
36
Kigali is paid a basic net salary of RwF 400,000 and the same again as a performance bonus.
An A1 qualified nurse is paid a total package of RwF 400,000 (basic plus performance). At a
large private university that was visited as part of this review, lecturers are paid more than
RwF150,000 per month than at public HEIs. The higher cost of living and relatively
unattractive location of the national university in Butare tends to compound lecturer concerns
about their level of remuneration.
Figure 8.1: Net monthly pay of teaching staff at public higher education institutions, 2008
600
Net monthly pay (RwF'000)
500
400
300
200
100
0
Professor
Associate professor
Lecturer
Assistant lecturer
Tutorial assistant
95.
Expatriate salaries at the public HEIs are not high by international standards. Most
earn between US$2-4000 per month (net).23 The net salary of a Rwandese teacher on the
lecturer grade is 3.5 times less than the average net monthly salary of the expatriate teacher at
NUR.24
8.2.1 Salary supplementation
96.
The scope for salary supplementation varies appreciably from one HEI to another. At
KIE, it has been possible to increase the basic income of staff by around 30% through income
earned from evening classes. For consultancies organised by KIE itself, participating
lecturers are paid 66% of the income generated. When they are organised by lecturers
themselves, this percentage increases to 80%. KIE is also making concerted efforts to help
staff build their own houses. The Institute has acquired 20 hectares of land where it plans to
build 50 housing units.
23
24
The average net monthly pay for an expatriate at NUR was US$2,500 in September 2008. Expatriate
salaries are paid from the development budget
Given that a very sizeable proportion of the pay of HEI lecturers is deducted as income tax, the
expenditure shares of each education sub-sector in total public education expenditure should be based
on net teacher pay in all education sub-sectors. This would probably considerably lower the
expenditure share of the higher education sector.
37
97.
KIST has ambitious plans to introduce a variety of income generating schemes, which
are expected to increase significantly the level of salary supplementation among participating
staff. NUR allows staff to retain 80% of their consultancy earnings compared to only 40% in
2006.
98.
With small student enrolments (1,700 in 2008), low tuition fees and heavy teaching
loads, the scope for salary supplementation at KHI is limited. Currently, only heads of
department receive a ‘prime’ of RwF 100,000 per month.
Working conditions
99.
Teaching loads are not particularly heavy at most of the HEIs. For example, lecturers
at KIE have 12 contact hours per week and this declines to only six hours for staff with
doctorates. However, the rapid expansion in student numbers at most HEIs has led to
substantial increases in class sizes.25 HEI managements claim that the freeze on civil service
staffing ceilings since 2006 has also made it more difficult to recruit additional lecturers,
which has further increased lecturer workloads.
25
At UNR, enrolments have increased from around 4,000 in 2000 to their current level of over 10,000.
38
9.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
9.1
TEACHER MOTIVATION IS A TOP PRIORITY
9.1.1 The challenge and threats
100. While the situation is not yet at a crisis level, current levels of teacher job satisfaction
and motivation are unacceptably low and urgent measures are, therefore, needed in order to
ensure that there is no further deterioration. The broader challenge is to increase significantly
the attractiveness of the teaching profession in the context of a very resource-constrained
situation, which is unlikely to change appreciably in the next 5-10 years. For primary
education, the related challenge is to make teaching a recognised profession, which will
require a well-conceived professionalisation strategy.
101. The main threats to teacher motivation are the proposed rapid expansion of the
teaching force which could crowd out resources for improving the working and living
conditions of the teachers who are currently employed, especially primary school teachers.
This expansion could lead to lower real incomes and larger classes and workloads and thus
further deterioration in learning outcomes as has commonly happened in many other
countries in Africa during the last decade. Other additional demands on teachers (new
curricula, pedagogy, extra-curricula responsibilities and the introduction of English as the
sole medium of instruction) could also lower motivation. Budget constraints may prevent any
large improvement in the qualification profiles of both primary and secondary teachers, both
of which are essential in order to increase teacher commitment and competence and thus the
overall quality of education.
102. The implications for teacher working conditions and thus job satisfaction and motivation
of the proposed Fast Track Strategy for the implementation of UBE also need to be very
carefully considered. The extension of double shifting for teachers in the upper primary and
lower secondary school phases and the introduction of subject teaching in both the upper and
lower primary school phases are major innovations, which will profoundly change the nature
of teaching. Just how these changes will affect the overall workload of teachers needs to be
made clear. Double shifting is unpopular among teachers because it usually leads to increased
teaching loads, but this may be offset by a shorter school day (as a result of curriculum
rationalisation) and subject rather than class-based teaching.
9.1.2 Government response
103. Notwithstanding these threats, GoR fully recognises the urgent need to improve
teacher motivation and is making a concerted effort to improve the pay and working and
living conditions of teachers. Numerous measures and actions have been already
implemented or are in the pipeline, which, if fully implemented, should help considerably to
incentivise teachers and increase their motivation.
To summarise, the main measures are as follows:

