VARIABLES
A set of data that differ from one individual, object, or procedure to
another. A trait that does not differ is called a constant.
Types of Variables

continuous variables show gradational differences individuals show
more or less of the same trait.

discrete variables are categorical in nature (either/or) eg.
handedness, gender, ethnicity and ratings (high/medium/low)

independent variables are used with dependent variables in
experimental and causal-comparative research.
o
independent variables precedes in time and exerts influence
on the
o
dependent variable which may change when influenced by the
independent variable.
EX: Intelligence (independent variable) may influence how
quickly students learn(dependent variable).

confounding variables are traits or conditions whose presence may or
may not be recognized by the researcher, that may taint research
outcomes. Types of confounding variables include:
o
intervening variables traits such as motivation and
intelligence
o
organic variables relatively permanent physical traits that
cannot be changed easily, such as poor eyesight, hearing,
and coordination.
o
extraneous variables are temporary in nature such as
fatigue, distraction, excitement, discomfort, and test
anxiety.
PRIMARY & SECONDARY SOURCES OF DATA
Information one obtains from individuals, objects, and procedures is
called data.
Primary Data
Firsthand information. Physical objects, original reports,
records, and eyewitness accounts. Test scores, demographic records,
attendance records, minuets of meetings, transcripts of testimony,
photographs, instructional materials, student information, parent
informants, teacher informants, and transcripts of hearings.
Secondary Data
Reports or interpretations of primary data, made by people who
did not directly experience the events under consideration. Hearsay
testimony, histories, selected compilations, encyclopedia entries,
newspaper reports, and analyses and interpretations of events not
experienced firsthand.
Other sources of information.
Findings made in other investigations similar to the situations
being investigated.. Researchers always review the literature to see
it they can find such related studies. Information found in a REVIEW
OF LITERATURE is used for the following purposes:
1. To orient, guide, and define the limits of the study.
2. As secondary data possibly useful in the topic under
investigation
3. As primary data in what are called meta-analytical studies
which analyze numerous existing studies to draw conclusions.
Usually the review of literature provides only context and guidance for
research.
SOURCES OF RESEARCH DATA:
Participants
comprise a sample
Individuals from whom data are obtained often
which is a group of individuals one hopes represents
the population at large.
Participants are not always a sample but a sample is
made of participants
when humans or animals are involved.
Procedures
Formalized ways of operating in the educational
setting--the ways things
are done.
Settings
behavior occurs.
The specific environments within which educational
Classrooms, athletic fields, libraries, labs,
playgrounds, homes, etc.
Objects
and artifacts
Inanimate things such as books, supplies, materials,
Records
Highly summarized reports of performance,
expenditures, etc. which are
kept for later reference.
Documents
Written papers and reports in their entirety, such as
journal articles,
technical papers, and curriculum guides.
Photographs, drawings, and other
illustrations are also considered documents.
Informants
People, other than participants in the study, from
whom opinion, informed
views, and expert testimony are obtained.
PROCEDURES USED IN COLLECTING DATA
Verbal
Data collection procedure used in the study of
settings,
Description
Depends on observation, and is a written or spoken
depiction of what is
observed. Important in qualitative studies.
Notation
Making tally marks or brief written notes about
people, objects, or other
data sources.
Recording
Refers to capturing scenes and interactions by means
of camera, or audio
or videotape recorders. Allows for deeper analysis
after the fact. Must be
transcribed into notation or written description.
Analysis
Involves breaking entities down into constituent
parts in order to determine
their composition, how they are organized, and how
they function.
Particularly useful in re. objects, relics,
documents, and procedures.
Objects
include:
Products made by students as well as teachers.
Textbooks,
curricula, guides, instructors’ manuals,
supplementary materials, and discipline
systems.
Relics
Also
Objects recovered from prior times.
Documents
Include published papers, curriculum guides,
newspaper accounts,
photographs, and other illustrations, transcripts of
proceedings, and the like.
Descriptive & Historical research.
Procedures
and to what
Related to education to determine who does what when
effect.
Questioning
Researchers’ directly question participants. Not
haphazard but methodical.
Surveys, personal interviews (correspondence,
telephone contact, and
personal contact).
Surveys
To determine opinions about education, attitudes
toward school system,
home reading habits, teachers’ perceptions about
their work loads. Uses
questionnaires carefully prepared and refined before
final use. Do not
provide for probing or clarifying.
Interviews
allows for the
Organized around predetermined set of questions but
questioner to provide encouragement, ask probing
questions, & ask
additional information.
information but reliability
may be suspect
Can obtain more useful
Testing
Participants perform cognitive and/or psychomotor
tasks. Used most
frequently in collecting educational research data
than any other method.
Usually yield numerical data but not always. Can
yield ranked or categorical
data. Validity (accuracy) and reliability
(consistency) are matters of great
concern in regard to test instruments
Measurement Is used to obtain data by checking performance or status
against an
established scale. Not synonymous with testing.
Measurement is the
broader term and includes data such as height &
weight blood pressure,
number of books read, time spent on lesson segments,
hours, spent
watching TV, etc.
PARTICIPANTS, SAMPLES, & POPULATIONS.
Participants
People and other living things, when being
studied in research, are referred
to as participants. They are usually, but not
always, members of samples.
Samples
Groups of individuals selected from a larger
population from which the
researcher hopes to extrapolate or generalize
findings to the whole
population.
Samples are usually obtained through
random selection
which is not always possible
Populations
Contains all the individuals within certain
descriptive parameters such as
location, age, or gender (e.g., all high school
students). Researchers sample
populations because the population is usually too
large to make it practical
to study. It is hoped by randomizing, the researcher
will get a representative
sample of the larger population.