Establishment of the Teacher Service Commission and the development of a
comprehensive Teacher Management and Development Policy.

Acceptance of the ILO Convention on the status of teachers.
39

Lower teaching loads for class teachers. In particular, the ESSP targets to reduce the
number of teachers double shifting from 31% to 6% by 2015 and reduce the learnerteacher ratio for primary schooling from 70:1 in 2006 to 45: 1 in 2015.

The payment of a relatively sizeable performance pay bonus for A2 teachers and a
generous pay award for A0 and A1 secondary school teachers in 2007.

New teacher categories and promotion grade structures for teachers with
performance-related annual pay increments based on a new staff appraisal system.

Teacher licensing with a two year probationary period.

Greater availability of textbooks and other learning materials.

Better management of teacher transfers by district education offices and TSC.

Improve the quality of pre-service and in-service teacher education.

Granting of up to two years of unpaid study leave.

The introduction of accredited management training for school principals at KIE.

The development a national qualifications framework.

Strengthening the inspectorate.

Promoting the ‘community contracting’ of teachers.

Introducing conditional scholarships and tied contracts to reduce teacher attrition.

Preferential access to student financing for education students who receive 70%
grants compared to only 50% for other students.

Provision of credit to teachers for income generating activities.

A proposal to pay top-ups for principals and the introduction of responsibility
allowances for principals, deputy principals and heads of departments26.
These are all well-conceived policies, which are based on international best practice and
should, therefore, be fully supported.
9.2
FOCUS ON NON-PECUNIARY MOTIVATORS
104. As discussed earlier, there is no realistic prospect of sizeable pay increases (in real
terms) for teachers in the foreseeable future, especially given the proposed expansion of
lower secondary and post-secondary education, the large share of the national budget already
26
This is currently under negotiation with the Ministry of Finance.
40
allocated to education, and the large funding gap (RwF 40 billion from 2009 onwards) that
still has to be funded in order to meet ESSP targets. This highlights, therefore, the importance
of trying to improve non-salary material benefits for teachers as well as enhancing more
intrinsic, non-material motivators in particular pre-service teacher education, continuous
professional development, improved teacher management, and greater professional solidarity
and support.
105. The following discussion focuses on eight main recommendations, which build on the
MoEs ongoing efforts to improve teacher motivation.
9.2.1 Strengthen human resources planning and management
106. There is also an urgent need to improve the human resources planning and
management in the education sector. As the 2007 education public expenditure review points
out, ‘planners do not know enough about teacher employment’ (2007, p.10). It is
recommended, therefore, that the MoE develops and implements a long-term27 human
resource development strategy for the teaching profession, which covers all areas include pay
and career progression, working and living conditions and continuous professional
development. Even though the government cannot afford to introduce all measures in the
short term, it is still important that teachers are aware of government’s strong commitment to
professionalise teaching and ensure that teachers are properly remunerated and trained as
soon as possible. Another key component of the strategy is to analyse ways of improving the
utilisation of teachers, which could result in major costs savings.
9.2.2 Improve the quality and status of primary school teachers
107. Steps are being taken to improve the status and quality of primary school teachers, but
more should be done. In particular, it is crucially important that better educated and trained
teachers are employed at primary schools. Well trained graduate and non-graduate (diploma
level) teachers would be key change agents and motivators who could take the lead in
introducing effective school-based CPD and improving school management. It is
recommended, therefore, that MoE begins to employ a limited number of university
education graduates in primary schools. Even with an intake of 200 a year, it will take 10
years to have one graduate teacher in every primary school. KIE should also introduce a
separate B.Ed. degree in primary education as soon as possible.
108. The other major recommendation in this area is that pre-service, diploma level teacher
education is introduced for primary schooling immediately and that the current certificatelevel teacher training in the upper-secondary TTCs be rapidly phased out. All primary and
lower secondary teacher trainees should enrol at newly established Colleges of Education and
study for the same qualification, namely the Basic Education Teaching Diploma. Relatively
large colleges of education should be established with at least 2,500-3,000 enrolments in
order that all subject areas can be adequately catered for and economies of scale can be
reaped.
109. The ESSP plans to increase the number of teacher training colleges to 15 (3 in each
region) as well as establish five colleges of education for the tronc commun schooling phase.
27
The strategy should however have short, medium and long-term goals and objectives with related
activities and outputs.
41
With KIE and probably another three-four private HEIs providing accredited teacher
education, this will bring the total number of teacher education institutions to 25, which is
excessive given the size of the education system in Rwanda.
110. A detailed teacher and demand study should be undertaken be immediately in order
to derive detailed teacher training requirements over the next decade, but it seems unlikely
that, taking into account projected graduate outputs from KIE, more than 6-7 of these
colleges will need to be established. Some of the current teacher training colleges could be
converted to colleges of education.
111. It is also essential that the most able and committed serving A2 primary school
teachers are given the opportunity to upgrade their qualifications to the diploma and even
degree level. KIE is introducing a new diploma in education through distance learning mainly
for A2 teachers. An intake of 1,200 is planned for 2009. However, it is important that the
common shortcomings of similar open distance learning programmes elsewhere in Africa are
fully recognised (especially inadequate levels of support for teachers) and steps taken to
ensure that these do not undermine the effectiveness of the KIE course.
9.2.3 Create an effective system of continuous professional development.
112. Teacher training and development is a core function of a Ministry of Education and
requires, therefore, its own separate department. This is the norm in most countries in Africa
and elsewhere. Both in Africa and elsewhere, TSCs do not usually have responsibility for
teacher training. Establishing new colleges of education, and creating new systems for both
CPD and management support is a major exercise, which will require close management by a
team of four-five capable professionals.
113. Continuous professional development should be institutionalised within the MoE at
both central and district levels. The MoE should, therefore, develop its own institutional
capacity to provide training as well as contract outside training institutions to provide other
training services. It is recommended that a CPD Advisor should be appointed in each district
who would be responsible for developing a CPD strategy and plan for each district as well as
directly facilitating district and school-level training activities, especially in teaching
methods. The possibility of introducing school clusters for CPD, which are proving very
effective in a number of countries, should also be explored.
9.2.4 Institutionalise proper school management structures with effective management
development and support.
114. The education sector accounts for nearly one-quarter of the national budget. It is
essential, therefore, that this major financial commitment is well managed. School
management urgently needs to be professionalized. Three sets of measures are required. First,
school management teams should be established with head teacher, deputy head teacher and
heads of departments in larger schools. In primary schools, there should be separate heads of
departments for the lower and upper primary phases and the main subject areas should have
their own heads of department in secondary schools. Secondly, school management posts
should be graded according to school size and school managers should be paid substantially
higher salaries than classroom teachers. The proposed performance bonuses of 15% for
principals, 10% for deputy principals, and 5% for heads of departments are, therefore, too
small. School managers should also have reduced teaching loads.
42
115. And thirdly, the MoE should create a cadre of fulltime school management advisers
whose main responsibility is to ensure regular management training activities, which
systematically address all the key aspects of school management in all publicly funded
schools. A number of countries (including Botswana, Kenya and India) have established
national school management development programmes which have significantly improved
school management in relatively short periods. It is recommended, therefore, that a national
school management development programme is established with a full-time staff of two-three
managers and experts based at MoE head office and one school management adviser in each
of the six regions. The SMDP could be based either in the Primary and Secondary
Department or the Inspectorate. The appointment of top quality technical assistance with
proven track record in this area is essential. Each SMA would be responsible for undertaking
needs assessments in their regions, develop comprehensive training programmes, and
facilitate district and school level training activities.
116. A university institution, such as KIE, is not the right place to host a school
management training initiative of this kind. However, it should offer accredited management
courses to probably a relatively small number of school managers who have the ability and
commitment to study on a part-time basis mainly on their own. It is recommended that the
proposed training programme at KIE should go ahead, but there should be more emphasis on
recruiting full-time staff rather than ‘consultants’ since this will help to ensure the creation of
long-term institutional training capacity in this area.
9.2.5 Provide access to subsidised housing loans for teachers
117. In the absence of large pay increase, the provision of long-term, subsidised housing
loans would be the single most effective measure to improve the livelihoods of teachers, and
especially primary school teachers. Both in interviews and in their questionnaire returns,
teachers expressed a strong desire to be able to own their own homes, but are currently
unable to do so, given their limited incomes and the unavailability of suitable financial
services in Rwanda.
118. Primary school teachers spend, on average, around RwF120,000 on housing and this
rises to RwF 360,000 for secondary school teachers. So, with subsidised interest rates,
teachers could borrow up to RwF3-9 million over a 20-25 year period in order to buy their
own homes. It is recommended, therefore, that the feasibility of establishing a housing loan
scheme for teachers, possibly based on some kind of revolving fund with subsidised interest
rates, should be carefully examined.
119. It is also recommended that government with the support of its international partners
provide the additional RwF6 billion, which is required for the necessary capitalisation of
Mwalimu SACCO.
9.2.6 Reduce the workload of teachers, especially in primary schools
120. Teachers in Rwanda are ‘overburdened’. It is important, therefore, to try to reduce the
workload of teachers as quickly as possible. A major objective of the ESSP is the almost
complete phasing out of double shifting in primary schools by 2015 as well as reducing class
sizes. The Fast Track Strategy for UBE effectively reverses this objective. The introduction
of universal double shifting in basic education schools could result in higher workloads for
43
upper primary and lower secondary teachers as well as a further reduction in education
quality. The school day itself should also be shortened to no more than six hours in primary
schools, which is the norm in most developed and developing countries. This would allow
teachers more time for preparation and marking and encourage schools to organise extracurricula activities, which are currently seriously lacking. The curriculum is certainly
overcrowded and the planned rationalisation is, therefore, welcome. The number of subjects
in primary schools should be reduced from 12 to 8 or even 6 subjects.
121. The proposed introduction of subject teaching for all the primary school grades will
need to be closely monitored. For basic pedagogical reasons, class teaching in the lower
primary school grades is the norm in virtually every country in the world. Subject teaching
also often results in more teachers having to be recruited particularly because smaller schools
have difficulty in covering all subjects with the number of teachers they are entitled to. It also
complicates school management.
9.2.7 Improve the staffing situation in rural schools with weak qualification and
experience profiles and persistent teacher vacancies
122. Rectifying imbalances in the spatial deployment of teachers is a top priority in order
to ensure that all children in Rwanda receive the same quality education and teachers at hardto-staff rural, especially in remoter rural schools are not disadvantaged. Research is needed in
order to identify the hardest-to-staff schools and sectors and also to evaluate the costeffectiveness of possible interventions, which target both push and pull factors. A teacher
staffing index should be developed, which is based on three main staffing indicators, namely
teacher shortages (vacancy rates), teacher movement (transfer rates) and teacher quality
(experience, qualification and gender profiles). The current staffing norm formulae should
also be reviewed so as to ensure a more uniform and thus equitable deployment of teachers.
123. Decentralisation generally improves the teacher recruitment process, especially as
school boards develop the capacity to manage their own recruitment. But, at the same time, it
makes it harder to ensure efficient and equitable distribution of teachers across a country as a
whole because there is no longer centralised posting of teachers by the Ministry of Education.
124. It is also recommended that MoE takes greater control over the posting of newly
appointed teachers. This could be done by specifically incorporating deployment objectives
into the student loan scheme. The key features of this scheme are: (i) all teachers should
continue to pay 30% of the total costs of their training.; (ii) as a form of loan repayment,
newly qualified teachers would agree to be posted to schools where they are most urgently
needed and be required to work at these hardest-to-staff schools for at least the first four years
of their public service; (iii) thereafter, they would be free to apply for vacant posts at schools
of their choice regardless of location; and (iv) those teachers who do not participate in this
initial posting scheme will be required to re-pay their student loan as normal.
125. The provision of rent-free government housing is essential at the hardest-to-staff
schools. The localised recruitment of teachers in remoter rural areas could also help
considerably in ensuring that schools are properly staffed.
44
9.2.8 Strengthen the professional organisation of teachers
126. The professional organisation of teachers in Rwanda needs to be considerably
strengthened. It is recommended, therefore, that a National Teacher Council is established
with chapters at the regional and district levels. A small national secretariat would be
responsible for the publication of a quarterly teacher’s newspaper, the broadcasting of a
weekly radio programme for teachers, the management of national teacher award scheme,
and generally promote opportunities for teachers to attend professional meetings, seminars,
etc.
45
REFERENCES
Bennell PS and A Achyeampong, 2007, ‘Teacher motivation and incentives in Africa and
South Asia’, DFID: London.
Mulkeen A and D. Chen (eds), 2008, ‘Teachers for rural schools: Experiences in
Lesotho, Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania and Uganda’, World Bank: Washington DC
Rutayisire J., 2008, ‘Teacher education for quality education’. Paper presented at the
2008 Joint Review of the Education Sector. MoE: Kigali.
VSO, 2004, ‘Seen but not heard: Teachers’ voices in Rwanda’, a policy research report
on teacher morale and motivation in Rwanda, VSO: London.
46
ANNEX 1: PEOPLE INTERVIEWED
Ministry of Education
Hon. Daphrose Gahakwa, Minister of Education
Narcisse Musabeyezu, Inspector General of Education
Emma Rubagumya, Executive Secretary, Teaching Service Commission
John Rutayisire, Executive Secretary, Rwanda National Examinations Council
Mary Straker, Technical Adviser
Joseph Murekeraho, Director, Mwalimu SACCO
District Education Officers
Mathias Sekigera, Kicukiro
Jean Kagimangabo, Gakenye
Fidele Nzigira, Musanze
Eduard Mushimiyimana, Nyanza
Musa Rwema, Rwamagana
Kavumu College of Education,
Casimir Rutayitera, Deputy Principal
Ministry of Finance
Elias Bayingana, Director, National Budget
Christian Shingiro, Senior Programme Office
Ministry of Public Service
Frances Ihogoza, Director of Salaries
Tite Kanyankore, ICT Professional
National Statistics Institute
Higher education institutions
Celestin Kabahizi, Vice-Rector Adminstration and Finance
William Katete, Vice-Rector, KIST
Glorieuse mmmmm, Deputy Administrator, Department of Human Resources, NUR
Nnnnnnn, Deputy Director, Finance, NUR
Leonard Kagemanyi, Director Human Resources, KHI
International partners
DFID
Duncan Overfield, Economic Adviser
GTZ
Dr. Farid Hegazy, Senior Adviser, TVET
47
JICA
Saeri Muto, TVET Advisor
VSO
Ruth Mbabazi
Wellspring Foundation
Yvonne Dyer, Programme Director
World Bank
Annelie Strath, Education Specialist
Aisha, Impact evaluation specialist
Other organizations
Francois Rwambonera, Director, Bureau National de l’Enseignment Protestant (BNEP)
Alphonse Rutaganda, Director, Secretariat National de l’Enseignement Catholique
(SNEC)
Narcisse Kayiranga, Executive Secretary, SNEP
48
ANNEX TABLES
Primary schools, learners and teachers by district, 2007
District
Schools
Learners Teachers Classes
Bugesera
71
63737
1049
Burera
85
78410
1165
Gakenke
100
75435
1202
Gasabo
47
50982
835
Gatsibo
73
75935
1064
Gicumbi
87
85657
1301
Gisagara
65
52133
649
Huye
80
56061
1002
Kamonyi
83
64723
1113
Karongi
121
69504
1207
Kayonza
59
55741
797
Kicukiro
31
33644
607
Kirehe
51
60338
798
Muhanga
102
66270
1180
Musanze
72
81651
1254
Ngoma
59
57388
857
Ngororero
96
75160
1201
Nyabihu
80
80492
1370
Nyagatare
76
74385
998
Nyamagabe
98
70160
1170
Nyamasheke
117
91376
1443
Nyanza
74
55498
853
Nyarugenge
27
36111
625
Nyaruguru
71
60131
883
Rubavu
67
67329
1034
Ruhango
73
59241
1009
Rulindo
74
62071
947
Rusizi
95
83949
1254
Rutsiro
81
68537
1096
Rwamagana
48
52365
782
Grand Total
2263
1964414
30636
Note: to be completed
Source: School census, 2007
49
School size
898
922
754
1085
1040
985
802
701
780
574
945
1085
1183
650
1134
973
783
1006
979
716
781
750
1337
847
1005
812
839
884
846
1091
868
LTR
61
67
63
61
71
66
80
56
58
58
70
55
76
56
65
67
63
59
75
60
63
65
58
68
65
59
66
67
63
67
64
TCR
Secondary schools, learners and teachers by district, 2007
District
Schools Learners Teachers Classes
Bugesera
8
3257
135
66
Burera
18
4702
197
109
Gakenke
20
5581
245
151
Gasabo
9
1982
100
na
Gatsibo
20
6973
244
147
Gicumbi
23
7168
306
153
Gisagara
16
5690
260
140
Huye
20
6526
297
145
Kamonyi
10
3124
127
58
Karongi
23
9121
292
149
Kayonza
11
5400
183
99
Kicukiro
4
2440
116
83
Kirehe
11
3725
123
71
Muhanga
9
6124
206
101
Musanze
22
5465
250
112
Ngoma
20
8162
343
175
Ngoroero
16
5252
237
88
Nyabihu
11
6891
252
133
Nyagatare
12
5258
199
111
Nyamagabe
21
6925
250
126
Nyamasheke
34
10334
397
187
Nyanza
14
4486
180
120
Nyarugenge
8
4449
202
108
Nyaruguru
13
4486
180
94
Rubavu
13
5591
251
124
Ruhango
12
8077
290
138
Rulindo
21
5435
233
123
Rusizi
13
4851
226
117
Rutsiro
11
3884
162
85
Rwamaga
14
4849
192
108
Grand Total
457
166208
6675
3421
Source: School census, 2007
50
School size
407
261
279
220
349
312
356
326
312
397
491
610
339
680
248
408
328
626
438
330
304
320
556
345
430
673
259
373
353
346
364
LTR
24
24
23
20
29
23
22
22
25
31
30
21
30
30
22
24
22
27
26
28
26
25
22
25
22
28
23
21
24
25
25
TCR
2.0
1.8
1.6
na
1.7
2.0
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.0
1.8
1.4
1.7
2.0
2.2
2.0
2.7
1.9
1.8
2.0
2.1
1.5
1.9
1.9
2.0
2.1
1.9
1.9
1.9
1.8
1.9
LCR
49
43
37
na
47
47
41
45
54
61
55
29
52
61
49
47
60
52
47
55
55
37
41
48
45
59
44
41
46
45
49